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A bank is a financial institution and a financial intermediary that accepts deposits and channels those deposits into lending activities, either directly or through capital markets. A bank connects customers that have capital deficits to customers with capital surpluses.^{[citation needed]}

Due to their critical status within the financial system and the economy^{[citation needed]} generally, banks are highly regulated in most countries. Most banks operate under a system known as fractional reserve banking where they hold only a small reserve of the funds deposited and lend out the rest for profit. They are generally subject to minimum capital requirements which are based on an international set of capital standards, known as the Basel Accords.

The oldest bank still in existence is Monte dei Paschi di Siena, headquartered in Siena, Italy, which has been operating continuously since 1472.^[1]

History[link]

Personal Finance
Credit and debit
Pawnbroker Student loan
Employment contract
Salary Wage Employee stock option Employee benefit Direct deposit
Retirement
Pension Defined benefit Defined contribution Social security Business plan Corporate action
Personal budget
Financial planner Financial adviser Financial independence Estate planning
See also
Banks and credit unions Cooperatives
v t e

Banking in the modern sense of the word can be traced to medieval and early Renaissance Italy, to the rich cities in the north like Florence, Venice and Genoa. The Bardi and Peruzzi families dominated banking in 14th century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe.^[2] Perhaps the most famous Italian bank was the Medici bank, set up by Giovanni Medici in 1397.^[3] The earliest known state deposit bank, Banco di San Giorgio (Bank of St. George), was founded in 1407 at Genoa, Italy.^[4]

Origin of the word[link]

The word bank was borrowed in Middle English from Middle French banque, from Old Italian banca, from Old High German banc, bank "bench, counter". Benches were used as desks or exchange counters during the Renaissance by Florentine bankers, who used to make their transactions atop desks covered by green tablecloths.^[5]

One of the oldest items found showing money-changing activity is a silver Greek drachm coin from ancient Hellenic colony Trapezus on the Black Sea, modern Trabzon, c. 350–325 BC, presented in the British Museum in London. The coin shows a banker's table (trapeza) laden with coins, a pun on the name of the city. In fact, even today in Modern Greek the word Trapeza (Τράπεζα) means both a table and a bank.

Another possible origin of the word is from the Sanskrit words (ब्यय) 'byaya' (expense) and 'onka' (calculation) = byaya-onka. This word still survives in Bangla, which is one of the Sanskrit's child languages. ব্যায় + অঙ্ক = ব্যাঙ্ক . Such expense calculations were the biggest part of mathmetical treaties written by Indian mathmeticians as early as 500 B.C.

Definition[link]

The definition of a bank varies from country to country. See the relevant country page (below) for more information.

Under English common law, a banker is defined as a person who carries on the business of banking, which is specified as:^[6]

• conducting current accounts for his customers
• paying cheques drawn on him, and
• collecting cheques for his customers.

Banco de Venezuela in Coro.

In most common law jurisdictions there is a Bills of Exchange Act that codifies the law in relation to negotiable instruments, including cheques, and this Act contains a statutory definition of the term banker: banker includes a body of persons, whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business of banking' (Section 2, Interpretation). Although this definition seems circular, it is actually functional, because it ensures that the legal basis for bank transactions such as cheques does not depend on how the bank is organized or regulated.

The business of banking is in many English common law countries not defined by statute but by common law, the definition above. In other English common law jurisdictions there are statutory definitions of the business of banking or banking business. When looking at these definitions it is important to keep in mind that they are defining the business of banking for the purposes of the legislation, and not necessarily in general. In particular, most of the definitions are from legislation that has the purposes of entry regulating and supervising banks rather than regulating the actual business of banking. However, in many cases the statutory definition closely mirrors the common law one. Examples of statutory definitions:

• "banking business" means the business of receiving money on current or deposit account, paying and collecting cheques drawn by or paid in by customers, the making of advances to customers, and includes such other business as the Authority may prescribe for the purposes of this Act; (Banking Act (Singapore), Section 2, Interpretation).

