Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom

British nationality law is the law of the United Kingdom that concerns citizenship and other categories of British nationality. The law is complex because of the United Kingdom's former status as an imperial power.

History[link]

English law and Scots law have always distinguished between the Monarch's subjects and aliens. Until 1914 British nationality law was uncodified. The British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 codified existing common law and statute, with a few minor changes.

British & Commonwealth citizenship
Commonwealth nationality laws
British (history) Australian Bangladeshi Barbadian Canadian (history) Cypriot Ghanaian Indian Malaysian Pakistani Maltese New Zealand Samoan Singaporean South African Tongan Irish citizens in the UK
Classes of citizens and subjects
British Citizen British Subject British Overseas Territories Citizen British Overseas Citizen British National (Overseas) British Protected Person Commonwealth citizen
Rights and visas
Right of abode in the UK Indefinite leave to remain in the UK Permanent resident (Australia) Permanent resident (Canada) Permanent resident (New Zealand) Belonger status UK Ancestry Entry Clearance
Acts
Ireland Act 1949 British Nationality Act 1981 British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983 British Overseas Territories Act 2002 Canadian Citizenship Act 1946
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With the development of the modern British Commonwealth of Nations in the 20th century, some deemed the single Imperial status of British subject as increasingly inadequate to deal with the realities of a Commonwealth with independent member states. In 1948, the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that each member would adopt a national citizenship, but that the existing status of the British subject would continue as a common status held by all Commonwealth citizens.

The British Nationality Act 1948 established the status of Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC), the national citizenship of the United Kingdom and those places that were still British colonies on 1 January 1949, when the 1948 Act came into force. However, until the early 1960s there was little difference, if any, in United Kingdom law between the rights of CUKCs and other British subjects, all of whom had the right at any time to enter and live in the United Kingdom.

Independence Acts passed when the various remaining colonies were granted independence also contained nationality provisions. In general, these provisions withdrew the status of CUKC from anyone who became citizens of the newly independent country, unless one had a connection with the UK or a remaining colony (e.g. through birth in the UK). Exceptions were sometimes made in cases where the colonies did not become independent. (Notable cases include Penang and Malacca, which were made part of the Federation of Malaya and Hong Kong, which became part of the People's Republic of China. CUKC status was not withdrawn from CUKCs from Penang and Malacca, and a new British nationality status was created for Hong Kong.)

Between 1962 and 1971, as a result of fears about increasing immigration by Commonwealth citizens from Asia and Africa, the United Kingdom gradually tightened controls on immigration by British subjects from other parts of the Commonwealth. The Immigration Act 1971 introduced the concept of patriality, by which only British subjects with sufficiently strong links to the British Islands (i.e. the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man) had right of abode, the right to live and work in the United Kingdom and Islands.

Although there have been several amendments to the 1971 Act in the intervening years, the principal British nationality law today is the British Nationality Act 1981, which established the current system of multiple categories of British nationality, viz. British citizens, British Overseas Territories citizens, British Overseas citizens, British Nationals (Overseas), British subjects and British protected persons. Only British citizenship and certain commonwealth citizens have the automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom.

The 1981 Act also ceased to recognise Commonwealth citizens as British subjects. There remain only two categories of people who are still British subjects: some people (formerly known as British subjects without citizenship) who originally acquired British nationality through a connection with former British India, and also a number of people connected with the Republic of Ireland before 1949 who have made a declaration to retain British nationality. Those British subjects connected with former British India lose British nationality if they acquire any other.

In spite of the fact that BNA 1981 repealed most of the provisions of BNA 1948 and the nationality clauses in subsequent independence acts, the acquisition of new categories of British nationality created by BNA 1981 was often dependent on one's nationality status prior to 1 Jan 1983, the date BNA 1981 came into effect. This therefore means that many of the original provisions of BNA 1948 and subsequent independence acts are still relevant today. Not taking into account of this subtlety might lead one to the erroneous conclusion, for example, that BNA 1981's repeal of the nationality clauses in the Kenya Independence Act of 1963 restored British nationality to those who lost their CUKC status as a result of Kenya's independence in 1963. This is one of the reasons for the complexity of British nationality law; in complicated cases, determining one's British nationality status or lack thereof requires an examination of several nationality acts in their original form.

Classes of British nationality[link]

There are currently six classes of British national:^[1]

British citizens

British Citizens usually hold this status through a connection with the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man ("United Kingdom and Islands"). Former Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKCs) who possessed right of abode under the Immigration Act 1971 through a connection with the United Kingdom and Islands generally became British citizens on 1 January 1983.

British citizenship is the most common type of British nationality, and the only one that automatically carries a right of abode in the United Kingdom.

However, other rights can vary according to how the British citizenship was acquired. In particular there are restrictions for 'British citizens by descent' transmitting British citizenship to their children born outside the UK. These restrictions do not apply to 'British citizens other than by descent'.

British Overseas Territories citizens (formerly British Dependent Territories citizenship) (BOTC)

BOTC (formerly BDTC) is the form of British nationality held by connection with an existing overseas territory. Nearly all are now also British citizens as a result of the British Overseas Territories Act 2002. It is possible to hold BOTC and British citizenship simultaneously.

British Overseas citizens (BOC)

BOCs are those former CUKCs who did not qualify for either British citizenship or British Dependent Territories citizenship. Most of these derived their status as CUKCs from former colonies, such as Malaysia and Kenya, because of various quirks and exceptions in the law that resulted in them retaining CUKC status in spite of the independence of their colonies. Note that this is fairly uncommon: most CUKCs (including those from Malaysia and Kenya) lost their CUKC status upon independence.

British subjects

British subjects (as defined in the 1981 Act) are those British subjects who were not CUKCs or citizens of any other Commonwealth country. Most of these derived their status as British subjects from British India or the Republic of Ireland as they existed before 1949.

British Nationals (Overseas) (BNO)

The status of BNO did not originally exist under the 1981 scheme, but was created by the Hong Kong Act 1985 and the British Nationality (Hong Kong) Order 1986. BNOs are those former Hong Kong BDTCs who applied for the status of BNO before the handover of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China. Hong Kong BDTCs who did not apply to become BNOs, and who did not gain PRC nationality after the handover, became BOCs if they did not have any other nationality.

British protected persons (BPP)

BPPs derive from parts of the British Empire that were protectorates or protected states with nominally independent rulers under the "protection" of the British Crown – and not officially part of the Crown's dominions. The status of BPP is sui generis – BPPs are not Commonwealth citizens (British subjects, in the old sense) and were not traditionally considered British nationals, but are not aliens either.

Of the various classes of British nationality and BPP status, all except British citizenship and British Overseas Territories citizenship are residual categories. This means they become extinct with the passage of time, as they can only be passed down to the national's children in exceptional circumstances, e.g., if the child would otherwise be stateless. There is, consequently, little provision for the acquisition of these classes of nationality by people who do not already have them.

Of all the six classes of British nationality, only the status of British citizen carries with it the right of abode somewhere (in this case the UK), and all British passports include a note to this effect. However, in practice, BOTCs (except those associated with the Sovereign bases in Cyprus) were granted full British citizenship in 2002, BN(O)s have right of abode in Hong Kong, BSs and BPPs lose their statuses upon acquisition of another nationality (except BSs connected the Republic of Ireland, who have the right to live and work in the UK anyway because of EU treaties) and so should be eligible for registration as British Citizens under the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002.

This makes British Overseas Citizens unique in that their nationality status is not associated with the right of residence anywhere in the world.

Acquisition of British citizenship[link]

British Citizenship can be acquired in the following ways:

1. lex soli: By birth in the United Kingdom to a parent who is a British citizen at the time of the birth, or to a parent who is settled in the United Kingdom
2. lex sanguinis: By birth abroad, which constitutes "by descent" if one of the parents is a British citizen otherwise than by descent (for example by birth, adoption, registration or naturalisation in the United Kingdom). British citizenship by descent is only transferable to one generation down from the parent who is a British citizen otherwise than by descent, if the child is born abroad.
3. By naturalisation
4. By registration
5. By adoption

For nationality purposes, the Channel Islands and Isle of Man are generally treated as if they were part of the United Kingdom^{[citation needed]}.

