The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
Logo of The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
APEC member economies shown in green
Headquarters		Singapore
Type		Economic forum
21 Pacific member economies		List  Australia  Brunei  Canada  Chile  China  Hong Kong  Indonesia  Japan  South Korea  Malaysia  Mexico  New Zealand  Papua New Guinea  Peru  Philippines  Russia  Singapore  Taiwan  Thailand  United States  Vietnam
Leaders
-	APEC Chair	United States
-	Executive Director	Muhamad Noor Yacob
Establishment		1989
Website www.apec.org

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a forum for 21 Pacific Rim countries (formally Member Economies) that seeks to promote free trade and economic cooperation throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional economic blocs (such as the European Union) in other parts of the world, APEC works to raise living standards and education levels through sustainable economic growth and to foster a sense of community and an appreciation of shared interests among Asia-Pacific countries. Members account for approximately 40% of the world's population, approximately 54% of the world's gross domestic product and about 44% of world trade.^[1]

An annual APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting is attended by the heads of government of all APEC members except Taiwan (represented under the name Chinese Taipei) by a ministerial-level official. The location of the meeting rotates annually among the member economies, and until 2011, a famous tradition involved the attending leaders dressing in a national costume of the host member.

History[link]

ABC news report of the first APEC meeting in Canberra, November 1989. Featuring delegates watching the Melbourne Cup.

In January 1989, Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke called for more effective economic cooperation across the Pacific Rim region. This led to the first meeting of APEC in the Australian capital of Canberra in November, chaired by Australian Foreign Affairs Minister Gareth Evans. Attended by political ministers from twelve countries, the meeting concluded with commitments for future annual meetings in Singapore and South Korea.

Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) opposed the initial proposal, instead proposing the East Asia Economic Caucus which would exclude non-Asian countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. This plan was opposed and strongly criticized by Japan and the United States.

The first APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting occurred in 1993 when U.S. President Bill Clinton, after discussions with Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating, invited the heads of government from member economies to a summit on Blake Island. He believed it would help bring the stalled Uruguay Round of trade talks back on track. At the meeting, some leaders called for continued reduction of barriers to trade and investment, envisioning a community in the Asia-Pacific region that might promote prosperity through cooperation. The APEC Secretariat, based in Singapore, was established to coordinate the activities of the organization.

During the meeting in 1994 in Bogor, Indonesia, APEC leaders adopted the Bogor Goals that aim for free and open trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific by 2010 for industrialized economies and by 2020 for developing economies. In 1995, APEC established a business advisory body named the APEC Business Advisory Council (ABAC), composed of three business executives from each member economy.

Member Economies[link]

South Korean President Roh Moo-hyun with Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and U.S. President George W. Bush at APEC 2006 in Hanoi.

APEC currently has 21 members, including most countries with a coastline on the Pacific Ocean. However, the criterion for membership is that the member is a separate economy, rather than a state. As a result, APEC uses the term member economies rather than member countries to refer to its members. One result of this criterion is that membership of the forum includes Taiwan (officially the Republic of China, participating under the name "Chinese Taipei") alongside People's Republic of China (see Cross-Strait relations), as well as Hong Kong, which entered APEC as a British colony but it is now a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China.

Member economy (name as used in APEC)	Date of accession
Australia	1989
Brunei (Brunei Darussalam)	1989
Canada	1989
Chile	1994
China (People's republic of China)	1991
Hong Kong (Hong Kong, China)[2]	1991
Indonesia	1989
Japan	1989
South Korea (Republic of Korea)	1989
Mexico	1993
Malaysia	1989
New Zealand	1989
Papua New Guinea	1993
Peru	1998
Philippines	1989
Russia	1998
Singapore	1989
Taiwan (Chinese Taipei)[3]	1991
Thailand	1989
United States	1989
Vietnam	1998

Possible enlargement[link]

India has requested membership in APEC, and received initial support from the United States, Japan^[4] and Australia. Officials have decided not to allow India to join for various reasons.^[5][6] However, the decision was made not to admit more members until 2010. Moreover, India does not border the Pacific Ocean, which all current members do.^[7] However, India has been invited to be an observer for the first time in November 2011. ^[8]