• "banking business" means the business of either or both of the following:

1. receiving from the general public money on current, deposit, savings or other similar account repayable on demand or within less than [3 months] ... or with a period of call or notice of less than that period;
2. paying or collecting checks drawn by or paid in by customers^[7]

Since the advent of EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale), direct credit, direct debit and internet banking, the cheque has lost its primacy in most banking systems as a payment instrument. This has led legal theorists to suggest that the cheque based definition should be broadened to include financial institutions that conduct current accounts for customers and enable customers to pay and be paid by third parties, even if they do not pay and collect checks.^[8]

Banking[link]

Standard activities[link]

Large door to an old bank vault.

Banks act as payment agents by conducting checking or current accounts for customers, paying checks drawn by customers on the bank, and collecting checks deposited to customers' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as Automated Clearing House (ACH), Wire transfers or telegraphic transfer, EFTPOS, and automated teller machine (ATM).

Banks borrow money by accepting funds deposited on current accounts, by accepting term deposits, and by issuing debt securities such as banknotes and bonds. Banks lend money by making advances to customers on current accounts, by making installment loans, and by investing in marketable debt securities and other forms of money lending.

Banks provide almost all payment services, and a bank account is considered indispensable by most businesses, individuals and governments. Non-banks that provide payment services such as remittance companies are not normally considered an adequate substitute for having a bank account.

Banks borrow most funds from households and non-financial businesses, and lend most funds to households and non-financial businesses, but non-bank lenders provide a significant and in many cases adequate substitute for bank loans, and money market funds, cash management trusts and other non-bank financial institutions in many cases provide an adequate substitute to banks for lending savings too.^{[clarification needed]}

Channels[link]

Banks offer many different channels to access their banking and other services:

• Automated Teller Machines
• A branch is a retail location
• Call center
• Mail: most banks accept cheque deposits via mail and use mail to communicate to their customers, e.g. by sending out statements
• Mobile banking is a method of using one's mobile phone to conduct banking transactions
• Online banking is a term used for performing transactions, payments etc. over the Internet
• Relationship Managers, mostly for private banking or business banking, often visiting customers at their homes or businesses
• Telephone banking is a service which allows its customers to perform transactions over the telephone with automated attendant or when requested with telephone operator
• Video banking is a term used for performing banking transactions or professional banking consultations via a remote video and audio connection. Video banking can be performed via purpose built banking transaction machines (similar to an Automated teller machine), or via a video conference enabled bank branch.clarification

Business model[link]

A bank can generate revenue in a variety of different ways including interest, transaction fees and financial advice. The main method is via charging interest on the capital it lends out to customers^{[citation needed]}. The bank profits from the difference between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities.

This difference is referred to as the spread between the cost of funds and the loan interest rate. Historically, profitability from lending activities has been cyclical and dependent on the needs and strengths of loan customers and the stage of the economic cycle. Fees and financial advice constitute a more stable revenue stream and banks have therefore placed more emphasis on these revenue lines to smooth their financial performance.

In the past 20 years American banks have taken many measures to ensure that they remain profitable while responding to increasingly changing market conditions. First, this includes the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, which allows banks again to merge with investment and insurance houses. Merging banking, investment, and insurance functions allows traditional banks to respond to increasing consumer demands for "one-stop shopping" by enabling cross-selling of products (which, the banks hope, will also increase profitability).

Second, they have expanded the use of risk-based pricing from business lending to consumer lending, which means charging higher interest rates to those customers that are considered to be a higher credit risk and thus increased chance of default on loans. This helps to offset the losses from bad loans, lowers the price of loans to those who have better credit histories, and offers credit products to high risk customers who would otherwise be denied credit.

Third, they have sought to increase the methods of payment processing available to the general public and business clients. These products include debit cards, prepaid cards, smart cards, and credit cards. They make it easier for consumers to conveniently make transactions and smooth their consumption over time (in some countries with underdeveloped financial systems, it is still common to deal strictly in cash, including carrying suitcases filled with cash to purchase a home).

However, with convenience of easy credit, there is also increased risk that consumers will mismanage their financial resources and accumulate excessive debt. Banks make money from card products through interest payments and fees charged to consumers and transaction fees to companies that accept the credit- debit - cards. This helps in making profit and facilitates economic development as a whole.^[9]

Products[link]

A former building society, now a modern retail bank in Leeds, West Yorkshire.