Leaflets and advice that describe how British citizenship and other kinds of British nationality can be held, applied for, or renounced are available from the Home Office UK Border Agency (formerly known as Border and Immigration Agency or BIA).^[2] Information is also available from the Home Office on provisions for reducing statelessness.^[3]

Persons acquiring citizenship by method (2) are called citizens by descent, while citizens acquiring citizenship by methods (1), (3) or (5) are called citizens otherwise than by descent. British citizens by registration, method (4), may be either, depending on the circumstances. Only citizens otherwise than by descent can pass on their citizenship to their children born outside the UK automatically; citizens by descent can only pass on citizenship to their non-UK born children by meeting certain UK residence requirments and registering them, before the age of 18.

British citizenship by birth in the United Kingdom[link]

Under the law in effect from 1 January 1983, a child born in the UK to a parent who is a British citizen or 'settled' in the UK is automatically a British citizen by birth.

• Only one parent needs to meet this requirement, either the father or the mother.
• "Settled" status in this context usually means the parent is resident in the United Kingdom and has the right of abode, holds Indefinite Leave to Remain (ILR), or is the citizen of an EU/EEA country and has permanent residence. Irish citizens in the UK are also deemed settled for this purpose.
• Special rules exist for cases where a parent of a child is a citizen of a European Union or European Economic Area member state, or Switzerland. The law in this respect was changed on 2 October 2000 and again on 30 April 2006. See below for details.
• For children born before 1 July 2006, if only the father meets this requirement, the parents must be married. Marriage subsequent to the birth is normally enough to confer British citizenship from that point.
• Where the father is not married to the mother, the Home Office usually registers the child as British provided an application is made and the child would have been British otherwise. The child must be under 18 on the date of application.
• Where a parent subsequently acquires British citizenship or "settled" status, the child can be registered as British provided he or she is still aged under 18.
• If the child lives in the UK until age 10 there is a lifetime entitlement to register as a British citizen. The immigration status of the child and his/her parents is irrelevant.
• Special provisions may apply for the child to acquire British citizenship if a parent is a British Overseas citizen or British subject, or if the child is stateless.

Before 1983, birth in the UK was sufficient in itself to confer British nationality irrespective of the status of parents, with an exception only for children of diplomats and enemy aliens. This exception did not apply to most visiting forces, so, in general, children born in the UK before 1983 to visiting military personnel (e.g. US forces stationed in the UK) are British citizens by birth.

British Citizenship by descent[link]

'British Citizenship by descent' is the category for the children born outside the UK to a British citizen. Rules for acquiring British citizenship by descent depend on when the person was born.

From 1983[link]

A child born outside the UK on or after 1 January 1983 automatically acquires British citizenship by descent if either parent is a British citizen other than by descent at the time of the birth.

• Only one parent—father or mother—must be British otherwise than by descent.
• As a general rule, an unmarried father cannot pass on British citizenship automatically in the case of children born before 1 July 2006. However, if the parents marry subsequent to the birth, the child normally becomes a British citizen at that point if legitimated by the marriage and the father was eligible to pass on British citizenship. Further, if the unmarried British father was domiciled in a country that treated (at the date of birth of the child born before 1 July 2006) a child born to unmarried parents in the same way as a child born to married parents, then the father passed on British citizenship automatically to his child, even though the child was born before 1 July 2006 to unmarried parents.^[4] Such countries are listed in UK Immigration and Passport Services publication "Legitimation and Domicile".^[5] Failing that, the child can be registered as British if it would have been British if parents were married and application is made before the child is 18.
• Where the parent is a British citizen by descent additional requirements apply. In the most common scenario, the parent is normally expected to have lived in the UK for three consecutive years and apply to register the child as a British citizen while the child is a minor (clause 43, Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act 2009, effective from 13 January 2010). Prior to this date, the age limit was 12 months.
• For British nationality purposes, the Isle of Man and Channel Islands are treated as though they were part of the UK.
• Before 21 May 2002, British Overseas Territories were treated as 'overseas' for nationality purposes. The exceptions were Gibraltar who were British citizens per the British Nationality Act 1981; and the Falkland Islands who were granted British citizenship following the Falklands War per the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983 . For children born on or after 21 May 2002 in a British Overseas Territory (other than the Sovereign Base Areas of Cyprus) there is an entitlement to British citizenship on the same basis as UK-born children.
• Children born overseas to parents on Crown Service are normally granted British citizenship otherwise than by descent. In other words, their status is the same as it would have been had they been born in the UK.
• In exceptional cases, the Home Secretary may register a child of parents who are British by descent as a British citizen under discretionary provisions, for example if the child is stateless.

Before 1983[link]

Before 1983, as a general rule British nationality could only be transmitted from the father through one generation only, and parents were required to be married. (See History of British nationality law.)

With effect from 20 July 2009, the Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act 2009 provides that a person born outside the UK to a British mother may be entitled to register as a British citizen by descent if that person was born before 1 January 1983.^[6] Before the 2009 changes, only persons born after 7 February 1961 and before 1 January 1983 were eligible for this provision that came into force in April 2003. However those with permanent resident status in the UK, or who are entitled to the right of abode, may prefer naturalisation as a British citizen, which gives transmissible British citizenship otherwise than by descent. Requirements for successful registration with form UKM are that the applicant be a child of a British mother born before 1983 and be of good character and attend a citizenship ceremony. As of 22 Nov 2010, there is no longer an application fee (of £540). Applicants do however still have to pay £80 for the citizenship ceremony.

Children born abroad to British mothers before 1983[link]

At present there are two entirely different paths through which children of British mothers and children of British fathers born abroad before 1983 can acquire a passport. The differences also have a bearing on costs. Children of British mothers born before 1983 may require a nationality registration fee, which (as of 22 Nov 2010) is free (although they must pay £80 for a citizenship ceremony). They also must undergo a background check into their eligibility and be of "good character" and attend the citizenship ceremony.^[7]

Children born abroad after 1982 to British mothers or to British fathers before or after 1983[link]

Those born abroad to a British father before or after 1983 or born after 1982 to a British mother need not pay any nationality registration fees, undergo a good character check, or attend a civil ceremony as they are considered automatically British and can apply for a passport directly through the Identity and Passport Services (IPS).^[8] Again, this only applies if your parents have been married or marry.

This difference in application for a passport and also nationality has been criticised by the National Council for Civil Liberties on the basis of alleged discrimination on the basis of age and gender based on descent through a mother or a father.^[9]

British citizenship by adoption[link]

A child adopted by a British citizen only acquires British citizenship automatically if:

• the adoption order is made by a court in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands, Isle of Man or Falkland Islands on or after 1 January 1983, or in another British Overseas Territory on or after 21 May 2002; or
• it is a Convention adoption under the 1993 Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption effected on or after 1 June 2003 and the adopters are habitually resident in the United Kingdom on that date.

In both cases, at least one adoptive parent must be a British citizen on the date of the adoption.

In all other cases, an application for registration of the child as a British citizen must be made before the child is age 18. Usually this is granted provided the Secretary of State accepts the adoption is bona fide and the child would have been a British citizen if the natural child of the adopters. Usually the adoption must have taken place under the law of a 'designated country' (most developed nations along with some others are 'designated' for this purpose) and be recognised in the UK. This is the standard method for children adopted by British citizens permanently resident overseas to acquire British citizenship.

The cancellation or annulment of an adoption order does not cause loss of British citizenship acquired by that adoption.

British children adopted by non-British nationals do not lose British nationality, even if they acquire a foreign nationality as a result of the adoption.

British citizenship by naturalisation[link]

Naturalisation as a British citizen is at the discretion of the Home Secretary (i.e., in practice, his or her officials). The Home Secretary may grant British citizenship to anyone they "think fit". ^[10] Although the Home Office sets down a number of official requirements for naturalisation, the Home Office may waive any of these, or may conversely refuse citizenship to a person even if they meet all of the requirements. ^[11] However, applications for naturalisation are normally granted if the requirements are met.

