Casablanca is a 1942 American romantic drama film directed by Michael Curtiz, starring Humphrey Bogart, Ingrid Bergman and Paul Henreid, and featuring Claude Rains, Conrad Veidt, Sydney Greenstreet, Peter Lorre and Dooley Wilson. Set during World War II, it focuses on a man torn between, in the words of one character, love and virtue. He must choose between his love for a woman and helping her and her Czech Resistance leader husband escape from the Vichy-controlled Moroccan city of Casablanca to continue his fight against the Nazis.
Although it was an A-list film, with established stars and first-rate writers—Julius J. Epstein, Philip G. Epstein and Howard Koch received credit for the screenplay—no one involved with its production expected Casablanca to be anything out of the ordinary;[1] it was just one of hundreds of pictures produced by Hollywood every year. The film was a solid, if unspectacular, success in its initial run, rushed into release to take advantage of the publicity from the Allied invasion of North Africa a few weeks earlier.[2] Despite a changing assortment of screenwriters frantically adapting an unstaged play and barely keeping ahead of production, and Bogart attempting his first romantic lead role, Casablanca won three Academy Awards, including Best Picture. Its characters, dialogue, and music have become iconic, and the film has grown in popularity to the point that it now consistently ranks near the top of lists of the greatest films of all time.
Rick Blaine (Humphrey Bogart) is a cynical American expatriate living in Casablanca in early December 1941. His upscale nightclub and gambling den, "Rick's Café Américain", attracts a mixed clientele: Vichy French, Italian, and Nazi officials; refugees desperately seeking to reach the United States, as yet uninvolved in the war; and those who prey on them. Although Rick professes to be neutral in all matters, it is later revealed he ran guns to Ethiopia to combat the 1935 Italian invasion and fought on the Loyalist side in the Spanish Civil War.
From left to right: Henreid, Bergman, Rains and Bogart
Petty crook Signor Ugarte (Peter Lorre) shows up and boasts to Rick of "letters of transit" he obtained through the murder of two German couriers. The papers allow the bearer to travel freely around German-controlled Europe and to neutral Portugal. The letters are almost priceless to the continual stream of refugees who end up stranded in Casablanca. Ugarte plans to sell them to the highest bidder at the club later that night. Before the exchange can take place, however, Ugarte is arrested by the local police under the command of Vichy Captain Louis Renault (Claude Rains), a self-confessed corrupt official. Ugarte dies in custody without revealing that he had entrusted the letters to Rick.
At this point, the reason for Rick's bitterness re-enters his life. His ex-lover, Norwegian Ilsa Lund (Ingrid Bergman), walks into his establishment. Upon spotting Rick's friend and house pianist, Sam (Dooley Wilson), Ilsa asks him to play "As Time Goes By". When Rick storms over, furious that Sam has disobeyed his order never to perform that song, he is shocked to see Ilsa. She is accompanied by her husband, Victor Laszlo (Paul Henreid), a renowned fugitive Czech Resistance leader who has escaped from a Nazi concentration camp. They need the letters to leave for America, where he can continue his work. German Major Strasser (Conrad Veidt) arrives in Casablanca to see to it that Laszlo does not succeed.
When Laszlo makes inquiries, Signor Ferrari (Sydney Greenstreet), a major underworld figure and Rick's friendly business rival, divulges his suspicion that Rick has the letters. In a private meeting, Rick refuses to sell at any price, telling Laszlo to ask his wife for the reason. They are interrupted when Strasser leads a group of officers in singing "Die Wacht am Rhein". Laszlo orders the house band to play "La Marseillaise". When the band looks to Rick for guidance, he nods his head. Laszlo starts singing, alone at first, then patriotic fervor grips the crowd and everyone joins in, drowning out the Germans. In retaliation, Strasser has Renault close the club.
That night, Ilsa confronts Rick in the deserted café. When he refuses to give her the letters, she threatens him with a gun, but then confesses that she still loves him. She explains that when they first met and fell in love in Paris, she believed that her husband had been killed attempting to escape from the concentration camp. Later, while preparing to flee with Rick from the imminent fall of the city to the German army, she learned that Laszlo was in fact alive and in hiding. She left Rick without explanation to tend to her ill husband.
With the revelation, the lovers are reconciled. Rick agrees to help, leading her to believe that she will stay behind with him when Laszlo leaves. When Laszlo unexpectedly shows up, having narrowly escaped a police raid on a Resistance meeting, Rick has waiter Carl (S. K. Sakall) spirit Ilsa away.
Laszlo reveals he is aware of Rick's love for Ilsa and tries to persuade him to use the letters to take her to safety. When the police arrest Laszlo on a minor, trumped-up charge, Rick convinces Renault to release him by promising to set him up for a much more serious crime: possession of the letters of transit. To allay Renault's suspicions, Rick explains he and Ilsa will be leaving for America.
When Renault tries to arrest Laszlo as arranged, Rick forces him at gunpoint to assist in their escape. At the last moment, Rick makes Ilsa board the plane to Lisbon with her husband, telling her she would regret it if she stayed, "Maybe not today, maybe not tomorrow, but soon and for the rest of your life."
Major Strasser, tipped off by Renault, drives up alone. Rick shoots Strasser when he tries to intervene. When his men arrive, Renault pauses, then tells them to "round up the usual suspects." Once they are alone, Renault suggests to Rick that they join the Free French at Brazzaville as they walk away into the fog.
Greenstreet (left) and Bogart
The play's cast consisted of 16 speaking parts and several extras; the film script enlarged it to 22 speaking parts and hundreds of extras.[3] The cast is notable for its internationalism: only three of the credited actors were born in the U.S. The top-billed actors were:
- Humphrey Bogart as Rick Blaine. Earlier in his career, he had been typecast as a gangster. High Sierra (1941) had allowed him to play a character with some warmth, but Rick was his first truly romantic role.
- Ingrid Bergman as Ilsa Lund. Bergman's official website calls Ilsa her "most famous and enduring role".[4] The Swedish actress's Hollywood debut in Intermezzo had been well received, but her subsequent films were not major successes—until Casablanca. Film critic Roger Ebert calls her "luminous", and comments on the chemistry between her and Bogart: "she paints his face with her eyes". Other actresses considered for the role of Ilsa included Ann Sheridan, Hedy Lamarr and Michèle Morgan. Wallis obtained the services of Bergman, who was contracted to David O. Selznick, by lending Olivia de Havilland in exchange.[6]
- Paul Henreid as Victor Laszlo. Henreid, an Austrian actor who emigrated in 1935, was reluctant to take the role (it "set [him] as a stiff forever", according to Pauline Kael[7]), until he was promised top billing along with Bogart and Bergman. Henreid did not get on well with his fellow actors; he considered Bogart "a mediocre actor", while Bergman called Henreid a "prima donna".[8]
The second-billed actors were:
Also credited were:
- Curt Bois as the pickpocket. Bois was a German Jewish actor and another refugee. He had one of the longest careers in film, making his first appearance in 1907 and his last in 1987.