An interior of a branch of National Westminster Bank on Castle Street, Liverpool

Retail banking[link]

• Checking account
• Savings account
• Money market account
• Certificate of deposit (CD)
• Individual retirement account (IRA)
• Credit card
• Debit card
• Mortgage
• Home equity loan
• Mutual fund
• Personal loan
• Time deposits

Business (or commercial/investment) banking[link]

• Business loan
• Capital raising (Equity / Debt / Hybrids)
• Mezzanine finance
• Project finance
• Revolving credit
• Risk management (FX, interest rates, commodities, derivatives)
• Term loan
• Cash Management Services (Lock box, Remote Deposit Capture, Merchant Processing)

Risk and capital[link]

Banks face a number of risks in order to conduct their business, and how well these risks are managed and understood is a key driver behind profitability, and how much capital a bank is required to hold. Some of the main risks faced by banks include:

• Credit risk: risk of loss^{[citation needed]} arising from a borrower who does not make payments as promised.
• Liquidity risk: risk that a given security or asset cannot be traded quickly enough in the market to prevent a loss (or make the required profit).
• Market risk: risk that the value of a portfolio, either an investment portfolio or a trading portfolio, will decrease due to the change in value of the market risk factors.
• Operational risk: risk arising from execution of a company's business functions.
• Reputational risk: a type of risk related to the trustworthiness of business.
• Macroeconomic risk: risks related to the aggregate economy the bank is operating in.^[10]

The capital requirement is a bank regulation, which sets a framework on how banks and depository institutions must handle their capital. The categorization of assets and capital is highly standardized so that it can be risk weighted (see risk-weighted asset).

Banks in the economy[link]

Economic functions[link]

The economic functions of banks include:

1. Issue of money, in the form of banknotes and current accounts subject to check or payment at the customer's order. These claims on banks can act as money because they are negotiable or repayable on demand, and hence valued at par. They are effectively transferable by mere delivery, in the case of banknotes, or by drawing a check that the payee may bank or cash.
2. Netting and settlement of payments – banks act as both collection and paying agents for customers, participating in interbank clearing and settlement systems to collect, present, be presented with, and pay payment instruments. This enables banks to economize on reserves held for settlement of payments, since inward and outward payments offset each other. It also enables the offsetting of payment flows between geographical areas, reducing the cost of settlement between them.
3. Credit intermediation – banks borrow and lend back-to-back on their own account as middle men.
4. Credit quality improvement – banks lend money to ordinary commercial and personal borrowers (ordinary credit quality), but are high quality borrowers. The improvement comes from diversification of the bank's assets and capital which provides a buffer to absorb losses without defaulting on its obligations. However, banknotes and deposits are generally unsecured; if the bank gets into difficulty and pledges assets as security, to raise the funding it needs to continue to operate, this puts the note holders and depositors in an economically subordinated position.
5. Maturity transformation – banks borrow more on demand debt and short term debt, but provide more long term loans. In other words, they borrow short and lend long. With a stronger credit quality than most other borrowers, banks can do this by aggregating issues (e.g. accepting deposits and issuing banknotes) and redemptions (e.g. withdrawals and redemption of banknotes), maintaining reserves of cash, investing in marketable securities that can be readily converted to cash if needed, and raising replacement funding as needed from various sources (e.g. wholesale cash markets and securities markets).
6. Money creation – whenever a bank gives out a loan in a fractional-reserve banking system, a new sum of virtual money is created.

Bank crisis[link]

Banks are susceptible to many forms of risk which have triggered occasional systemic crises. These include liquidity risk (where many depositors may request withdrawals in excess of available funds), credit risk (the chance that those who owe money to the bank will not repay it), and interest rate risk (the possibility that the bank will become unprofitable, if rising interest rates force it to pay relatively more on its deposits than it receives on its loans).