The requirements for naturalisation as a British citizen depend on whether or not one is the spouse or civil partner of a British citizen.

For those married to or in a civil partnership with a British citizen, the applicant must:

• Hold indefinite leave to remain in the UK (or an "equivalent" (for this purpose) such as the right of abode, Irish citizenship, or permanent residency as a citizen or family member of an EU/EEA)
• Have lived legally in the UK for three years
• Be of "good character", as deemed by the Home Office (in practice the Home Office carries out checks with the police and with other Government departments)
• show sufficient knowledge of life in the UK, either by passing the Life in the United Kingdom test or by attending combined English language and citizenship classes. Proof of this must be supplied with one's application for naturalisation. Exemption from this and the language requirement (see below) is normally granted for those aged 65 or over, and may be granted to those aged between 60 and 65. Note that this is required to remain in the country, not just for citizenship, and married partners will be deported if they are unable to pass the test.
• Meet specified English, Welsh or Scottish Gaelic language competence standards. Those who pass the Life in the UK test are deemed to meet English language requirements

For those not married to or in a civil partnership with a British citizen, the requirements are:

• Five years legal residence in the UK
• Indefinite leave to remain or "equivalent" for this purpose (see above) must have been held for 12 months
• the applicant must intend to continue to live in the UK or work overseas for the UK government or a British corporation or association
• the same "good character" standards apply as for those married to British citizens
• the same language and knowledge of life in the UK standards apply as for those married to British citizens

Those applying for British citizenship in the Channel Islands and Isle of Man (where the application is mainly based on residence in the Crown Dependencies rather than the UK) do not have to sit the Life in the UK Test. Instead, in the Isle of Man, there is a Life in the Isle of Man Test, consisting of certain questions taken from the Life in the UK Test syllabus and certain questions taken from a separate syllabus relating to matters specific to the Isle of Man. In due course, it is expected that Regulations will be introduced to that effect in the Channel Islands. The provisions for proving knowledge of English, Welsh or Scottish Gaelic remain unchanged until that date for applicants in the Crown Dependencies. In the rare cases where an applicant is able to apply for naturalisation from outside the United Kingdom, a paper based version of the Life in the UK Test may be available at a British diplomatic mission.^[12]

As of 11 February 2009, wait times for naturalization applications were reportedly significant, taking up to 6 months to complete.^[13] The UK Border Agency stated that this was occurring because of the widespread changes proposed to the UK Immigration Laws likely to take effect in late 2009.^[14]

As of 6 April 2011, the fee for naturalisation (including Citizenship ceremony fee) is £836 for single applications, and £850 for joint application, for husband and wife (or civil partners living together) if applying at the same time.^[15]

Citizens of EEA States and Switzerland[link]

The immigration status for citizens of European Economic Area states and Switzerland has varied since 1983. This is important in terms of eligibility for naturalisation, and whether the UK-born child of such a person is a British citizen.^[16]

Before 2 October 2000[link]

In general, before 2 October 2000, any EEA citizen exercising Treaty rights in the United Kingdom was deemed "settled" in the United Kingdom. Hence a child born to that person in the United Kingdom would normally be a British citizen by birth.

2 October 2000 to 29 April 2006[link]

The Immigration (European Economic Area) Regulations^[17] provided that with only a few exceptions, citizens of EU and European Economic Area states are not generally considered "settled" in the UK unless they apply for and obtain permanent residency. This is relevant in terms of eligibility to apply for naturalisation or obtaining British citizenship for UK born children (born on or after 2 October 2000).

30 April 2006 onwards[link]

A further change took place on 30 April 2006 with the coming into force of the Immigration (European Economic Area) Regulations 2006. These provide that citizens of EEA states and Switzerland automatically acquire permanent residence after 5 years resident in the United Kingdom exercising Treaty rights.

Children born in the United Kingdom from this to EEA/Swiss parents are normally British citizens automatically, if at least one parent has been exercising Treaty rights for five years. If the parents have lived in the United Kingdom for less than five years when the child is born, the child may be registered as British under s1(3) of the British Nationality Act once the parents complete five years residence in the United Kingdom.

Children born between 2 October 2000 and 29 April 2006 may be registered as British citizens as soon as one parent has completed 5 years residence exercising Treaty rights in the United Kingdom.

Irish citizens[link]

Irish citizens, because of the Common Travel Area provisions between the UK and Ireland, are exempt from these restrictions and are normally treated as "settled" in the United Kingdom immediately upon taking up residence.^{[citation needed]}

Swiss citizens[link]

From 1 June 2002, citizens of Switzerland are accorded EEA rights in the United Kingdom.

Citizens of Greece, Spain and Portugal[link]

Greek citizens did not acquire full Treaty rights in the United Kingdom until 1 January 1988^{[citation needed]} and citizens of Spain and Portugal did not acquire these rights until 1 January 1992^{[citation needed]}.

Ten year rule[link]

Non-British children with an EEA/Swiss parent may be registered as British once the parent becomes "settled" in the United Kingdom under the terms of the Immigration Regulations dealing with EEA citizens.

A separate entitlement exists for any such UK-born child registered as British if they live in the United Kingdom until age 10, regardless of their or their parent's immigration status.

Registration as a British citizen[link]

Registration is a simpler method of acquiring citizenship than naturalisation, but only certain people are eligible for it.

British nationals (other than British citizens) who have indefinite leave to remain in the UK or right of abode, are eligible for British citizenship by registration after five years' residence in the United Kingdom. This is an entitlement under s4 of the 1981 Act (section 4 registration).

Other cases where persons may be entitled to registration (either as a matter of law or policy) include:

• Children born in the UK where a parent obtains British citizenship or indefinite leave to remain after the child is born
• Children born in the UK who live in the UK until age 10.
• Children born to a British father who is not married to the mother
• British Overseas citizens, British subjects and British protected persons who have no other nationality
• Certain British nationals from Hong Kong who meet the requirements of the Hong Kong (War Wives and Widows) Act 1996 or the British Nationality (Hong Kong) Act 1997
• British Nationals (Overseas) who do not hold any other citizenship or nationality before 19 March 2009 (see Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act 2009 regarding the extension of Section 4B of the British Nationality Act 1981)
• Persons born outside the UK to a British born or naturalised mother.
• Certain children born outside the UK to a British citizen by descent
• Certain children born in the UK who are stateless
• Persons who acquire British overseas territories citizenship after 21 May 2002 (except those connected solely with the Sovereign Base Areas of Cyprus)
• Children under 18 who are adopted outside the United Kingdom by British citizens
• Former British citizens who renounced British citizenship

Acquisition of British Overseas Territories citizenship[link]

The British Nationality Act 1981 contains provisions for acquisition and loss of British Dependent Territories citizenship (BDTC) (renamed as British Overseas Territories citizenship (BOTC) in 2002) on a broadly similar basis to those for British citizenship. The Home Secretary has delegated his powers to grant BOTC to the Governors of the Overseas Territories. Only in exceptional cases is a person registered or naturalised as a BOTC by the Home Office in the United Kingdom.

On 21 May 2002 any BOTC who did not hold British citizenship (except those from the Sovereign Base Areas) automatically acquired it under the British Overseas Territories Act 2002. Those acquiring BOTC after that date are entitled to register as British citizens under s4A of the 1981 Act.

Acquisition of other categories of British nationality[link]

It is currently unusual for a person to be able to acquire British Overseas citizenship, British National (Overseas), British subject or British protected person status. They are not generally transmissible by descent, and nor are they open to acquisition by registration, except for certain instances to prevent statelessness.

The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 granted British Overseas Citizens, British Subjects and British Protected Persons the right to register as British citizens if they have no other citizenship or nationality and have not after 4 July 2002 renounced, voluntarily relinquished or lost through action or inaction any citizenship or nationality. Previously such persons would have not had the right of abode in any country, and would have thus been de facto stateless. Despite strong resistance from senior officials at the Home Office,^[18] the then Home Secretary, David Blunkett, said on 3 July 2002 that this would "right a historic wrong" that left stateless tens of thousands of Asian people who had worked closely with British colonial administrations.^[19]

Persons connected with former British colonies[link]

British Overseas citizenship is generally held by persons connected with former British colonies and who for some reason did not lose their British Nationality upon the independence of those colonies.