- Leonid Kinskey as Sascha, the Russian bartender infatuated with Yvonne. He was actually born in Russia.
- Madeleine LeBeau as Yvonne, Rick's soon-discarded girlfriend. The French actress was Marcel Dalio's wife until their divorce in 1942.
- Joy Page as Annina Brandel, the young Bulgarian refugee. The third credited American, she was studio head Jack Warner's stepdaughter.
- John Qualen as Berger, Laszlo's Resistance contact. He was born in Canada, but grew up in America. He appeared in many of John Ford's movies.
- S. Z. Sakall (credited as S. K. Sakall) as Carl, the waiter. He was a Hungarian actor who fled from Germany in 1939. His three sisters later died in a concentration camp.
- Dooley Wilson as Sam. He was one of the few American members of the cast. A drummer, he could not play the piano. Hal Wallis had considered changing Sam to a female character (Hazel Scott and Ella Fitzgerald were candidates), and even after shooting had been completed, Wallis considered dubbing over Wilson's voice for the songs.[9][10]
Notable uncredited actors were:
- Leon Belasco as a dealer in Rick's Cafe. A Russian-American character actor, he appeared in 13 films the year Casablanca was released.[11]
- Marcel Dalio as Emil the croupier. He had been a star in French cinema, appearing in Jean Renoir's La Grande Illusion and La Regle de Jeu, but after he fled the fall of France, he was reduced to bit parts in Hollywood. He had a key role in another of Bogart's films, To Have and Have Not.
- Helmut Dantine as Jan Brandel, the Bulgarian roulette player married to Annina Brandel. Another Austrian, he had spent time in a concentration camp after the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria.
- William Edmunds as a contact man at Rick's. He usually played characters with heavy accents, such as Martini in It's a Wonderful Life (1946).
- Gregory Gaye as the German banker who is refused entry to the casino by Rick. Gaye was a Russian-born actor who went to the United States in 1917 after the Russian Revolution.
- Torben Meyer as the Dutch banker who runs "the second largest banking house in Amsterdam". Meyer was a Danish actor.
- George London sings the Marseillaise. London was a Los Angeles born bass-baritone opera singer.
- Georges Renavent as Conspirator.
- Dan Seymour as Abdul the doorman. He was an American actor who, at 265 pounds, often played villains, including the principal one in To Have and Have Not, and one of the secondary ones in Key Largo, both opposite Bogart.
- Norma Varden as the Englishwoman whose husband has his wallet stolen. She was a famous English character actress.
- Jean Del Val as the French police radio announcer who (following the opening montage sequence) reports the news of the murder of the two German couriers.
- Leo White as the waiter Emile (not to be confused with the croupier Emil), from whom Renault orders a drink when he sits down with the Laszlos. White was a familiar face in many Charlie Chaplin two-reelers in the 1910s, usually playing an upper-class antagonist.
- Jack Benny may have had an unbilled cameo role (claimed by a contemporary newspaper advertisement[12] and reportedly in the Casablanca press book[13]). When asked in his column "Movie Answer Man", critic Roger Ebert first replied, "It looks something like him. That's all I can say."[13] In response to a follow-up question in his next column, he stated, "I think you're right."[14]
Part of the emotional impact of the film has been attributed to the large proportion of European exiles and refugees among the extras and in the minor roles. A witness to the filming of the "duel of the anthems" sequence said he saw many of the actors crying and "realized that they were all real refugees".[15] Harmetz argues that they "brought to a dozen small roles in Casablanca an understanding and a desperation that could never have come from Central Casting".[16] The German citizens among them nevertheless had to keep curfew as enemy aliens. Ironically, they were frequently cast as the Nazis from whom they had fled.
Some of the exiled actors were:
- Louis V. Arco as another refugee in Rick's. Born Lutz Altschul in Austria, he moved to America shortly after the Anschluss and changed his name.
- Trude Berliner as a baccarat player in Rick's. Born in Berlin, she was a famous cabaret performer and film actress. Being Jewish, she left Germany in 1933.
- Ilka Grünig as Mrs. Leuchtag. Born in Vienna, she was a silent movie star in Germany who came to America after the Anschluss.
- Lotte Palfi as the refugee trying to sell her diamonds. Born in Germany, she played stage roles at a prestigious theater in Darmstadt, Germany. She journeyed to America after the Nazis came to power in 1933. She later married another Casablanca actor, Wolfgang Zilzer.
- Richard Ryen as Strasser's aide, Captain Heinze. The Austrian Jew acted in German films, but fled the Nazis.
- Ludwig Stössel as Mr. Leuchtag, the German refugee whose English is "not so good". Born in Austria, the Jewish actor was imprisoned following the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria. When he was released, he left for England and then America. Stössel became famous for doing a long series of commercials for Italian Swiss Colony wine producers. Dressed in an Alpine hat and lederhosen, Stössel was their spokesman with the slogan, "That Little Old Winemaker, Me!"
- Hans Twardowski as a Nazi officer who argues with a French officer over Yvonne. He was born in Stettin, Germany (now Szczecin, Poland).
- Wolfgang Zilzer as a Free French agent who is shot in the opening scene of the movie, was a silent movie actor in Germany who left when the Nazis took over. He later married Casablanca actress Lotte Palfi.
The film was based on Murray Burnett and Joan Alison's then-unproduced play Everybody Comes to Rick's.[17] The Warner Bros. story analyst who read the play, Stephen Karnot, called it (approvingly) "sophisticated hokum",[18] and story editor Irene Diamond convinced producer Hal Wallis to buy the rights in January 1942 for $20,000,[19] the most anyone in Hollywood had ever paid for an unproduced play.[20] The project was renamed Casablanca, apparently in imitation of the 1938 hit Algiers.[21] Although an initial filming date was selected for April 10, 1942, delays led to a start of production on May 25.[22] Filming was completed on August 3, and the production cost $1,039,000 ($75,000 over budget),[23] above average for the time.[24] The film was shot in sequence, mainly because only the first half of the script was ready when filming began.[25]
The entire picture was shot in the studio, except for the sequence showing Major Strasser's arrival, which was filmed at Van Nuys Airport, and a few short clips of stock footage views of Paris.[26] The street used for the exterior shots had recently been built for another film, The Desert Song,[27] and redressed for the Paris flashbacks. It remained on the Warners backlot until the 1960s. The set for Rick's was built in three unconnected parts, so the internal layout of the building is indeterminate. In a number of scenes, the camera looks through a wall from the cafe area into Rick's office. The background of the final scene, which shows a Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior airplane with personnel walking around it, was staged using midget extras and a proportionate cardboard plane.[28] Fog was used to mask the model's unconvincing appearance.[29] Nevertheless, the Disney's Hollywood Studios theme park in Orlando, Florida purchased a Lockheed 12A for its Great Movie Ride attraction, and initially claimed that it was the actual plane used in the film.[30] Film critic Roger Ebert called Hal Wallis the "key creative force" for his attention to the details of production (down to insisting on a real parrot in the Blue Parrot bar).