Banking crises have developed many times throughout history, when one or more risks have materialized for a banking sector as a whole. Prominent examples include the bank run that occurred during the Great Depression, the U.S. Savings and Loan crisis in the 1980s and early 1990s, the Japanese banking crisis during the 1990s, and the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the 2000s.

Size of global banking industry[link]

Assets of the largest 1,000 banks in the world grew by 6.8% in the 2008/2009 financial year to a record $96.4 trillion while profits declined by 85% to $115bn. Growth in assets in adverse market conditions was largely a result of recapitalization. EU banks held the largest share of the total, 56% in 2008/2009, down from 61% in the previous year. Asian banks' share increased from 12% to 14% during the year, while the share of US banks increased from 11% to 13%. Fee revenue generated by global investment banking totaled $66.3bn in 2009, up 12% on the previous year.^[11]

The United States has the most banks in the world in terms of institutions (7,085 at the end of 2008) and possibly branches (82,000).^{[citation needed]} This is an indicator of the geography and regulatory structure of the USA, resulting in a large number of small to medium-sized institutions in its banking system. As of Nov 2009, China's top 4 banks have in excess of 67,000 branches (ICBC:18000+, BOC:12000+, CCB:13000+, ABC:24000+) with an additional 140 smaller banks with an undetermined number of branches. Japan had 129 banks and 12,000 branches. In 2004, Germany, France, and Italy each had more than 30,000 branches—more than double the 15,000 branches in the UK.^[11]

Regulation[link]

Currently commercial banks are regulated in most jurisdictions by government entities and require a special bank license to operate.

Usually the definition of the business of banking for the purposes of regulation is extended to include acceptance of deposits, even if they are not repayable to the customer's order—although money lending, by itself, is generally not included in the definition.

Unlike most other regulated industries, the regulator is typically also a participant in the market, being either a publicly or privately governed central bank. Central banks also typically have a monopoly on the business of issuing banknotes. However, in some countries this is not the case. In the UK, for example, the Financial Services Authority licenses banks, and some commercial banks (such as the Bank of Scotland) issue their own banknotes in addition to those issued by the Bank of England, the UK government's central bank.

Banking law is based on a contractual analysis of the relationship between the bank (defined above) and the customer—defined as any entity for which the bank agrees to conduct an account.

The law implies rights and obligations into this relationship as follows:

1. The bank account balance is the financial position between the bank and the customer: when the account is in credit, the bank owes the balance to the customer; when the account is overdrawn, the customer owes the balance to the bank.
2. The bank agrees to pay the customer's checks up to the amount standing to the credit of the customer's account, plus any agreed overdraft limit.
3. The bank may not pay from the customer's account without a mandate from the customer, e.g. a check drawn by the customer.
4. The bank agrees to promptly collect the checks deposited to the customer's account as the customer's agent, and to credit the proceeds to the customer's account.
5. The bank has a right to combine the customer's accounts, since each account is just an aspect of the same credit relationship.
6. The bank has a lien on checks deposited to the customer's account, to the extent that the customer is indebted to the bank.
7. The bank must not disclose details of transactions through the customer's account—unless the customer consents, there is a public duty to disclose, the bank's interests require it, or the law demands it.
8. The bank must not close a customer's account without reasonable notice, since checks are outstanding in the ordinary course of business for several days.

These implied contractual terms may be modified by express agreement between the customer and the bank. The statutes and regulations in force within a particular jurisdiction may also modify the above terms and/or create new rights, obligations or limitations relevant to the bank-customer relationship.

Some types of financial institution, such as building societies and credit unions, may be partly or wholly exempt from bank license requirements, and therefore regulated under separate rules.

The requirements for the issue of a bank license vary between jurisdictions but typically include:

1. Minimum capital
2. Minimum capital ratio
3. 'Fit and Proper' requirements for the bank's controllers, owners, directors, or senior officers
4. Approval of the bank's business plan as being sufficiently prudent and plausible.

Types of banks[link]

Banks' activities can be divided into retail banking, dealing directly with individuals and small businesses; business banking, providing services to mid-market business; corporate banking, directed at large business entities; private banking, providing wealth management services to high net worth individuals and families; and investment banking, relating to activities on the financial markets. Most banks are profit-making, private enterprises. However, some are owned by government, or are non-profit organizations.