British National (Overseas) and Hong Kong[link]

Most former BDTCs, by virtue of a connection with the former dependent territory of Hong Kong are now either British Nationals (Overseas) (with or without citizenship of the People's Republic of China), British Overseas citizens, or solely citizens of the PRC. (The deadline for registering as a British National (Overseas) passed in 1997.) There is no provision to acquire British National (Overseas) although stateless children born to such persons may be entitled to British Overseas citizenship and can apply to register as British citizens.

In some cases, former BDTCs from Hong Kong have been able to acquire British citizenship (BC status) under special legislation passed in 1990, 1996 and 1997. In other cases, some former Hong Kong BDTCs hold British citizenship as a matter of entitlement or through acquisition under normal rules.

Most of these British nationals (BCs and BN(O)s) aforementioned have been recognized by the People's Republic of China as its citizens before and after the handover of Hong Kong. These PRC citizens of Hong Kong origin have been categorised differently from other PRC nationals from Macau and Mainland China. See the articles HKSAR passport, Home Return Permit and Chinese nationality law.

In February 2006, in response to extensive representations made by Lord Avebury and Tameem Ebrahim,^[20] British authorities announced that six hundred British citizenship applications of ethnic minority children of Indian descent from Hong Kong were wrongly refused.^[21] The applications dated from the period July 1997 onwards. Where applicants in such cases confirm that they still wish to receive British citizenship, the decision is reconsidered on request. No additional fee is required in such cases. A template to request reconsideration is available for those who want a prior application reconsidered.^[22]

Persons born in the Republic of Ireland[link]

Approximately 800,000 persons born before 1949 and connected with the Republic of Ireland remain entitled to claim British subject status under section 31 of the 1981 Act.

Descendants of the Electress Sophia of Hanover[link]

Eligible descendants from the Electress Sophia of Hanover may hold British Overseas citizenship based on their status as British subjects before 1949. Where such a person acquired a right of abode in the UK before 1983, it is possible for British citizenship to have been acquired. See also History of British nationality law and Sophia Naturalization Act 1705

Loss of British nationality[link]

Renunciation and resumption of British nationality[link]

All categories of British nationality can be renounced by a declaration made to the Home Secretary. A person ceases to be a British national on the date the Home Secretary registers the declaration of renunciation. If a declaration is registered in the expectation of acquiring another citizenship, but one is not acquired within six months of the registration, it does not take effect and the person is considered to have remained a British national.

Renunciations made to other authorities are invalid: e.g., a general renunciation made upon taking up U.S. citizenship. The forms must be sent through the UK Border Agency's citizenship renunciation process.^[23]

There are provisions for the resumption of British citizenship or British overseas territories citizenship renounced for the purpose of gaining or retaining another citizenship. This can generally only be done once as a matter of entitlement. Further opportunities to resume British citizenship are discretionary.

British subjects, British Overseas citizens and British Nationals (Overseas) cannot under any circumstances resume their British nationality after renunciation.

Automatic loss of British nationality[link]

British subjects (other than British subjects by virtue of a connection with the Republic of Ireland) and British protected persons lose British nationality upon acquiring any other form of nationality, whether British, Commonwealth or foreign.

• These provisions do not apply to British citizens.
• British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs) who acquire another nationality do not lose BOTC status. However they may be liable to lose Belonger status in their home territory under its immigration laws. Such persons are advised to contact the Governor of that territory for information.
• British Overseas citizens (BOC) do not lose BOC upon acquisition of another citizenship. However any entitlement to registration as a British citizen on the grounds of having no other nationality no longer exist after acquiring another citizenship.

Deprivation of British nationality[link]

Under amendments made by the Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006, British nationals can be deprived of their citizenship if the Secretary of State is satisfied "deprivation is conducive to the public good". This provision has been in force since 16 June 2006 when the Immigration, Nationality and Asylum Act 2006 (Commencement No 1) Order 2006 came into force.^[24] This provision only applies to dual nationals, and does not operate to render a person stateless.

Previously, since 2003, under amendments made by the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002, British nationals could be deprived of their citizenship if the Secretary of State is satisfied they are responsible for acts seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the United Kingdom or an Overseas Territory.

British nationals who are naturalised or registered may have their certificates revoked (and hence lose British nationality) if British nationality was obtained by fraud or concealment of a material fact.

Dual nationality and dual citizenship[link]

Since the British Nationality Act of 1948, there is in general no restriction, in United Kingdom law, on a British national being a citizen of another country as well. So, if a British national acquires another nationality, they do not automatically lose British nationality. Similarly, a person does not need to give up any other nationality when they become British, unless their first nationality requires it.

Different rules apply in the cases of British protected persons and certain British subjects. A person who is a British subject other than by connection with the Republic of Ireland loses that status on acquiring any other nationality or citizenship. Similarly, a British protected person is no longer a British protected person on acquiring any other nationality or citizenship. Although British Overseas citizens are not subject to loss of citizenship, British Overseas citizens may lose an entitlement to register as a British citizen under s4B of the 1981 Act if they acquire any other citizenship.

Many other countries, however, do not allow dual nationality (see Multiple citizenship). If a person has British nationality, and is also a national of a country that does not allow dual nationality, the authorities of that country may either regard the person as having lost that nationality or may refuse to recognize the British nationality. British nationals who acquire the nationality of a country that does not allow dual nationality may be required by the other country to renounce British nationality to retain the other citizenship.

Under international law, the Master Nationality Rule states that a State may not give diplomatic protection to one of its nationals in a country where the person also holds citizenship. For example, a person who is both British and American cannot receive diplomatic help from a British Consul in the United States.

A British person who acquired foreign citizenship by naturalisation before 1949 may have lost British nationality at the time. No specific provisions were made in the 1948 legislation for such former British subjects to acquire or otherwise resume British nationality, and hence such a person would not be a British citizen today. However, women who lost British nationality on marriage to a foreign man before 1949 were deemed to have reacquired British subject status immediately before the coming into force of the 1948 act.

British citizenship ceremonies[link]

A British citizenship ceremony in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets

From 1 January 2004, all new applicants for British citizenship by naturalisation or registration aged 18 or over if their application is successful must attend a citizenship ceremony and either make an affirmation or take an oath of allegiance to the monarch, and also make a pledge to the United Kingdom.

Citizenship ceremonies are normally organised by:

• local councils in England, Scotland, and Wales
• the Northern Ireland Office
• the governments of the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey
• the Governors of British Overseas Territories
• British consular offices outside the United Kingdom and territories.

Persons from the Republic of Ireland (born before 1949) reclaiming British subject status under section 31 of the 1981 Act do not need to attend a citizenship ceremony. However, should such a person subsequently apply for British citizenship by registration or naturalisation, attendance at a ceremony is required.

For those who applied for British citizenship before 2004:

• the oath of allegiance was administered privately through signing a witnessed form in front of a solicitor or other accredited person
• those who already held British nationality (other than British protected persons) were exempt, as were those citizens of countries with the Queen as Head of State (such as Australia or Canada).

Citizenship of the European Union[link]

British nationals who are "United Kingdom nationals for European Union purposes" are also citizens of the European Union and thus enjoy rights of free movement and have the right to vote in elections for the European Parliament.

Wikisource has original text related to this article: Declaration by the United Kingdom on 31 December 1982 on the definition of the term “nationals”

British nationals who are "United Kingdom nationals for European Union purposes", namely:

• British citizens;
• British subjects with the right of abode; and
• British Overseas Territories citizens connected to Gibraltar

are European Union citizens under European Union law.

However, by virtue of a special provision in the UK Accession Treaty, British citizens who are connected with the Channel Islands and Isle of Man (i.e. considered "Channel Islanders and Manxmen") do not have the right to live in other European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland, through the long-established Common Travel Area) unless they have connections through descent or residence in the United Kingdom.

Statistics on British Citizenship: 1998 to 2009[link]

The Home Office Research and Statistics Division publishes an annual report with statistics on grants of British citizenship broken down by type and former nationality. Since 2003, the report has also included research on take-up rates for British citizenship.