The difference between Bergman's and Bogart's height caused some problems. She was some two inches (5 cm) taller than Bogart, and claimed Curtiz had Bogart stand on blocks or sit on cushions in their scenes together.[31]
Later, there were plans for a further scene, showing Rick, Renault and a detachment of Free French soldiers on a ship, to incorporate the Allies' 1942 invasion of North Africa; however, it proved too difficult to get Claude Rains for the shoot, and the scene was finally abandoned after David O. Selznick judged "it would be a terrible mistake to change the ending."[32]
The original play was inspired by a trip to Europe made by Murray Burnett in 1938, during which he visited Vienna shortly after the Anschluss, where he saw discrimination by Nazis first-hand. In the south of France, he came across a nightclub, which had a multinational clientele and the prototype of Sam, the black piano player.[33][34] In the play, the Ilsa character was an American named Lois Meredith and did not meet Laszlo until after her relationship with Rick in Paris had ended; Rick was a lawyer. To make Rick's motivation more believable, Wallis, Curtiz, and the screenwriters decided to set the film before the attack on Pearl Harbor.[35]
The first writers assigned to the script were the Epstein twins, Julius and Philip who, against the wishes of Warner Brothers, left the project after the attack on Pearl Harbor to work with Frank Capra on the Why We Fight series in Washington, D.C..[36] While they were gone, the other credited writer, Howard Koch was assigned to the script and produced some thirty to forty pages.[36] When the Epstein brothers returned after a month, they were reassigned to Casablanca and—contrary to what Koch claimed in two published books—his work was not used.[36] In the final Warner Brothers budget for the film, the Epsteins were paid $30,416 and Koch $4,200.[37]
The uncredited Casey Robinson assisted with three weeks of rewrites, including contributing the series of meetings between Rick and Ilsa in the cafe.[38][39] Koch highlighted the political and melodramatic elements,[40][41] while Curtiz seems to have favored the romantic parts, insisting on retaining the Paris flashbacks.[42] Wallis wrote the final line ("Louie, I think this is the beginning of a beautiful friendship.") after shooting had been completed. Bogart had to be called in a month after the end of filming to dub it.[42] Despite the many writers, the film has what Ebert describes as a "wonderfully unified and consistent" script. Koch later claimed it was the tension between his own approach and Curtiz's which accounted for this: "Surprisingly, these disparate approaches somehow meshed, and perhaps it was partly this tug of war between Curtiz and me that gave the film a certain balance."[43] Julius Epstein would later note the screenplay contained "more corn than in the states of Kansas and Iowa combined. But when corn works, there's nothing better."[44]
The film ran into some trouble from Joseph Breen of the Production Code Administration (the Hollywood self-censorship body), who opposed the suggestions that Captain Renault extorted sexual favors from his supplicants, and that Rick and Ilsa had slept together in Paris.[45] Extensive changes were made, with several lines of dialogue removed and/or altered, and all direct references to sex in the film removed. Additionally, when Sam played "As Time Goes By" in the original script, Rick had remarked "What the —— are you playing?"[46] This line implying a curse word was removed at the behest of the Hays Office, and both Renault's selling of visas for sex, and Rick and Ilsa's previous sexual relationship were implied elliptically rather than referenced explicitly.[47]
Wallis' first choice for director was William Wyler, but he was unavailable, so Wallis turned to his close friend Michael Curtiz.[48] Curtiz was a Hungarian Jewish émigré; he had come to the U.S. in the 1920s, but some of his family were refugees from Nazi Europe. Roger Ebert has commented that in Casablanca "very few shots... are memorable as shots," Curtiz being concerned to use images to tell the story rather than for their own sake. However, he had relatively little input into the development of the plot: Casey Robinson said Curtiz "knew nothing whatever about story...he saw it in pictures, and you supplied the stories." Critic Andrew Sarris called the film "the most decisive exception to the auteur theory",[50] of which Sarris was the most prominent proponent in the United States, to which Aljean Harmetz responded, "nearly every Warner Bros. picture was an exception to the auteur theory".[48] Other critics give more credit to Curtiz; Sidney Rosenzweig, in his study of the director's work, sees the film as a typical example of Curtiz's highlighting of moral dilemmas.[51]
The second unit montages, such as the opening sequence of the refugee trail and that showing the invasion of France, were directed by Don Siegel.[52]
The cinematographer was Arthur Edeson, a veteran who had previously shot The Maltese Falcon and Frankenstein. Particular attention was paid to photographing Bergman. She was shot mainly from her preferred left side, often with a softening gauze filter and with catch lights to make her eyes sparkle; the whole effect was designed to make her face seem "ineffably sad and tender and nostalgic". Bars of shadow across the characters and in the background variously imply imprisonment, the crucifix, the symbol of the Free French Forces and emotional turmoil. Dark film noir and expressionist lighting is used in several scenes, particularly towards the end of the picture. Rosenzweig argues these shadow and lighting effects are classic elements of the Curtiz style, along with the fluid camera work and the use of the environment as a framing device.[53]
The music was written by Max Steiner, who was best known for the score for Gone with the Wind. The song "As Time Goes By" by Herman Hupfeld had been part of the story from the original play; Steiner wanted to write his own composition to replace it, but Bergman had already cut her hair short for her next role (María in For Whom the Bell Tolls) and could not re-shoot the scenes which incorporated the song,[54] so Steiner based the entire score on it and "La Marseillaise", the French national anthem, transforming them to reflect changing moods.[55]
Particularly notable is the "duel of the songs" between Strasser and Laszlo at Rick's cafe. In the soundtrack, "La Marseillaise" is played by a full orchestra. Originally, the opposing piece for this iconic sequence was to be the "Horst Wessel Lied", a Nazi anthem, but this was still under international copyright in non-Allied countries. Instead "Die Wacht am Rhein" was used. The opening bars of the "Deutschlandlied", the national anthem of Germany, is featured throughout the score as a motif to represent the Germans, much as "La Marseillaise" is used to represent the Allies.
Other songs in the film include "It Had to Be You" from 1924 (music by Isham Jones, lyrics by Gus Kahn), "Shine" from 1910 (music by Ford Dabney, lyrics by Cecil Mack and Lew Brown), "Avalon" from 1920 (music and lyrics by Al Jolson, Buddy DeSylva and Vincent Rose), "Perfidia" by Alberto Dominguez, "The Very Thought of You" by Ray Noble, and "Knock on Wood" (music by M.K. Jerome, lyrics by Jack Scholl), the only original song in the film.