Types of retail banks[link]

ATM Al-Rajhi Bank

• Commercial bank: the term used for a normal bank to distinguish it from an investment bank. After the Great Depression, the U.S. Congress required that banks only engage in banking activities, whereas investment banks were limited to capital market activities. Since the two no longer have to be under separate ownership, some use the term "commercial bank" to refer to a bank or a division of a bank that mostly deals with deposits and loans from corporations or large businesses.
• Community banks: locally operated financial institutions that empower employees to make local decisions to serve their customers and the partners.
• Community development banks: regulated banks that provide financial services and credit to under-served markets or populations.
• Credit unions: not-for-profit cooperatives owned by the depositors and often offering rates more favorable than for-profit banks. Typically, membership is restricted to employees of a particular company, residents of a defined neighborhood, members of a certain labor union or religious organizations, and their immediate families.
• Postal savings banks: savings banks associated with national postal systems.
• Private banks: banks that manage the assets of high net worth individuals. Historically a minimum of USD 1 million was required to open an account, however, over the last years many private banks have lowered their entry hurdles to USD 250,000 for private investors.^{[citation needed]}
• Offshore banks: banks located in jurisdictions with low taxation and regulation. Many offshore banks are essentially private banks.
• Savings bank: in Europe, savings banks took their roots in the 19th or sometimes even in the 18th century. Their original objective was to provide easily accessible savings products to all strata of the population. In some countries, savings banks were created on public initiative; in others, socially committed individuals created foundations to put in place the necessary infrastructure. Nowadays, European savings banks have kept their focus on retail banking: payments, savings products, credits and insurances for individuals or small and medium-sized enterprises. Apart from this retail focus, they also differ from commercial banks by their broadly decentralized distribution network, providing local and regional outreach—and by their socially responsible approach to business and society.
• Building societies and Landesbanks: institutions that conduct retail banking.
• Ethical banks: banks that prioritize the transparency of all operations and make only what they consider to be socially-responsible investments.
• A Direct or Internet-Only bank is a banking operation without any physical bank branches, conceived and implemented wholly with networked computers.

Types of investment banks[link]

• Investment banks "underwrite" (guarantee the sale of) stock and bond issues, trade for their own accounts, make markets, and advise corporations on capital market activities such as mergers and acquisitions.
• Merchant banks were traditionally banks which engaged in trade finance. The modern definition, however, refers to banks which provide capital to firms in the form of shares rather than loans. Unlike venture capital firms, they tend not to invest in new companies.

Both combined[link]

• Universal banks, more commonly known as financial services companies, engage in several of these activities. These big banks are very diversified groups that, among other services, also distribute insurance— hence the term bancassurance, a portmanteau word combining "banque or bank" and "assurance", signifying that both banking and insurance are provided by the same corporate entity.

Other types of banks[link]

• Central banks are normally government-owned and charged with quasi-regulatory responsibilities, such as supervising commercial banks, or controlling the cash interest rate. They generally provide liquidity to the banking system and act as the lender of last resort in event of a crisis.
• Islamic banks adhere to the concepts of Islamic law. This form of banking revolves around several well-established principles based on Islamic canons. All banking activities must avoid interest, a concept that is forbidden in Islam. Instead, the bank earns profit (markup) and fees on the financing facilities that it extends to customers.

Challenges within the banking industry[link]

The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (September 2009)

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

United States[link]

In the United States, the banking industry is a highly regulated industry with detailed and focused regulators. All banks with FDIC-insured deposits have the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as a regulator; however, for examinations,^{[clarification needed]} the Federal Reserve is the primary federal regulator for Fed-member state banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) is the primary federal regulator for national banks; and the Office of Thrift Supervision, or OTS, is the primary federal regulator for thrifts. State non-member banks are examined by the state agencies as well as the FDIC. National banks have one primary regulator—the OCC. Qualified Intermediaries & Exchange Accommodators are regulated by MAIC.

Each regulatory agency has their own set of rules and regulations to which banks and thrifts must adhere.