See also[link]

• British Nationality Act
• Citizen Information Project
• Immigration to the United Kingdom since 1922
• Sanjay Shah, a British Overseas citizen passport holder, spent thirteen months living in the duty free section of Nairobi's Jomo Kenyatta airport, petitioning for full British Citizenship.^[25][26][27]

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983
• Home Office Nationality Instructions (British nationality policy and background notes)
• British Nationality Acts: 1981, 1965, 1964, 1958, 1948, 1772, 1730
• Registration of a Child of an Unmarried British Father as a British Citizen (information from British High Commission, Canberra)
• 1971: UK restricts Commonwealth migrants
• SUBMISSION TO LORD GOLDSMITH FOR THE CITIZENSHIP REVIEW: THE DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF BRITISH NATIONALITY, Immigration Law Practitioners' Association
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2009 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2008 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2007 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2006 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2005 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2004 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2003 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2002 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2001 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2000 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 1999 (pdf)
• Persons Granted British Citizenship, 1998 (pdf)

Nationality law is the branch of law concerned with the questions of nationality and citizenship, and how these statuses are acquired, transmitted, or lost. By custom, a state has the right to determine who its nationals and citizens are. Such determinations are usually made by custom, statutory law, or case law (precedent), or some combination. In some cases, determinations of nationality are also governed by public international law—for example, by treaties on statelessness and the European Convention on Nationality.

Principles[link]

Broadly speaking, nationality law is based either on jus soli or jus sanguinis, or on a combination of the two. Jus soli (Latin: the law of the soil) is the principle by which a child born within a country's territorial jurisdiction acquires that country's nationality. Jus sanguinis (Latin: the law of the blood) is the principle by which a child acquires the nationality of his or her parents. Today, most if not all countries apply a mixture of these two principles: neither granting citizenship to everyone born within the country's jurisdiction, nor denying citizenship to the children born abroad.

International Treaties[link]

International law generally recognizes the right of states to set their own policy concerning nationality.^[1] Nevertheless, there are a number of international treaties that are relevant to nationality law.^[1]

See also[link]

• Citizenship Act
• Citizenship
• History of citizenship
• Jus soli
• Jus sanguinis
• Dual nationality
• Nationality
• Passport
• Immigration law
• Political asylum
• Human migration

References[link]

This article relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Discussion about the problems with the sole source used may be found on the talk page. (March 2012)

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2007)

Nationality is membership of a nation or sovereign state, usually determined by their citizenship, but sometimes by ethnicity or place of residence, or based on their sense of national identity.^{[citation needed]}

Citizenship is determined by jus soli, jus sanguinis, or naturalization, which affords the state jurisdiction over the person and affords the person the protection of the state. The word citizenship is often used in a different sense from nationality. The most common distinguishing feature of citizenship is that citizens have the right to participate in the political life of the state, such as by voting or standing for election. The term national can include both citizens and non-citizens.

Nationality can refer to membership in a nation (collective of people sharing a national identity, usually based on ethnic and cultural ties and self-determination) even if that nation has no state, such as the Basques, Kurds, and Tamils. Individuals may also be considered nationals of groups with autonomous status which have ceded some power to a larger government, such as the federally recognized tribes of Native Americans in the United States. Spanish law recognises the autonomous communities of Andalusia, Aragon, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, Catalonia, Valencia, Galicia and the Basque Country as "nationalities" (nacionalidades), while in Italy, the German speakers of South Tyrol are considered to be Austrian nationals.

Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "Everyone has the right to a nationality," and "No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality." By custom, it is the right of each state to determine who its nationals are. Such determinations are part of nationality law. In some cases, determinations of nationality are also governed by public international law—for example, by treaties on statelessness and the European Convention on Nationality.

See also[link]

• Blood quantum laws
• Demonym
• Imagined communities
• Intersectionality
• jus soli
• jus sanguinis
• Meta-ethnicity
• Nationalism
• Second-class citizen
• List of nationalities

References[link]

• White, Philip L. (2006). "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 257-284.

External links[link]

• Grossman, Andrew. Gender and National Inclusion
• Trott, Philip D A. Dual Nationality
• White, Philip L. "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, pp. 257-284.[1]
• Lord Acton, Nationality (1862)

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2011)

Hong Kong people

Bruce Lee Leslie Cheung Bruce Lee Faye Wong Charles K. Kao Leslie Cheung Kai Ho Tung Chee Hwa Allan Zeman Jin Yong
Regions with significant populations
Hong Kong 7,026,400 [1]  Canada 615,152 [2]  United States 329,888 [3]  United Kingdom 145,000  Australia 67,122 [4]  Japan 4,196(2010) [5]  Taiwan 2,995(2011) [6]
Languages
Hong Kong Cantonese, Hong Kong English
Religion
Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity and other faiths
Related ethnic groups
Cantonese people, Macanese people, other Han Chinese

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Hong Kong people (Chinese: 香港人) refer to people who originate from Hong Kong. The term (and its Chinese equivalent) has no legal definition in Hong Kong. Rather, terms such as Hong Kong permanent resident (香港永久性居民) and Hong Kong resident (香港居民) are used. Besides being used by Hong Kong residents, the term Hong Konger may be used by people who for one reason or another do not have legal residence status but spent an extensive period of time in Hong Kong or otherwise have a strong cultural connection with Hong Kong. Thus the term is largely open to personal interpretation. None of the terms make reference to the ethnicity of a person and are independent of Chinese citizenship or residency statuses.

Terminology[link]

The vast majority of Hong Kong Chinese have ancestral roots from Guangdong Province in mainland China. After all, the SAR had experienced a great exodus of people in the years leading up to the handover, and yet migration from mainland China in recent years have brought about migrants who would prefer to refer themselves as Chinese. Many locals however simply refer themselves as Hong Kong people (Hèung Góng Yàhn).

Variation[link]

The terms Hong Konger (or Hongkonger), Hongkongese, and Hong Kong People are all translated into the Cantonese term of Hèung Góng Yàhn (Chinese: 香港人; Cantonese Yale: Hèung Góng Yàhn). As a result, the above terms are different only as far as English language usage is concerned. People from Hong Kong in Western countries are also referred to colloquially as Hongers^{[citation needed]} (or honkies^{[citation needed]}, an offensive term ), however these latter terms are not always well received. The terms embodies a civic identity as opposed to one based upon race or ethnicity.

Hong Konger is used more often by native speakers of English,^{[citation needed]} while Hong Kong People, a more direct translation of the term Hèung Góng Yàhn, is used to a greater extent by Chinese native speakers in Hong Kong when writing or speaking in English.^{[citation needed]} Hongkongese is a relatively recent term coined by the North American press, likely using the same suffix as the word Chinese does.^[1]

The term Hong Kong Chinese was used more often in the 19th to early 20th century in Hong Kong^{[citation needed]}, where the British population residing in Hong Kong made up a higher percentage than what it comprises now. One used to refer to an individual as Hong Kong Chinese in order to differentiate the person from a Hong Kong Briton.

Legal definition of Hong Kong residents[link]

The Hong Kong Basic Law legally gives precise definition of Hong Kong residents. Under Article 24 of the Basic Law, Hong Kong residents can be further classified as non-permanent or permanent residents. Non-permanent residents are those who have the right to hold a Hong Kong Identity Card but have no right of abode. On the contrary, permanent residents are those who have the right to hold a Hong Kong Permanent Identity Card and the right of abode in Hong Kong.

Article 24 of the Basic Law provides:

Ethnic groups in Hong Kong[link]

Han Chinese[link]

Han Chinese make up the majority of Hong Kongers, most being from Guangdong from the 1930s to the 1980s. There are also the indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories.

The majority of the new addition to the population are people from the mainland China^{[citation needed]}. Ever since Hong Kong was a British colony, many mainland Chinese have immigrated to Hong Kong, and there is now a daily quota of 150 for those wishing to reside in Hong Kong^{[citation needed]}.