Although an initial release date was anticipated for spring 1943,[56] the film premiered at the Hollywood Theater in New York City on November 26, 1942, to coincide with the Allied invasion of North Africa and the capture of Casablanca.[2][57] In the 1,500-seat theater, the film grossed $255,000 over ten weeks.[58] It went into general release on January 23, 1943, to take advantage of the Casablanca conference, a high-level meeting between Churchill and Roosevelt in the city. It was a substantial but not spectacular box-office success, taking $3.7 million on its initial U.S. release, making it the seventh best-selling film of 1943.[58][59] The Office of War Information prevented screening of the film to troops in North Africa, believing it would cause resentment among Vichy supporters in the region.[60]
Casablanca received "consistently good reviews".[61] Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote, "The Warners... have a picture which makes the spine tingle and the heart take a leap." The newspaper applauded the combination of "sentiment, humor and pathos with taut melodrama and bristling intrigue". While he noted its "devious convolutions of the plot", he praised the screenplay quality as "of the best" and the cast's performances as "all of the first order".[62]
The trade paper Variety commended the film's "combination of fine performances, engrossing story and neat direction" and the "variety of moods, action, suspense, comedy and drama that makes Casablanca an A-1 entry at the b.o". The paper applauded the performances of Bergman and Henreid and analyzed Bogart's own: "Bogart, as might be expected, is more at ease as the bitter and cynical operator of a joint than as a lover, but handles both assignments with superb finesse." Variety wrote of the film's real-world impact, "Film is splendid anti-Axis propaganda, particularly inasmuch as the propaganda is strictly a by-product of the principal action and contributes to it instead of getting in the way."[63]
Some other reviews were less enthusiastic: The New Yorker rated it only "pretty tolerable".[64]
The film has grown in popularity. Murray Burnett called it "true yesterday, true today, true tomorrow".[65] By 1955, the film had brought in $6.8 million, making it only the third most successful of Warners' wartime movies (behind Shine On, Harvest Moon and This is the Army).[66] On April 21, 1957, the Brattle Theater of Cambridge, Massachusetts, showed the film as part of a season of old movies. It was so popular that it began a tradition of screening Casablanca during the week of final exams at Harvard University which continues to the present day, and is emulated by many colleges across the United States. Todd Gitlin, a professor of sociology who himself attended one of these screenings, had said that the experience was, "the acting out of my own personal rite of passage".[67] The tradition helped the movie remain popular while other famous films of the 1940s have faded away, and by 1977, Casablanca was the most frequently broadcast film on American television.[68]
On the film's 50th anniversary, the Los Angeles Times called Casablanca's great strength "the purity of its Golden Age Hollywoodness [and] the enduring craftsmanship of its resonantly hokey dialogue". The newspaper believed the film achieved a "near-perfect entertainment balance" of comedy, romance, and suspense.[69]
According to Roger Ebert, Casablanca is "probably on more lists of the greatest films of all time than any other single title, including Citizen Kane" because of its wider appeal. Ebert opined that Citizen Kane is generally considered to be a "greater" film but Casablanca is more loved. Ebert said that he has never heard of a negative review of the film, even though individual elements can be criticized, citing unrealistic special effects and the stiff character/portrayal of Laszlo. Rudy Behlmer emphasized the variety in the picture: "it's a blend of drama, melodrama, comedy [and] intrigue".
Ebert has said that the film is popular because "the people in it are all so good" and that it is "a wonderful gem". As the Resistance hero, Laszlo is ostensibly the most noble, although he is so stiff that he is hard to like. The other characters, in Behlmer's words, are "not cut and dried": they come into their goodness in the course of the film. Renault begins the film as a collaborator with the Nazis, who extorts sexual favors from refugees and has Ugarte killed. Rick, according to Behlmer, is "not a hero,... not a bad guy": he does what is necessary to get along with the authorities and "sticks his neck out for nobody". Even Ilsa, the least active of the main characters, is "caught in the emotional struggle" over which man she really loves. By the end of the film, however, "everybody is sacrificing."
There are a few dissenting reviewers. According to Pauline Kael, "It's far from a great film, but it has a special appealingly schlocky romanticism..."[70] Umberto Eco wrote that "by any strict critical standards... Casablanca is a very mediocre film." He viewed the changes the characters undergo as inconsistent rather than complex: "It is a comic strip, a hotch-potch, low on psychological credibility, and with little continuity in its dramatic effects."[71]
There is anecdotal evidence that Casablanca may have made a deeper impression among film-lovers than within the professional movie-making establishment. In the November/December 1982 issue of American Film, Chuck Ross claimed that he retyped the screenplay to Casablanca, only changing the title back to Everybody Comes to Rick's and the name of the piano player to Dooley Wilson, and submitted it to 217 agencies. Eighty-five of them read it; of those, thirty-eight rejected it outright, thirty-three generally recognized it (but only eight specifically as Casablanca), three declared it commercially viable, and one suggested turning it into a novel.[72]
Hugh Hefner cited it as part of his motivation to open up the Playboy Club.[73]
Many subsequent films have drawn on elements of Casablanca. Passage to Marseille reunited Bogart, Rains, Curtiz, Greenstreet and Lorre in 1944, while there are many similarities between Casablanca and two later Bogart films, To Have and Have Not (1944) and Sirocco (1951). Parodies have included the Marx Brothers' A Night in Casablanca (1946), Neil Simon's The Cheap Detective (1978), Barb Wire (1996), and Out Cold (2001), while it provided the title for the 1995 hit The Usual Suspects. Woody Allen's Play It Again, Sam (1972) appropriated Bogart's Casablanca persona as the fantasy mentor for Allen's nebbishy character, featuring actor Jerry Lacy in the role of Bogart.
Casablanca itself was a plot device in the science-fiction television movie Overdrawn at the Memory Bank (1983), based on John Varley's story, and made a similar, though much less pivotal, appearance in Terry Gilliam's dystopian Brazil (1985). Warner Bros. produced its own parody of the film in the homage Carrotblanca, a 1995 Bugs Bunny cartoon.[74] In Casablanca, a novella by Argentine writer Edgar Brau, the protagonist somehow wanders into Rick's Café Americain and listens to a strange tale related by Sam.[75]
Casablanca has been subjected to many different readings. Semioticians account for the film's popularity by claiming that its inclusion of a whole series of stereotypes paradoxically strengthens the film.[76][77][78][79] Umberto Eco explained:
Thus
Casablanca is not just one film. It is many films, an anthology. [...] When all the archetypes burst in shamelessly, we reach
Homeric depths. Two clichés make us laugh. A hundred clichés move us. For we sense dimly that the clichés are talking among themselves, and celebrating a reunion.