In addition to India, Mongolia, Pakistan, Laos, Bangladesh, Costa Rica,^[9] Colombia,^[9][10] Panama^[9] and Ecuador,^[11] are among a dozen countries seeking membership in APEC by 2008. Colombia applied for APEC's membership as early as in 1995, but its bid was halted as the organization stopped accepting new members from 1993 to 1996,^[12] and the moratorium was further prolonged to 2007 due to the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador had hoped to become members by 2010.^{[citation needed]} Guam has also been actively seeking a separate membership, citing the example of Hong Kong, but the request is opposed by the United States, which currently represents Guam.

APEC's Three Pillars[link]

To meet the Bogor Goals, APEC carries out work in three main areas:

1. Trade and Investment Liberalisation

2. Business Facilitation

3. Economic and Technical Cooperation

APEC and Trade Liberalisation[link]

According to the organization itself, when APEC was established in 1989 average trade barriers in the region stood at 16.9 percent, but had been reduced to 5.5% in 2004.^[13]

APEC's Business Facilitation Efforts[link]

APEC has long been at the forefront of reform efforts in the area of business facilitation. Between 2002-2006 the costs of business transactions across the region was reduced by 6 percent, thanks to the APEC Trade Facilitation Action Plan (TFAPI). Between 2007 and 2010, APEC hopes to achieve an additional 5 percent reduction in business transaction costs. To this end, a new Trade Facilitation Action Plan has been endorsed. According to a 2008 research brief published by the World Bank as part of its Trade Costs and Facilitation Project, increasing transparency in the region's trading system is critical if APEC is to meet its Bogor Goal targets.^[14] The APEC Business Travel Card, a travel document for visa-free business travel within the region is one of the concrete measures to facilitate business. In May 2010 Russia joined the scheme, thus completing the circle.^[15]

[edit] Proposed Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific

APEC is considering the prospects and options for a Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific (FTAAP) which would include all member economies of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). Since 2006, the APEC Business Advisory Council, promoting the theory that a free trade area has the best chance of converging the member nations and ensuring stable economic growth under free trade, has lobbied for the creation of a high-level task force to study and develop a plan for a free trade area. The proposal for a FTAAP arose due to the lack of progress in the Doha round of World Trade Organization negotiations, and as a way to overcome the 'spaghetti bowl' effect created by overlapping and conflicting elements of free trade agreements between members – there are as many as 60 free trade agreements and 117 being negotiated in Southeast Asia and the Asia-Pacific region.^{[16][16][17][18][18]} The FTAAP is more ambitious in scope than the Doha round, which limits itself to reducing trade restrictions. The FTAAP would create a free trade zone that would considerably expand commerce and economic growth in the region.^[16][18] The economic expansion and growth in trade could exceed the expectations of other regional free trade areas such as the ASEAN Plus Three (ASEAN + China, Japan, and South Korea).^[19] Some criticisms include that the diversion of trade within APEC members would create trade imbalances, market conflicts and complications with nations of other regions.^[18] The development of the FTAAP is expected to take many years, involving essential studies, evaluations and negotiations between member economies.^[16] It is also affected by the absence of political will and popular agitations and lobbying against free trade in domestic politics.^[16] [7]

APEC Study Center Consortium[link]

In 1993, APEC Leaders decided to establish a network of APEC Study Centres (ASCs) amongst universities and research institutions in APEC member economies.^[20]

Notable centers include:

• Australian APEC Study Centre, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia^[21]
• Berkeley APEC Study Center, University of California, Berkeley, United States^[22]
• Chinese Taipei APEC Study Center, Taiwan Institute of Economic Research, Taiwan^[23]
• HKU APEC Study Center, Hong Kong University, Hong Kong, China^[24]
• Kobe APEC Study Center, Kobe University, Japan^[25]
• Nankai APEC Study Center, Nankai University, China^[26]
• Philippine APEC Study Center Network, Philippine Institute for Development Studies, Philippines
• The Canadian APEC Study Centre, The Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada, Vancouver, Canada^[27]
• Indonesian APEC Study Centre, APEC Study Center University of Indonesia, Indonesia.^[28]

APEC Business Advisory Council[link]

The APEC Business Advisory Council (ABAC) was created by the APEC Economic Leaders in November 1995 with the aim of providing advice to the APEC Economic Leaders on ways to achieve the Bogor Goals and other specific business sector priorities, and to provide the business perspective on specific areas of cooperation.