Cantonese people represent the largest group in Hong Kong. Beside the Cantonese, people of other Han Chinese groups also reside in Hong Kong. However, the Cantonese remains the largest group even amongst other Han Chinese groups in Hong Kong. As such, Hong Kong culture is highly Cantonese-influenced. Together with the fact that Cantonese is most commonly used as the language of both everyday and formal conversations, as well as its use in the media and education^{[citation needed]}, other Han Chinese groups in Hong Kong, such as the Hakka, the Hoklo (Hokkien), the Shanghainese, or the Teochew, in particular those who are Hong Kong born or raised, often assimilate into the mainstream Cantonese identity of Hong Kong.

Ethnic minorities[link]

Hong Kong has a number of minority ethnic and national groups. The South Asian community (Indians, Pakistanis, and Nepalis) is long-established, and comprises both descendants of 19th and early 20th-century migrants, as well as more recent short term expatriates. Numerically, the largest groups are Filipinos and Indonesians. Other groups include Americans, Britons, Canadians, Australians, New Zealanders, Japanese, Koreans, Russians, Vietnamese and Thais.

See also[link]

• List of Hong Kong people
• Chinese Britons
• Hong Kong people in Shanghai
• Hong Kong people in the United Kingdom
• Colonial Hong Kong
• Culture of Hong Kong
• Demographics of Hong Kong
• Waves of mass migrations from Hong Kong
• Code-switching in Hong Kong ("Hong Kong English")

References[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: People of Hong Kong

v t e Hong Kong diaspora Australia · Canada · New Zealand · United Kingdom · United States See also: Hong Kong returnees

The Right Honourable The Baroness Thatcher LG OM PC FRS
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
In office 4 May 1979 – 28 November 1990
Monarch	Elizabeth II
Deputy	William Whitelaw Geoffrey Howe
Preceded by	James Callaghan
Succeeded by	John Major
Leader of the Opposition
In office 11 February 1975 – 4 May 1979
Monarch	Elizabeth II
Prime Minister	Harold Wilson James Callaghan
Preceded by	Edward Heath
Succeeded by	James Callaghan
Leader of the Conservative Party
In office 11 February 1975 – 28 November 1990
Preceded by	Edward Heath
Succeeded by	John Major
Secretary of State for Education and Science
In office 20 June 1970 – 4 March 1974
Prime Minister	Edward Heath
Preceded by	Edward Short
Succeeded by	Reginald Prentice
Member of Parliament for Finchley
In office 8 October 1959 – 9 April 1992
Preceded by	John Crowder
Succeeded by	Hartley Booth
Personal details
Born	Margaret Hilda Roberts (1925-10-13) 13 October 1925 (age 86) Grantham, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom
Political party	Conservative
Spouse(s)	Denis Thatcher (married 1951–2003, his death)
Children	Carol Thatcher Mark Thatcher
Residence	Chester Square
Alma mater	Somerville College, Oxford Inns of Court
Profession	Chemist Lawyer
Religion	Church of England (Since 1951)[1] Methodism (Before 1951)
Signature

Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS, née Roberts (born 13 October 1925) is a British politician and the longest-serving (1979–1990) British prime minister of the 20th century, and the only woman ever to have held the post. A Soviet journalist nicknamed her the "Iron Lady", which later became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As prime minister, she implemented conservative policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.

Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister, Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Finchley in 1959. Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government. In 1975 Thatcher defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election and became Leader of the Opposition, as well as the first woman to lead a major political party in the United Kingdom. She became prime minister after winning the 1979 general election.

After entering 10 Downing Street, Thatcher introduced a series of political and economic initiatives to reverse what she perceived as Britain's precipitous national decline.^{[nb 1]} Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation (particularly of the financial sector), flexible labour markets, the privatisation of state-owned companies, and reducing the power and influence of trade unions. Thatcher's popularity during her first years in office waned amid recession and high unemployment, until economic recovery and the 1982 Falklands War brought a resurgence of support, resulting in her re-election in 1983. Thatcher was re-elected for a third term in 1987, but her Community Charge (popularly referred to as "poll tax") was widely unpopular and her views on the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet. She resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990, after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership.

Thatcher holds a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire, which entitles her to sit in the House of Lords.

Early life and education[link]

Margaret Thatcher's birthplace, in Grantham

Commemorative plaque on the building in which Margaret Thatcher was born

Margaret Thatcher was born Margaret Roberts in Grantham, Lincolnshire, on 13 October 1925. Her father was Alfred Roberts, originally from Northamptonshire, and her mother was Beatrice Ethel (née Stephenson) from Lincolnshire.^[3] She spent her childhood in Grantham, where her father owned two grocery shops.^[4] She and her older sister Muriel were raised in the flat above the larger of the two, located near the railway line.^[4] Her father was active in local politics and the Christian church, serving as an alderman and a Methodist local preacher,^[5] and brought up his daughter as a strict Methodist.^[6] He came from a Liberal family but stood—as was then customary in local government—as an Independent. He was Mayor of Grantham in 1945–46 and lost his position as alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950.^[5]

Roberts attended Huntingtower Road Primary School and won a scholarship to Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School.^[7] Her school reports showed hard work and continual improvement; her extracurricular activities included the piano, field hockey, poetry recitals, swimming and walking.^[8][9] She was head girl in 1942–43.^[10] In her upper sixth year she applied for a scholarship to study chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford but was initially rejected, and was offered a place only after another candidate withdrew.^[11][12] She arrived at Oxford in 1943 and graduated in 1947 with Second Class Honours in the four-year Chemistry Bachelor of Science degree; in her final year she specialised in X-ray crystallography under the supervision of Dorothy Hodgkin.^[13][14]

Roberts became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946.^[15][16] She was influenced at university by political works such as Friedrich von Hayek's The Road to Serfdom (1944),^[17] which condemned economic intervention by government as a precursor to an authoritarian state.^[18]

After graduating, Roberts moved to Colchester in Essex to work as a research chemist for BX Plastics.^[19] She joined the local Conservative Association and attended the party conference at Llandudno in 1948, as a representative of the University Graduate Conservative Association.^[20] One of her Oxford friends was also a friend of the Chair of the Dartford Conservative Association in Kent, who were looking for candidates.^[20] Officials of the association were so impressed by her that they asked her to apply, even though she was not on the Conservative party's approved list: she was selected in January 1951 and added to the approved list post ante.^[21] At a dinner following her formal adoption as Conservative candidate for Dartford in February 1951 she met Denis Thatcher, a successful and wealthy divorced businessman, who drove her to her Essex train.^[20][21] In preparation for the election Roberts moved to Dartford, where she supported herself by working as a research chemist for J. Lyons and Co. in Hammersmith, part of a team developing emulsifiers for ice cream.^[20][22]

Early political career[link]

In the 1950 and 1951 general elections she was the Conservative candidate for the safe Labour seat of Dartford, where she attracted media attention as the youngest and the only female candidate.^[23][24] She lost both times to Norman Dodds, but reduced the Labour majority by 6,000, and then a further 1,000.^[23] (By an odd coincidence, Edward Heath was elected for the first time in the neighbouring constituency in 1950.) During the campaigns, she was supported by her parents and by Denis Thatcher, whom she married in December 1951.^[23][25] Denis funded his wife's studies for the bar;^[26] she qualified as a barrister in 1953 and specialised in taxation.^[27] That same year her twins, Carol and Mark, were born.^[28]

Member of Parliament (1959–1970)[link]

Thatcher was not a candidate in the 1955 general election as it came fairly soon after the birth of her children, although she was narrowly defeated as the candidate for the Orpington by-election, 1955.^[28] Afterwards, she began looking for a safe Conservative seat, and was selected as the candidate for Finchley in April 1958 (narrowly beating Ian Montagu Fraser). She was elected as MP for the seat after a hard campaign in the 1959 election.^[29] Her maiden speech was in support of her private member's bill (Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act 1960), requiring local authorities to hold their council meetings in public. In 1961 she went against the Conservative Party's official position by voting for the restoration of birching.^[30] She regarded Finchley's Jewish residents as "her people" and became a founding member of the Anglo-Israel Friendship League of Finchley as well as a member of the Conservative Friends of Israel.^[31] But she nevertheless believed that Israel had to trade land for peace, and condemned Israel's bombing of Osirak as "a grave breach of international law".^[31]