[80][81]
Eco also singled out sacrifice as one of the film's key themes: "the myth of sacrifice runs through the whole film."[82] It was this theme which resonated with a wartime audience that was reassured by the idea that painful sacrifice and going off to war could be romantic gestures done for the greater good.[83]
Koch also considered the film a political allegory. Rick was compared to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who gambled "on the odds of going to war until circumstance and his own submerged nobility force him to close his casino (partisan politics) and commit himself—first by financing the Side of Right and then by fighting for it."[84] The similarity was reinforced by the film's title, as it was compared to its English equivalent: White House.[84]
William Donelley, in his Love and Death in Casablanca, argues that Rick's relationship with Sam, and subsequently with Renault, is, "a standard case of the repressed homosexuality that underlies most American adventure stories".[85] Harvey Greenberg presents a Freudian reading in his The Movies on Your Mind, in which the transgressions which prevent Rick from returning to the U.S. constitute an Oedipus complex, which is resolved only when Rick begins to identify with the father figure of Laszlo and the cause which he represents.[86] Sidney Rosenzweig argues that such readings are reductive, and that the most important aspect of the film is its ambiguity, above all in the central character of Rick; he cites the different names which each character gives Rick (Richard, Ricky, Mr Rick, Herr Blaine and so on) as evidence of the different meanings which he has for each person.[87]
Because of its November 1942 release, the New York Film Critics decided to include the film in its 1942 award season for best picture. Casablanca lost to In Which We Serve.[58] However, the Academy stated that since the film went into national release in the beginning of 1943, it would be included in that year's nominations.[88] Casablanca was nominated for eight Academy Awards, and won three. When the award for Best Picture was announced producer Hal B. Wallis got up to accept, only to find Jack Warner had rushed onstage to take the trophy. Wallis later recalled, "I had no alternative but to sit down again, humiliated and furious. ... Almost forty years later, I still haven't recovered from the shock."[89] This incident would lead Wallis to leave Warner Bros. in April.[90]
In 1989, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". In 2005, it was named one of the 100 greatest films of the last 80 years by Time.com (the selected films were not ranked). The famed teacher of screenwriting, Robert McKee, maintains that the script is "the greatest screenplay of all time".[6] In 2006, the Writers Guild of America, west agreed, voting it the best ever in its list of the 101 greatest screenplays.[91] The film has been selected by the American Film Institute for many of their lists.
Casablanca was initially released on Betamax and VHS by Magnetic Video and later by CBS/Fox Video (as United Artists owned the rights at the time). It was next released on laserdisc in 1991, and on VHS in 1992—both from MGM/UA Home Entertainment (distributing for Turner Entertainment), which at the time was distributed by Warner Home Video. It was first released on DVD in 1997 by MGM, containing the trailer and a making-of featurette (Warner Home Video reissued the DVD in 2000). A subsequent two-disc special edition, containing audio commentaries, documentaries, and a newly remastered visual and audio presentation, was released in 2003.[92]
An HD DVD was released on November 14, 2006, containing the same special features as the 2003 DVD.[93] Reviewers were impressed with the new high-definition transfer of the film.[94][95]
A Blu-ray release with new special features came out on December 2, 2008; it is also available on DVD.[96] The Blu-ray was initially only released as an expensive gift set with a booklet, a luggage tag and other assorted gift-type items. It was eventually released as a stand-alone Blu-ray in September 2009. Warner Bros put the film into moratorium in 2011 for an eventual re-release in 2012.[97] On March 27, 2012, Warner released a new 70th Anniversary Ultimate Collector's Edition Blu-ray/DVD combo set. It includes a brand-new 4K restoration and new bonus material.[98][99]
Almost from the moment Casablanca became a hit, talk began of producing a sequel. One titled Brazzaville (in the final scene, Renault recommends fleeing to that Free French-held city) was planned, but never produced.[100] Since then, no studio has seriously considered filming a sequel or outright remake. François Truffaut refused an invitation to remake the film in 1974, citing its cult status among American students as his reason.[101] Attempts to recapture the magic of Casablanca in other settings, such as Caboblanco (1980), "a South American-set retooling of Casablanca",[102] and Havana (1990),[103] have been poorly received.
The novel As Time Goes By, written by Michael Walsh and published in 1998, was authorized by Warner.[104][105] The novel picks up where the film leaves off, and also tells of Rick's mysterious past in America. The book met with little success.[106] David Thomson provided an unofficial sequel in his 1985 novel Suspects.
There have been two short-lived television series based upon Casablanca, both considered prequels. The first aired from 1955 to 1956, with Charles McGraw as Rick and Marcel Dalio, who played Emil the croupier in the movie, as Renault; it aired on ABC as part of the wheel series Warner Bros. Presents.[107] It produced a total of ten hour-long episodes. Another, briefly broadcast on NBC in 1983, starred David Soul as Rick, Ray Liotta as Sacha, and Scatman Crothers as a somewhat elderly Sam.[108] A total of five hour-long episodes were produced.
There were several radio adaptations of the film. The two best-known were a thirty-minute adaptation on The Screen Guild Theater on April 26, 1943, starring Bogart, Bergman, and Henreid, and an hour-long version on the Lux Radio Theater on January 24, 1944, featuring Alan Ladd as Rick, Hedy Lamarr as Ilsa, and John Loder as Victor Laszlo. Two other thirty-minute adaptations were aired: on Philip Morris Playhouse on September 3, 1943, and on Theater of Romance on December 19, 1944, in which Dooley Wilson reprised his role as Sam.