Each economy nominates up to three members from the private sector to ABAC. These business leaders represent a wide range of industry sectors.

ABAC provides an annual report to APEC Economic Leaders containing recommendations to improve the business and investment environment in the Asia-Pacific region, and outlining business views about priority regional issues.

ABAC is also the only non-governmental organisation that is on the official agenda of the APEC Economic Leader’s Meeting.

Annual APEC Economic Leaders' Meetings[link]

Since its formation in 1989, APEC has held annual meetings with representatives from all member economies. The first four annual meetings were attended by ministerial-level officials. Beginning in 1993, the annual meetings are named APEC Economic Leaders' Meetings and are attended by the heads of government from all member economies except Taiwan, which is represented by a ministerial-level official. The annual Leaders' Meetings are not called summits.

Meeting developments[link]

In 1997, the APEC meeting was held in Vancouver. Controversy arose after officers of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police used pepper spray against protesters. The protesters objected to the presence of autocratic leaders such as Indonesian president Suharto. ^{[29][30][31][32][33][34]}

At the 2001 Leaders' Meeting in Shanghai, APEC leaders pushed for a new round of trade negotiations and support for a program of trade capacity-building assistance, leading to the launch of the Doha Development Agenda a few weeks later. The meeting also endorsed the Shanghai Accord proposed by the United States, emphasising the implementation of open markets, structural reform, and capacity building. As part of the accord, the meeting committed to develop and implement APEC transparency standards, reduce trade transaction costs in the Asia-Pacific region by 5 percent over 5 years, and pursue trade liberalization policies relating to information technology goods and services.

In 2003, Jemaah Islamiah leader Riduan Isamuddin had planned to attack the APEC Leaders Meeting to be held in Bangkok in October. He was captured in the city of Ayutthaya, Thailand by Thai police on August 11, 2003, before he could finish planning the attack.^{[citation needed]} Chile became the first South American nation to host the Leaders' Meeting in 2004. The agenda of that year was focused on terrorism and commerce, small and medium enterprise development, and contemplation of free trade agreements and regional trade agreements.

The 2005 Leaders' Meeting was held in Busan, South Korea. The meeting focused on the Doha round of World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations, leading up to the WTO Ministerial Conference of 2005 held in Hong Kong in December. Weeks earlier, trade negotiations in Paris were held between several WTO members, including the United States and the European Union, centered on reducing agricultural trade barriers. APEC leaders at the summit urged the European Union to agree to reducing farm subsidies. Peaceful protests against APEC were staged in Busan, but the meeting schedule was not affected.

At the Leaders' Meeting held on November 19, 2006 in Hanoi, APEC leaders called for a new start to global free-trade negotiations while condemning terrorism and other threats to security. APEC also criticised North Korea for conducting a nuclear test and a missile test launch that year, urging the country to take "concrete and effective" steps toward nuclear disarmament. Concerns about nuclear proliferation in the region was discussed in addition to economic topics. The United States and Russia signed an agreement as part of Russia's bid to join the World Trade Organization.

The APEC Australia 2007 Leaders' Meeting was held in Sydney from 2-9 September 2007. The political leaders agreed to an "aspirational goal" of a 25% reduction of energy intensity correlative with economic development.^[35] Extreme security measures including airborne sharpshooters and extensive steel-and-concrete barricades were deployed against anticipated protesters and potential terrorists. However, protest activities were peaceful and the security envelope was penetrated with ease by a spoof diplomatic motorcade manned by members of the Australian television program The Chaser, one of whom was dressed to resemble the Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden.