In October 1961 Thatcher was promoted to the front bench as Parliamentary Undersecretary at the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance in Harold Macmillan's administration.^[32] After the Conservatives lost the 1964 election she became spokeswoman on Housing and Land, in which position she advocated her party's policy of allowing tenants to buy their council houses.^[33] She moved to the Shadow Treasury team in 1966, and as Treasury spokeswoman opposed Labour's mandatory price and income controls, arguing that they would produce effects contrary to those intended and distort the economy.^[33]

At the Conservative Party Conference of 1966 she criticised the high-tax policies of the Labour Government as being steps "not only towards Socialism, but towards Communism".^[33] She argued that lower taxes served as an incentive to hard work.^[33] Thatcher was one of the few Conservative MPs to support Leo Abse's Bill to decriminalise male homosexuality^[34] and voted in favour of David Steel's bill to legalise abortion,^[1][35] as well as a ban on hare coursing.^[36][37] She supported the retention of capital punishment^[38] and voted against the relaxation of divorce laws.^[39][40]

In 1967 she was selected by the United States Embassy in London to take part in the International Visitor Leadership Program (then called the Foreign Leader Program), a professional exchange programme that gave her the opportunity to spend about six weeks visiting various US cities and political figures as well as institutions such as the International Monetary Fund.^[41] Thatcher joined the Shadow Cabinet later that year as Fuel spokesman. Shortly before the 1970 general election, she was promoted to Shadow Transport spokesman and later to Education.^[42]

Education Secretary (1970–1974)[link]

The Conservative party under Edward Heath won the 1970 general election, and Thatcher was subsequently appointed Secretary of State for Education and Science. During her first months in office she attracted public attention as a result of the administration's attempts to cut spending. She gave priority to academic needs in schools,^[43] and imposed public expenditure cuts on the state education system, resulting in the abolition of free milk for schoolchildren aged seven to eleven.^[44] She held that few children would suffer if schools were charged for milk, but she agreed to provide younger children with a third of a pint daily, for nutritional purposes.^[44] Her decision provoked a storm of protest from the Labour party and the press,^[45] leading to the moniker "Margaret Thatcher, Milk Snatcher".^[44] Thatcher wrote in her autobiography: "I learned a valuable lesson [from the experience]. I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit."^[45][46]

Thatcher's term of office was marked by proposals for more local education authorities to close grammar schools and to adopt comprehensive secondary education. Although she was committed to a tiered secondary modern-grammar school system of education, and determined to preserve grammar schools,^[43] during her tenure as Education Secretary she turned down only 326 of 3,612 proposals for schools to become comprehensives; the proportion of pupils attending comprehensive schools consequently rose from 32 per cent to 62 per cent.^[47]

Leader of the Opposition (1975–1979)[link]

Margaret Thatcher, Leader of the Opposition, 18 September 1975

The Heath government continued to experience difficulties with oil embargoes and union demands for wage increases in 1973, and lost the February 1974 general election.^[45] Labour formed a minority government, and went on to win a narrow majority in the October 1974 general election. Heath's leadership of the Conservative Party looked increasingly in doubt. Thatcher was not initially the obvious replacement, but she eventually became the main challenger, promising a fresh start.^[48] Her main support came from the Conservative 1922 Committee.^[48] She defeated Heath on the first ballot and he resigned the leadership.^[49] In the second ballot she defeated Heath's preferred successor, William Whitelaw, and became party leader on 11 February 1975;^[50] she appointed Whitelaw as her deputy. Heath remained disenchanted with Thatcher to the end of his life, for what he and many of his supporters perceived as her disloyalty in standing against him.^[51]

Thatcher began to attend lunches regularly at the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA), a think tank founded by the poultry magnate Antony Fisher, a disciple of Friedrich von Hayek; she had been visiting the IEA and reading its publications since the early 1960s. There she was influenced by the ideas of Ralph Harris and Arthur Seldon, and she became the face of the ideological movement opposing the welfare state Keynesian economics they believed was weakening Britain. The institute's pamphlets proposed less government, lower taxes, and more freedom for business and consumers.^{[52][page needed]}

The television critic Clive James, writing in The Observer during the voting for the leadership, compared her voice of 1973 to a cat sliding down a blackboard.^{[nb 2]} Thatcher had already begun to work on her presentation on the advice of Gordon Reece, a former television producer. By chance Reece met the actor Laurence Olivier, who arranged lessons with the National Theatre's voice coach.^[53][54][55] Thatcher succeeded in completely suppressing her Lincolnshire dialect except when under stress, notably after provocation from Denis Healey in the House of Commons in April 1983, when she accused the Labour front bench of being frit.^{[56][nb 3]}

On 19 January 1976 Thatcher made a speech in Kensington Town Hall in which she made a scathing attack on the Soviet Union; in response, the Soviet Defence Ministry newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda (Red Star) called her the "Iron Lady":^[57]

The Russians are bent on world dominance, and they are rapidly acquiring the means to become the most powerful imperial nation the world has seen. The men in the Soviet Politburo do not have to worry about the ebb and flow of public opinion. They put guns before butter, while we put just about everything before guns.^[57]

In mid-1978, the economy began to improve and opinion polls showed Labour in the lead, with a general election being expected later that year and a Labour win a serious possibility. Prime Minister James Callaghan surprised many by announcing on 7 September that there would be no general election that year and he would wait until 1979 before going to the polls. Thatcher reacted to this by branding the Labour government as "chickens", and Liberal Party leader David Steel joined in, criticising Labour for "running scared".^[58]

The Labour government then faced fresh public unease about the direction of the country and a damaging series of strikes during the winter of 1978–79, dubbed the "Winter of Discontent". The Conservatives attacked the Labour government's unemployment record, using advertising with the slogan Labour Isn't Working. A general election was called after James Callaghan's government lost a motion of no confidence in early 1979. The Conservatives won a 44-seat majority in the House of Commons, and Margaret Thatcher became the UK's first female Prime Minister.

Prime Minister (1979–1990)[link]

Thatcher's Ministry meets with Reagan's Cabinet at the White House, 1981

Thatcher became Prime Minister on 4 May 1979. Arriving at 10 Downing Street, she said, in a paraphrase of the "Prayer of Saint Francis":

Where there is discord, may we bring harmony. Where there is error, may we bring truth. Where there is doubt, may we bring faith. And where there is despair, may we bring hope.

Domestic affairs[link]

Thatcher was Leader of the Opposition and Prime Minister at a time of increased racial tension in Britain. Commenting on the local elections of May 1977, The Economist noted "The Tory tide swamped the smaller parties. That specifically includes the National Front, which suffered a clear decline from last year".^[59][60] Her standing in the polls rose by 11 percent after a January 1978 interview for World in Action in which she said "the British character has done so much for democracy, for law and done so much throughout the world that if there is any fear that it might be swamped people are going to react and be rather hostile to those coming in."; and "in many ways [minorities] add to the richness and variety of this country. The moment the minority threatens to become a big one, people get frightened."^[61][62] In the 1979 General Election, the Conservatives attracted voters from the National Front, whose support almost collapsed.^[63][64] In a meeting in July 1979 with Lord Carrington (the Foreign Secretary) and William Whitelaw (Home Secretary) she objected to the number of Asian immigrants,^[65] in the context of limiting the number of Vietnamese boat people allowed to settle in the UK to fewer than 10,000.