Julius Epstein made two attempts to turn the film into a Broadway musical, in 1951 and 1967, but neither made it to the stage.[109] The original play, Everybody Comes to Rick's, was produced in Newport, Rhode Island, in August 1946, and again in London in April 1991, but met with no success.[110] The film was adapted into a musical by the Takarazuka Revue, an all-female Japanese musical theater company, and ran from November 2009 through February 2010.[111]
Casablanca was part of the film colorization controversy of the 1980s,[112] when a colorized version aired on the television station WTBS. In 1984, MGM-UA hired Color Systems Technology to colorize the film for $180,000.[113] When Ted Turner of Turner Entertainment purchased MGM-UA's film library two years later, he canceled the request, before contracting American Film Technologies (AFT) in 1988. AFT completed the colorization in two months at a cost of $450,000.[113] Turner later reacted to the criticism of the colorization, saying, "[Casablanca] is one of a handful of films that really doesn't have to be colorized. I did it because I wanted to. All I'm trying to do is protect my investment."[113]
The Library of Congress deemed that the color change differed so much from the original film that it gave a new copyright to Turner Entertainment. When the colorized film debuted on WTBS, it was watched by three million viewers, not making the top-ten viewed cable shows for the week. Although Jack Matthews of the Los Angeles Times called the finished product "state of the art", it was mostly met with negative critical reception.[113] It was briefly available on home video. Gary Edgerton, writing for the Journal of Popular Film & Television criticized the colorization, "... Casablanca in color ended up being much blander in appearance and, overall, much less visually interesting than its 1942 predecessor."[113] Bogart's son Stephen said, "if you're going to colorize Casablanca, why not put arms on the Venus de Milo?"[101]
Several rumors and misconceptions have grown up around the film, one being that Ronald Reagan was originally chosen to play Rick. This originates in a press release issued by the studio early on in the film's development, but by that time the studio already knew that he was due to go work for the army, and he was never seriously considered.[114] George Raft claimed that he had turned down the lead role. Studio records make clear, however, that Wallis was committed to Bogart from the start.[115]
Another well-known story is that the actors did not know until the last day of shooting how the film was to end. The original play (set entirely in the cafe) ended with Rick sending Ilsa and Victor to the airport. During scriptwriting, the possibility was discussed of Laszlo being killed in Casablanca, allowing Rick and Ilsa to leave together, but as Casey Robinson wrote to Hal Wallis before filming began, the ending of the film "set up for a swell twist when Rick sends her away on the plane with Victor. For now, in doing so, he is not just solving a love triangle. He is forcing the girl to live up to the idealism of her nature, forcing her to carry on with the work that in these days is far more important than the love of two little people."[116] It was certainly impossible for Ilsa to leave Laszlo for Rick, as the production code forbade showing a woman leaving her husband for another man. The concern was not whether Ilsa would leave with Laszlo, but how this result could be engineered.[117] The problem was solved when the Epstein brothers, Julius and Philip, were driving down Sunset Boulevard and stopped for the light at Beverly Glen. At that instant the identical twins turned to each other and simultaneously cried out, "Round up the usual suspects!"[118] By the time they had driven past Fairfax and the Cahuenga Pass and through the Warner Brothers studio's portals at Burbank, in the words of Julius Epstein, "the idea for the farewell scene between a tearful Bergman and a suddenly noble Bogart" had been formed and all the problems of the ending had been solved.[119]
The confusion was probably caused by Bergman's later statement that she did not know which man she was meant to be in love with. While rewrites did occur during the filming, Aljean Harmetz's examination of the scripts has shown that many of the key scenes were shot after Bergman knew how the film would end: any confusion was, in Ebert's words, "emotional", not "factual".
The film has several logical flaws, the foremost being the two "letters of transit" which enable their bearers to leave Vichy French territory. According to the 
audio (help·info), Ugarte says the letters had been signed by (depending on the listener) either Free French General Charles de Gaulle or Vichy General Maxime Weygand. The English subtitles on the official DVD read de Gaulle, while the French subtitles specify Weygand. Weygand had been the Vichy Delegate-General for the North African colonies until a month before the film is set (and a year after it was written). De Gaulle was the head of the Free French government in exile. A Vichy court martial had convicted de Gaulle of treason in absentia and sentenced him to life imprisonment on August 2, 1940, so a letter signed by him would have been of no benefit.[23] A classic MacGuffin, the letters were invented by Joan Allison for the original play and never questioned.[120] Even in the film, Rick suggests to Renault that the letters would not have allowed Ilsa to escape, let alone Laszlo: "People have been held in Casablanca in spite of their legal rights."
In the same vein, though Laszlo asserts that the Nazis cannot arrest him as "This is still unoccupied France; any violation of neutrality would reflect on Captain Renault," Ebert points out that "It makes no sense that he could walk around freely....He would be arrested on sight." Harmetz, however, suggests that Strasser intentionally allows Laszlo to move about, hoping that he will tell them the names of Resistance leaders in occupied Europe in exchange for Ilsa being allowed to leave for Lisbon.
Other mistakes include the wrong version of the flag for French Morocco and the fact no uniformed German troops ever set foot in Casablanca during the Second World War.[23]
According to Harmetz, in reality few of the refugees depicted would actually have gone to Casablanca.[121] The usual route out of Germany was through Vienna, Prague, Paris, and London, although the film's technical advisor, Robert Aisner, did follow the path to Morocco given in Casablanca's opening scene.
One of the lines most closely associated with the film — "Play it again, Sam" — is a misquotation.[122][123] When Ilsa first enters the Café Americain, she spots Sam and asks him to "Play it once, Sam, for old times' sake." After he feigns ignorance, she responds, "Play it, Sam. Play 'As Time Goes By'." Later that night, alone with Sam, Rick says, "You played it for her, you can play it for me," and "If she can stand it, I can! Play it!"
Rick's toast to Ilsa, "Here's looking at you, kid", used several times, is not in the draft screenplays, but has been attributed to something Bogart said to Bergman as he taught her poker between takes.[124] It was voted the 5th most memorable line in cinema in AFI's 100 Years…100 Movie Quotes by the American Film Institute.[125]
Six lines from Casablanca appeared in the AFI list, the most of any film (Gone with the Wind and The Wizard of Oz tied for second with three apiece). The other five are:
- "Louie, I think this is the beginning of a beautiful friendship" – 20th
- "Play it, Sam. Play 'As Time Goes By'" – 28th
- "Round up the usual suspects" – 32nd
- "We'll always have Paris" – 43rd
- "Of all the gin joints in all the towns in all the world, she walks into mine" – 67th
- ^ Ebert, Roger (September 15, 1996). "Casablanca (1942)". Chicago Sun-Times. http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19960915/REVIEWS08/401010308/1023. Retrieved 2010-03-18.
- ^ a b ""Howard Koch, Julius Epstein, Frank Miller Interview" May, 1995 By Eliot Stein of "STEIN ONLINE" on COMPUSERVE". vincasa.com. May 1995. http://www.vincasa.com/indexkoch.html. Retrieved 2008-06-11. Frank Miller: "There was a scene planned, after the ending, that would have shown Rick and Renault on an Allied ship just prior to the landing at CASABLANCA but plans to shoot it were scrapped when the marketing department realized they had to get the film out fast to capitalize on the liberation of North Africa."
- ^ Francisco 1980, p. 119
- ^ "From quintessential "good girl" to Hollywood heavyweight". The Family of Ingrid Bergman. http://www.ingridbergman.com/about/bio2.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-03.
- ^ a b Harmetz 1992, pp. 88–89,92,95
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 99
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 97
- ^ Harmetz 1992, pp. 139–140, 260
- ^ Behlmer 1985, p. 214
- ^ "Leon Belasco as a Dealer". mcgady.net. http://mcgady.net/Casab/evenmore/even_more_minor_characters.html. Retrieved 13 September 2010.
- ^ e.g. "Special Contest / Find Jack Benny in "Casablanca"". The Evening Independent. February 4, 1943. http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&dat=19430204&id=PwlQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=DFUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5175,4021701.
- ^ a b Roger Ebert (December 9, 2009). "Movie Answer Man". Chicago Sun-Times. http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20091209/ANSWERMAN/912099991. Retrieved January 8, 2010.