The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC) was established in 1979 as a formal inter-agency body empowered to prescribe uniform principles, standards, and report forms for the federal examination of financial institutions. Although the FFIEC has resulted in a greater degree of regulatory consistency between the agencies, the rules and regulations are constantly changing.

In addition to changing regulations, changes in the industry have led to consolidations within the Federal Reserve, FDIC, OTS, MAIC and OCC. Offices have been closed, supervisory regions have been merged, staff levels have been reduced and budgets have been cut. The remaining regulators face an increased burden with increased workload and more banks per regulator. While banks struggle to keep up with the changes in the regulatory environment, regulators struggle to manage their workload and effectively regulate their banks. The impact of these changes is that banks are receiving less hands-on assessment by the regulators, less time spent with each institution, and the potential for more problems slipping through the cracks, potentially resulting in an overall increase in bank failures across the United States.

The changing economic environment has a significant impact on banks and thrifts as they struggle to effectively manage their interest rate spread in the face of low rates on loans, rate competition for deposits and the general market changes, industry trends and economic fluctuations. It has been a challenge for banks to effectively set their growth strategies with the recent economic market. A rising interest rate environment may seem to help financial institutions, but the effect of the changes on consumers and businesses is not predictable and the challenge remains for banks to grow and effectively manage the spread to generate a return to their shareholders.

The management of the banks’ asset portfolios also remains a challenge in today’s economic environment. Loans are a bank’s primary asset category and when loan quality becomes suspect, the foundation of a bank is shaken to the core. While always an issue for banks, declining asset quality has become a big problem for financial institutions. There are several reasons for this, one of which is the lax attitude some banks have adopted because of the years of “good times.” The potential for this is exacerbated by the reduction in the regulatory oversight of banks and in some cases depth of management. Problems are more likely to go undetected, resulting in a significant impact on the bank when they are recognized. In addition, banks, like any business, struggle to cut costs and have consequently eliminated certain expenses, such as adequate employee training programs.

Banks also face a host of other challenges such as aging ownership groups. Across the country, many banks’ management teams and board of directors are aging. Banks also face ongoing pressure by shareholders, both public and private, to achieve earnings and growth projections. Regulators place added pressure on banks to manage the various categories of risk. Banking is also an extremely competitive industry. Competing in the financial services industry has become tougher with the entrance of such players as insurance agencies, credit unions, check cashing services, credit card companies, etc.

As a reaction, banks have developed their activities in financial instruments, through financial market operations such as brokerage and MAIC trust & Securities Clearing services trading and become big players in such activities.

Competition for loanable funds[link]

To be able to provide home buyers and builders with the funds needed, banks must compete for deposits. The phenomenon of disintermediation had to dollars moving from savings accounts and into direct market instruments such as U.S. Treasury obligations, agency securities, and corporate debt. One of the greatest factors in recent years in the movement of deposits was the tremendous growth of money market funds whose higher interest rates attracted consumer deposits.^[12]

To compete for deposits, US savings institutions offer many different types of plans:^[12]

• Passbook or ordinary deposit accounts — permit any amount to be added to or withdrawn from the account at any time.
• NOW and Super NOW accounts — function like checking accounts but earn interest. A minimum balance may be required on Super NOW accounts.
• Money market accounts — carry a monthly limit of preauthorized transfers to other accounts or persons and may require a minimum or average balance.
• Certificate accounts — subject to loss of some or all interest on withdrawals before maturity.
• Notice accounts — the equivalent of certificate accounts with an indefinite term. Savers agree to notify the institution a specified time before withdrawal.
• Individual retirement accounts (IRAs) and Keogh plans — a form of retirement savings in which the funds deposited and interest earned are exempt from income tax until after withdrawal.
• Checking accounts — offered by some institutions under definite restrictions.
• All withdrawals and deposits are completely the sole decision and responsibility of the account owner unless the parent or guardian is required to do otherwise for legal reasons.
• Club accounts and other savings accounts — designed to help people save regularly to meet certain goals.