As Prime Minister, Thatcher met weekly with Queen Elizabeth II to discuss government business, and their relationship came under close scrutiny.^[66][67] In July 1986 the Sunday Times reported claims attributed to the Queen's advisers of a "rift" between Buckingham Palace and Downing Street "over a wide range of domestic and international issues".^[68][69] The Palace issued an official denial, heading off speculation about a possible constitutional crisis.^[69] After Thatcher's retirement a senior Palace source again dismissed as "nonsense" the "stereotyped idea" that she had not got along with the Queen, or that they had fallen out over Thatcherite policies.^[70] Thatcher later wrote: "I always found the Queen's attitude towards the work of the Government absolutely correct ... stories of clashes between 'two powerful women' were just too good not to make up."^[71]

During her time in office Thatcher practised great frugality in her official residence, including insisting on paying for her own ironing-board.^[72]

Economy and taxation[link]

Thatcher's economic policy was influenced by monetarist thinking and economists such as Milton Friedman.^[73] Together with Chancellor of the Exchequer Geoffrey Howe, she lowered direct taxes on income and increased indirect taxes.^[74] She increased interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply and thereby lower inflation,^[73] introduced cash limits on public spending, and reduced expenditure on social services such as education and housing.^[74] Her cuts in higher education spending resulted in her being the first Oxford-educated post-war Prime Minister not to be awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Oxford, after a 738 to 319 vote of the governing assembly and a student petition.^[75] Her new centrally-funded City Technology Colleges did not enjoy much success, and the Funding Agency for Schools was set up to control expenditure by opening and closing schools; the Social Market Foundation, a right-wing think tank, described it as having "an extraordinary range of dictatorial powers".^[76]

Some Heathite Conservatives in the Cabinet, the so-called "wets", expressed doubt over Thatcher's policies.^[79] The 1981 riots in England resulted in the British media discussing the need for a policy U-turn. At the 1980 Conservative Party conference, Thatcher addressed the issue directly, with a speech written by the playwright Ronald Millar^[80] that included the lines: "You turn if you want to. The lady's not for turning!"^[79]

Thatcher's job approval rating fell to 23% by December 1980, lower than recorded for any previous Prime Minister.^[81] As the recession of the early 1980s deepened she increased taxes,^[82] despite concerns expressed in a statement signed by 364 leading economists issued towards the end of March 1981.^[83]

By 1982 the UK began to experience signs of economic recovery;^[84] inflation was down to 8.6% from a high of 18%, but unemployment was over 3 million for the first time since the 1930s.^[85] By 1983 overall economic growth was stronger and inflation and mortgage rates were at their lowest levels since 1970, although manufacturing output had dropped by 30% since 1978^[86] and unemployment remained high, peaking at 3.3 million in 1984.^[87]

By 1987, unemployment was falling, the economy was stable and strong, and inflation was low. Opinion polls showed a comfortable Conservative lead, and local council election results had also been successful, prompting Thatcher to call a general election for 11 June that year, despite the deadline for an election still being 12 months away. The election saw Thatcher re-elected for a third successive term.^[88]

Throughout the 1980s revenue from the 90% tax on North Sea oil extraction was used as a short-term funding source to balance the economy and pay the costs of reform.^[89]

Thatcher reformed local government taxes by replacing domestic rates—a tax based on the nominal rental value of a home—with the Community Charge (or poll tax) in which the same amount was charged to each adult resident.^[90] The new tax was introduced in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales the following year,^[91] and proved to be among the most unpopular policies of her premiership.^[90] Public disquiet culminated in a 70,000-strong demonstration in London on 31 March 1990; the demonstration around Trafalgar Square deteriorated into the Poll Tax Riots, leaving 113 people injured and 340 under arrest.^[92] The Community Charge was abolished by her successor, John Major.^[92]

Industrial relations[link]

Thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trade unions, whose leadership she accused of undermining parliamentary democracy and economic performance through strike action.^[93] Several unions launched strikes in response to legislation introduced to curb their power, but resistance eventually collapsed.^[94] Only 39% of union members voted for Labour in the 1983 general election.^[95] According to the BBC, Thatcher "managed to destroy the power of the trade unions for almost a generation".^[96]

The miners' strike was the biggest confrontation between the unions and the Thatcher government. In March 1984 the National Coal Board (NCB) proposed to close 20 of the 174 state-owned mines and cut 20,000 jobs out of 187,000.^[97][98][99] Two-thirds of the country's miners, led by the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) under Arthur Scargill, downed tools in protest.^{[97][100][101]} Thatcher refused to meet the union's demands and compared the miners' dispute to the Falklands conflict two years earlier, declaring in a speech in 1984: "We had to fight the enemy without in the Falklands. We always have to be aware of the enemy within, which is much more difficult to fight and more dangerous to liberty."^[102] After a year out on strike, in March 1985, the NUM leadership conceded without a deal. The cost to the economy was estimated to be at least £1.5 billion, and the strike was blamed for much of the pound's fall against the US dollar.^[103] The government closed 25 unprofitable coal mines in 1985, and by 1992 a total of 97 had been closed;^[99] those that remained were privatised in 1994.^[104] The eventual closure of 150 coal mines, not all of which were losing money, resulted in the loss of tens of thousands of jobs and devastated entire communities.^[99][105] Miners had helped bring down the Heath government, and Thatcher was determined to succeed where he had failed. Her strategy of preparing fuel stocks, appointing a union-busting NCB leader in Ian MacGregor, and ensuring police were adequately trained and equipped with riot gear, contributed to her victory.^[106]

The number of stoppages across the UK peaked at 4583 in 1979, when more than 29 million working days were lost. In 1984, the year of the miners' strike, there were 1221, resulting in the loss of more than 27 million working days. Stoppages then fell steadily throughout the rest of Thatcher's premiership; in 1990 there were 630 and fewer than 2 million working days lost, and they continued to fall thereafter.^[107] Trade union membership also fell, from 13.5 million in 1979 to fewer than 10 million by the time Thatcher left office in 1990.^[108]

Privatisation[link]

Thatcher on a visit to the University of Salford, 1982

The policy of privatisation has been called "a crucial ingredient of Thatcherism".^[109] After the 1983 election the sale of state utilities accelerated;^[110] more than £29 billion was raised from the sale of nationalised industries, and another £18 billion from the sale of council houses.^[111]

The process of privatisation, especially the preparation of nationalised industries for privatisation, was associated with marked improvements in performance, particularly in terms of labour productivity.^[112] Some of the privatised industries including gas, water, and electricity, were natural monopolies for which privatisation involved little increase in competition. The privatised industries that demonstrated improvement often did so while still under state ownership. British Steel, for instance, made great gains in profitability while still a nationalised industry under the government-appointed chairmanship of Ian MacGregor, who faced down trade-union opposition to close plants and reduce the workforce by half.^[113] Regulation was also significantly expanded to compensate for the loss of direct government control, with the foundation of regulatory bodies like Ofgas, Oftel and the National Rivers Authority.^[114] There was no clear pattern to the degree of competition, regulation, and performance among the privatised industries;^[112] in most cases privatisation benefitted consumers in terms of lower prices and improved efficiency, but the results overall were "mixed".^[115]

Thatcher always resisted rail privatisation, and was said to have told Transport Secretary Nicholas Ridley "Railway privatisation will be the Waterloo of this government. Please never mention the railways to me again." Shortly before her resignation, she accepted the arguments for privatising British Rail, which her successor John Major implemented in 1994.^[116] The Economist later considered the move to have been "a disaster".^[115]

The privatisation of public assets was combined with financial deregulation in an attempt to fuel economic growth. Geoffrey Howe abolished Britain's exchange controls in 1979, allowing more capital to be invested in foreign markets, and the Big Bang of 1986 removed many restrictions on the London Stock Exchange. The Thatcher government encouraged growth in the finance and service sectors to compensate for Britain's ailing manufacturing industry.

Northern Ireland[link]

In 1980 and 1981, Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) prisoners in Northern Ireland's Maze Prison carried out hunger strikes in an effort to regain the status of political prisoners that had been removed in 1976 under the preceding Labour government.^[117] Bobby Sands began the 1981 strike, saying that he would fast until death unless prison inmates won concessions over their living conditions.^[117] Thatcher refused to countenance a return to political status for the prisoners, declaring "Crime is crime is crime; it is not political",^[117] but nevertheless the UK government privately contacted republican leaders in a bid to bring the hunger strikes to an end.^[118] After the deaths of Sands and nine others, some rights were restored to paramilitary prisoners, but not official recognition of their political status.^[119] Violence in Northern Ireland escalated significantly during the hunger strikes; in 1982 Sinn Féin politician Danny Morrison described Thatcher as "the biggest bastard we have ever known".^[120]