- ^ Roger Ebert (December 23, 2009). "Movie Answer Man". Chicago Sun-Times. http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20091223/ANSWERMAN/912239981. Retrieved January 8, 2010.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 213
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 214
- ^ Behlmer 1985, p. 194
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 17
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 19
- ^ Francisco 1980, p. 33
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 30
- ^ Francisco 1980, p. 136
- ^ a b c Robertson, James C. (1993). The Casablanca Man: The Cinema of Michael Curtiz. London: Routledge. p. 79. ISBN 0-415-06804-5.
- ^ Behlmer 1985, p. 208
- ^ Francisco 1980, pp. 141–142
- ^ Francisco 1980, p. 139
- ^ Behlmer 1985, pp. 214–215
- ^ Casablanca-You Must Remember This...A Tribute to Casablanca (Blu-ray Disc). Warner Home Video. February 2, 2010. Event occurs at 21:09.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 237
- ^ "The Plane Truth". Snopes. August 21, 2007. http://www.snopes.com/disney/parks/casablanca.asp. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 170
- ^ Harmetz 1992, pp. 280–281
- ^ Harmetz 1992, pp. 53–54
- ^ Casablanca-You Must Remember This...A Tribute to Casablanca (Blu-ray Disc). Warner Home Video. February 2, 2010. Event occurs at 4:36.
- ^ Francisco 1980, p. 121
- ^ a b c McGilligan 1986, pp. 185
- ^ Behlmer 1985, p. 209
- ^ Merlock, Ray (Winter 2000). "Casablanca". Journal of Popular Film & Television 27 (4): 2.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, pp. 175,179
- ^ Harmetz 1992, pp. 56–59
- ^ Francisco 1980, pp. 154–155
- ^ a b Casablanca-You Must Remember This...A Tribute to Casablanca (Blu-ray Disc). Warner Home Video. February 2, 2010. Event occurs at 29:57.
- ^ Sorel, Edward (December 1991). "Casablanca". American Heritage magazine. http://www.americanheritage.com/content/casablanca. Retrieved November 15, 2011.
- ^ "Casablanca writer dies". BBC News. January 2, 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1097005.stm. Retrieved 2010-03-18.
- ^ "Censored Films and Television at University of Virginia online". .lib.virginia.edu. http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/exhibits/censored/film.html. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
- ^ Gardner 1988, p. 4
- ^ Gardner 1988, pp. 2–4
- ^ a b Harmetz 1992, p. 75
- ^ Sarris, Andrew (1968). The American Cinema: Directors and Directions 1929–1968 (New York: Dutton), p.176.
- ^ Rosenzweig, Sidney (1982). Casablanca and Other Major Films of Michael Curtiz. Ann Arbor, Mich: UMI Research Press. pp. 158–159. ISBN 0-8357-1304-0.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 264
- ^ Rosenzweig, pp.6–7
- ^ "As Time Goes By" enjoyed a resurgence after the release of Casablanca, spending 21 weeks on the hit parade.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, pp. 253–258
- ^ Francisco 1980, p. 184
- ^ Francisco 1980, pp. 188–189
- ^ a b c Francisco 1980, p. 192
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 12
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 286
- ^ Stanley, John (April 5, 1992). "'Casablanca' Celebrates Its 50th". San Francisco Chronicle.
- ^ Crowther, Bosley (November 27, 1942). "'Casablanca', with Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman, at Hollywood". The New York Times: p. 27.
- ^ "Film reviews through the years: Casablanca". Variety. December 2, 1942. http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=variety100&content=jump&jump=review&reviewID=VE1117487980&category=1935. Retrieved January 1, 2009.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, pp. 12–13
- ^ Interviewed in Casablanca 50th Anniversary Special: You Must Remember This (Turner: 1992)
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 283
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 343
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 346
- ^ Strauss, Bob (April 10, 1992). "Still the best: Casablanca loses no luster over time". Los Angeles Times.
- ^ Pauline Kael. "Casablanca". geocities.com. Archived from the original on 2009-10-26. http://www.webcitation.org/5knvV3A24. Retrieved 2009-01-05.
- ^ Eco, Umberto (1985). "Casablanca, or the Clichés are Having a Ball". In Blonsky, Marshal. On Signs. JHU Press. pp. 35-38. ISBN 0-8018-3007-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=DRd1DZ-5MX0C&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Zinman, David (April 10, 1983). The Magazine (Sunday supplement to The Province newspaper), p. 12
- ^ "http://www.nbc.com/the-playboy-club/video/hef-on-the-history-of-the-clubs/1347658/". Nbc.com. 2010-08-05. http://www.nbc.com/the-playboy-club/video/hef-on-the-history-of-the-clubs/1347658/. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
- ^ Casablanca-You Must Remember This...A Tribute to Casablanca (Blu-ray Disc). Warner Home Video. February 2, 2010. Event occurs at 31:56.
- ^ Michael Dirda (January 7, 2007). "For the first time in English, the Argentine labyrinths of Edgar Brau.". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/05/AR2007010500168.html.
- ^ Casablanca and the Paradoxical Truth of Stereotyping by James F. Pontuso in Political Philosophy Comes to Rick's: Casablanca and American Civic Culture by James F. Pontuso. Lexington Books, 2005. ISBN 0-7391-1113-2, ISBN 978-0-7391-1113-0
- ^ Archetypes: What You Need to Know About Them by Henry P. Raleigh in Art Times, April 2003
- ^ "We'll Always Have Casablanca" by Lance Morrow in Time, 27 December 1982
- ^ "Influence and Intertextuality in Literary History" by Jay Clayton and Eric Rothstein, University of Wisconsin Press, 1991. ISBN 0-299-13034-7, ISBN 978-0-299-13034-3
- ^ Umberto Eco, Travels in Hyperreality (1986)
- ^ Eco, Umberto. "Casablanca, or, The Clichés are Having a Ball". http://www.themodernword.com/eco/eco_casablanca.html. Retrieved May 20, 2009.
- ^ Eco, Umberto (1994). Signs of Life in the USA: Readings on Popular Culture for Writers (Sonia Maasik and Jack Solomon, eds.) Bedford Books.
- ^ Gabbard, Krin; Gabbard, Glen O. (1990). "Play it again, Sigmund: Psychoanalysis and the classical Hollywood text." Journal of Popular Film & Television vol. 18 no. 1 p. 6–17 ISSN 0195-6051
- ^ a b Koch 1973, p. 166
- ^ Donnelly, William (1968). "Love and Death in Casablanca" Persistence of Vision: A Collection of Film Criticisms, ed. Joseph McBride. Madison: Wisconsin Fim Society Press, pp. 103–7 quoted in Rosenzweig, p.78 and Harmetz, p. 347
- ^ Greenberg, Harvey (1975). The Movies on Your Mind New York: Saturday Review Press, p. 88 quoted in Rosenzweig, p. 79 and Harmetz, p. 348
- ^ Rosenzweig, p. 81
- ^ Francisco 1980, p. 195
- ^ Ronald Haver. "Casablanca: The Unexpected Classic". The Criterion Collection Online Cinematheque. http://www.criterion.com/current/posts/791. Retrieved January 8, 2010.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, pp. 321–324
- ^ "101 Greatest Sceenplays". Writers Guild of America, west. http://www.wga.org/subpage_newsevents.aspx?id=1807. Retrieved 2007-08-03.