Accounting for bank accounts[link]

Suburban bank branch

Bank statements are accounting records produced by banks under the various accounting standards of the world. Under GAAP and MAIC there are two kinds of accounts: debit and credit. Credit accounts are Revenue, Equity and Liabilities. Debit Accounts are Assets and Expenses. This means you credit a credit account to increase its balance, and you debit a credit account to decrease its balance.^[13]

This also means you credit your savings account every time you deposit money into it (and the account is normally in credit), while you debit your credit card account every time you spend money from it (and the account is normally in debit). However, if you read your bank statement, it will say the opposite—that you credit your account when you deposit money, and you debit it when you withdraw funds. If you have cash in your account, you have a positive (or credit) balance; if you are overdrawn, you have a negative (or deficit) balance.

Where bank transactions, balances, credits and debits are discussed below, they are done so from the viewpoint of the account holder—which is traditionally what most people are used to seeing.

Brokered deposits[link]

One source of deposits for banks is brokers who deposit large sums of money on the behalf of investors through MAIC or other trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favorable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or "hot money" as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the global financial crisis had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. MAIC Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits.^[14]

Globalization in the Banking Industry[link]

In modern time there has been huge reductions to the barriers of global competition in the banking industry. Increases in telecommunications and other financial technologies, such as Bloomberg, have allowed banks to extend their reach all over the world, since they no longer have to be near customers to manage both their finances and their risk. The growth in cross-border activities has also increased the demand for banks that can provide various services across borders to different nationalities. However, despite these reductions in barriers and growth in cross-border activities, the banking industry is nowhere near as globalized as some other industries. In the USA, for instance, very few banks even worry about the Riegle-Neal Act, which promotes more efficient interstate banking. In the vast majority of nations around globe the market share for foreign owned banks is currently less than a tenth of all market shares for banks in a particular nation. One reason the banking industry has not been fully globalized is that it is more convenient to have local banks provide loans to small business and individuals. On the other hand for large corporations, it is not as important in what nation the bank is in, since the corporation's financial information is available around the globe. A Study of Bank Nationality and reach

See also[link]

References[link]

• "Genoa and the history of finance: a series of firsts ?" Giuseppe Felloni, Guido Laura. 9 November 2004, ISBN 88-87822-16-6 (the book can be downloaded at www.giuseppefelloni.it)

Berger A. (2010). To What Extent Will the Banking Industry be Globalized? A Study of Bank Nationality and Reach in 20 European Nations.

External links[link]

Find more about Bank on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Source texts from Wikisource

• Guardian Datablog – World's Biggest Banks
• Banking, Banks, and Credit Unions from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• A Guide to the National Banking System (PDF). Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), Washington, D.C. Provides an overview of the national banking system of the USA, its regulation, and the OCC.

Azealia Banks
Banks performing at the NME Awards at the Brixton Academy in London in February 2012
Background information
Also known as	Miss Bank$
Born	May 31, 1991 (age 21)
Origin	Harlem, New York, United States
Genres	Hip hop, house, hip house, dirty rap, electronic
Occupations	Rapper, singer, lyricist
Years active	2009–present
Labels	XL (2009) Interscope (US) (2012–present) Polydor (UK) (2012–present)
Associated acts	Major Lazer Scissor Sisters
Website	azealiabanks.com

Azealia Amanda Banks (born May 31, 1991) is an American rapper, singer and lyricist from Harlem, New York signed to Interscope/Polydor, and formerly known under the pseudonym Miss Bank$. Banks rose in notability in 2011 when she topped NME's "Cool List" for the year. On December 5, 2011, the BBC announced that Banks had been nominated for the Sound of 2012, where she ultimately finished third.^[1] Her debut single, "212" featuring Lazy Jay, was released on December 6, 2011, charting in some European countries.

Biography[link]

1991–2009: Early life and career beginnings[link]

Banks was born in 1991. Her mother raised her and two older sisters in Harlem, after their father died when she was two years old. At a young age she became interested in musical theater, acting, and singing. Aged ten, she began performing in off-Broadway musicals with the Tada! Youth Theater in Lower Manhattan. She had lead roles in three productions (Rabbit Sense, Sleepover, and Heroes) in addition to performing as a soloist. Banks was trained in the performing arts at the LaGuardia High School of Performing Arts in Manhattan. At the age of sixteen, Banks starred in a production of the comedy-noir musical City of Angels. She never finished high school, instead choosing to follow her dream of becoming a recording artist.