The APEC USA 2011 Leaders' Meeting was held on Honolulu, Hawaii from 8-13 November 2011. ^[36]

APEC Leaders' Family Photo[link]

At the end of the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting, the leaders in attendance gather for what is officially known as the APEC Leaders' Family Photo. A long-standing tradition for this photo involved the attending leaders dressing in a costume that reflects the culture of the host member. The tradition dates back to the first such meeting in 1993 when then-U.S. President Bill Clinton outfitted the leaders in leather bombardier jackets. However, at the 2010 meeting, Japan opted to have the leaders dress in smart casual rather than the traditional kimono.^[37] Similarly, when Honolulu was selected in 2009 as the site for the 2011 APEC meeting, U.S. President Barack Obama joked that he looked forward to seeing the leaders dressed in "flowered shirts and grass skirts." However, after viewing previous photos, and concerned that having the leaders dress in aloha shirts might give the wrong impression during a period of economic austerity, Obama decided that it might be time to end the tradition. Leaders were given a specially designed aloha shirt as a gift but were not required to wear it for the photo.^[38]

Meeting locations[link]

The location of the meeting is rotated annually among the members.

Annual meetings of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

	Date	Host member	Location	Photo op fashion	Photo	Web site
1st	November 6–7, 1989	Australia	Canberra
2nd	July 29–31, 1990	Singapore	Singapore
3rd	November 12–14, 1991	South Korea	Seoul	Hanbok
4th	September 10–11, 1992	Thailand	Bangkok
5th	November 19–20, 1993	United States	Seattle	Bombardier Jackets
6th	November 15, 1994	Indonesia	Bogor	Batik Shirts designed by Iwan Tirta[39]
7th	November 19, 1995	Japan	Osaka	Business Suits
8th	November 25, 1996	Philippines	Manila and Subic	Barong Shirts		[40]
9th	November 24–25, 1997	Canada	Vancouver	Leather Jackets		[41]
10th	November 17–18, 1998	Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur	Batik Shirts		[42]
11th	September 12–13, 1999	New Zealand	Auckland	Sailing Jackets		[43]
12th	November 15–16, 2000	Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan	Kain Tenunan Shirts		[8]
13th	October 20–21, 2001	China	Shanghai	Tangzhuang
14th	October 26–27, 2002	Mexico	Los Cabos	Guayabera Shirts (M); Huipíles (F)
15th	October 20–21, 2003	Thailand	Bangkok	Brocade Shirts (M); Brocade Shawls (F)
16th	November 20–21, 2004	Chile	Santiago	Chamantos		[9]
17th	November 18–19, 2005	South Korea	Busan	Hanboks
18th	November 18–19, 2006	Vietnam	Hanoi	Áo dài		[10]
19th	September 8–9, 2007	Australia	Sydney	Drizabones and Akubra Hats		[11]
20th	November 22–23, 2008	Peru	Lima	Ponchos		[12]
21st	November 14–15, 2009	Singapore	Singapore	Peranakan-Inspired Designer Shirts	‎	[13]
22nd	November 13–14, 2010	Japan	Yokohama	Smart casual[37]		[44]
23rd	November 12–13, 2011	United States	Honolulu	No costume; Business suits (per request by Barack Obama)[38]		[14]
24th	September 2-9 2012	Russia	Vladivostok			[15]
25th	November 2013	Indonesia	Manado/Bali
26th	November 2014	Philippines	Manila

Criticism[link]

APEC has been criticized for failing to clearly define itself or serve a useful purpose. According to the organization, it is "the premier forum for facilitating economic growth, cooperation, trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific region" established to "further enhance economic growth and prosperity for the region and to strengthen the Asia-Pacific community."^[45] However, whether it has accomplished anything constructive remains debatable, especially from the viewpoints of European countries that can not take part in the activities of APEC.^[46]

See also[link]

• APEC Sydney Metropolitan Public Holiday 2007
• Asia-Europe Meeting
• ASEAN Free Trade Area
• East Asia Economic Caucus
• East Asia Summit
• PECC
• Asia-Pacific Trade Agreements Database

Other organizations of coastal states:

• Union for the Mediterranean
• Black Sea Economic Cooperation
• Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation

New Zealand issues

• Contents of the United States diplomatic cables leak (New Zealand)

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

• Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
• Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding APEC