- ^ "Casablanca: Two-Disc Special Edition". http://www.amazon.com/dp/B00009W0WM.
- ^ "Casablanca [HD-DVD] (1943)". http://www.amazon.com/dp/B000I0RR7Q.
- ^ "Casablanca — Humphrey Bogart". http://www.dvdbeaver.com/film2/DVDReviews27/casablanca.htm.
- ^ "HD DVD Review: Casablanca". http://hddvd.highdefdigest.com/casablanca.html.
- ^ "WHV Press Release: Casablanca Ultimate Collector's Edition (DVD/Blu-ray) – Home Theater". http://www.hometheaterforum.com/forum/thread/275515/whv-press-release-casablanca-ultimate-collector-s-edition-dvd-blu-ray.
- ^ "Casablanca, Lethal Weapon Blu-ray to Be Pulled from Shelves". http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=5904.
- ^ "Casablanca (70th Anniversary Limited Collector's Edition Blu-ray/DVD Combo)". http://www.amazon.com/Casablanca-Anniversary-Limited-Collectors-Edition/dp/B006BG7RI0/ref=sr_1_2?s=movies-tv&ie=UTF8&qid=1335405184&sr=1-2. Retrieved 2012-04-25.
- ^ Katz, Josh (25 April 2012). "Casablanca: 70th Anniversary Ultimate Collector's Edition Blu-ray (Updated)". blu-ray.com. http://www.blu-ray.com/news/?id=8054. Retrieved 2012-04-25.
- ^ Francisco 1980, p. 204
- ^ a b Harmetz 1992, p. 342
- ^ Yoram Allon, Hannah Patterson, Contemporary British & Irish Directors, Wallflower Press, 2001, p.332
- ^ Stephen Hunter (December 14, 1990). "We'll always have 'Casablanca'--so why see 'Havana'?". The Baltimore Sun. http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1990-12-14/entertainment/1990348013_1_robert-redford-havana-redford-plays.
- ^ "Borders.com presents Michael Walsh, Author of "As Time Goes By"". LiveWorld, Inc. January 8, 1999. Archived from the original on October 28, 2002. http://web.archive.org/web/20021028174808/http://www.liveworld.com/transcripts/borders/1-08-1999.1-1.html. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
- ^ Walsh, Michael (1998). "How Did I Write "As Time Goes By"?". Hachette Book Group USA. Archived from the original on 2008-05-13. http://web.archive.org/web/20080513160840/http://www.hachettebookgroupusa.com/authorslounge/articles/1999/april/article7805.html. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
- ^ Lawless, Jill (May 31, 2006). "'Mrs. Robinson' Returns in Sequel". CBS News. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071012203236/http://cbsnews.com/stories/2006/05/31/ap/entertainment/mainD8HUTL900.shtml. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
- ^ "Casablanca (1955)". Internet Movie Database Inc. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0047719/. Retrieved 2007-08-06.
- ^ "Casablanca (1983)". Internet Movie Database Inc. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0084994/. Retrieved 2007-08-06.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 338
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 331
- ^ "『カサブランカ』". Takarazuka Revue Company. http://kageki.hankyu.co.jp/casablanca/. Retrieved 2009-10-03.
- ^ Krauthammer, Charles (January 12, 1987). "Casablanca In Color?". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,963207,00.html. Retrieved 2007-08-06.
- ^ a b c d e Edgerton, Gary R. (Winter 2000). "The Germans Wore Gray, You Wore Blue". Journal of Popular Film & Television 27 (4): 24.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 74
- ^ Sklar, Robert (1992). City Boys: Cagney, Bogart, Garfield. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 135. ISBN 0-691-04795-2.
- ^ Behlmer 1985, pp. 206–207
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 229
- ^ Epstein 1994, pp. 32–33
- ^ Epstein 1994, pp. 33–35
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 55
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 208
- ^ Fred R. Shapiro (January 15, 2010). "Movie Misquotations". The New York Times Magazine. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/17/magazine/17FOB-onlanguage-t.html.
- ^ Ben Child (11 May 2009). "Darth Vader line is the daddy of film misquotes, finds poll". guardian.co.uk. http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2009/may/11/star-wars-movie-misquotes-poll.
- ^ Harmetz 1992, p. 187
- ^ "AFI's 100 Years…100 Movie Quotes". American Film Institute. http://www.afi.com/100years/quotes.aspx. Retrieved November 15, 2011.
- Behlmer, Rudy (1985). Inside Warner Bros. (1935–1951). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-79242-3.
- Casablanca (Two-Disc Special Edition DVD) (2003) (with audio commentaries by Roger Ebert and Rudy Behlmer and documentary Casablanca 50th Anniversary Special: You Must Remember This, narrated by Lauren Bacall).
- Epstein, Julius J. (1994). Casablanca. Imprenta Glorias: Fifty Copies Conceived and Illustrated by Gloria Naylor.
- Francisco, Charles (1980). You Must Remember This: The Filming of Casablanca. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-977058-5.
- Gardner, Gerald (1988). The Censorship Papers: Movie Censorship Letters from the Hays Office, 1934 to 1968. New York: Dodd Mead. ISBN 0-396-08903-8.
- Harmetz, Aljean (1992). Round Up the Usual Suspects: The Making of Casablanca — Bogart, Bergman, and World War II. Hyperion. ISBN 1-56282-761-8.
- Koch, Howard (1973). Casablanca: Script and Legend. The Overlook Press. ISBN 0-87951-006-4.
- Lebo, Harlan (1992). Casablanca: Behind the Scenes. Fireside. ISBN 0-671-76981-2.
- McGilligan, Pat (1986). Backstory: Interviews with Screenwriters of Hollywood's Golden Age. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05666-3.
- Miller, Frank (1992). Casablanca – As Times Goes By: 50th Anniversary Commemorative. Turner Publishing Inc. ISBN 1-878685-14-7.
- Robertson, James C. (1993). The Casablanca Man: The Cinema of Michael Curtiz London:Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06804-5
- Rosenzweig, Sidney (1982). Casablanca and Other Major Films of Michael Curtiz. Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press. ISBN 0-8357-1304-0
Media related to Casablanca (film) at Wikimedia Commons 
Quotations related to Casablanca (film) at Wikiquote
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