Under the moniker 'Miss Bank$', she released her debut recording "Gimme A Chance" onto the internet in February 2009.^[2] The recording was accompanied by "Seventeen", a track produced by American DJ Diplo which sampled the Ladytron song of the same name.^[2] Later that year, Banks signed to record label XL Records and began working with producer Richard Russell; leaving the label later that year due to conflicting ideas.^[1][3]

[edit] 2010–present: Breakthrough and Broke with Expensive Taste

Following her departure from XL Recordings, Banks left behind the 'Miss Bank$' moniker and formally became Azealia Banks, which preceded a move to Montreal; where she began recording music alone. Using Youtube as a portal, Banks uploaded several demo tracks - including "L8R" and a cover of "Slow Hands" by Interpol. In September 2011, Banks released her debut single "212" as a free digital download from her website, which was subsequently officially released on December 6, 2011. The track has received critical acclaim, having been selected as BBC Radio 1 DJ Nick Grimshaw's 'Record of the Week' and placed as #9 on Pitchfork's 'Top 100 Tracks of 2011' and received their Best New Music designation.

Though unsigned at the time, Banks began working with British producer Paul Epworth (of Adele, 21 fame) on a debut studio album. Four tracks from the album are slated as future releases for her February 2012 Two Door Cinema Club tour. It was announced in December 2011 that Banks would feature on "Shady Love", a track from American band Scissor Sisters' fourth studio album, though the feature would remain uncredited. An accompanying music video was released in January 2012 following its radio première from Annie Mac (BBC Radio 1) on January 4,^[4] though the release of the single was cancelled for unconfirmed reasons. It was announced in January 2012 that Banks had begun filming a music video for second single, "Liquorice" in Paris, France - and that Lady Gaga stylist Nicola Formichetti would be joining her as the video's director.^[5]

On January 16, 2012, Banks released the track "NEEDSUMLUV (SXLND)" on the Internet, which coincided with what would have been the thirty-third birthday of the late singer Aaliyah, who is sampled on the track.^[6] "NEEDSUMLUV (SXLND)" was produced by Machinedrum. A week later saw the emergence of a second track entitled "Bambi", which having been produced by Paul Epworth, had been selected as the soundtrack for a Mugler fashion show in Paris.^[7] It was then in February that Banks revealed the title of her upcoming debut album, Broke with Expensive Taste.^[8]

Banks' upcoming release schedule was confirmed via Twitter in May 2012. It included the 1991 extended play, set for a release later that month and Fantastic, a mixtape set for release in the Summer.^[9] Preceeding the release of Fantastic was the track 'Jumanji', which was released online on May 11.^[10]

Artistry[link]

Influences[link]

Banks cites songs by Destiny's Child and Aaliyah as early inspirations. During her teenage years, she listened to Interpol, Bloc Party and Futureheads, and describes Eve, Remy Ma, Lil Kim, M.I.A., Santigold as some of the female artists that have inspired her.^[11][12] She has praised the style of Jay-Z.^[12]

Personal life[link]

Banks publicly confirmed her bisexuality in February 2012 while stating "I'm not trying to be, like, the bisexual, lesbian rapper. I don't live on other people's terms".^[13]

Discography[link]

Extended plays[link]

Mixtapes[link]

Singles[link]

Guest appearances[link]

Music videos[link]

Awards and nominations[link]

Tours[link]

• ShockWaves NME Awards Tour^[24] (supporting) (February 2012)
• Azealia Banks Tour^[25] (headlining) (September–October 2012)

Footnotes[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Azealia Banks's channel on YouTube

John Cena
John Cena, 2008
Ring name(s)	John Cena[1]
Billed height	6 ft 1 in (1.85 m)[2]
Billed weight	251 lb (114 kg)[2]
Born	(1977-04-23) April 23, 1977 (age 35)[3] West Newbury, Massachusetts[2]
Resides	Tampa, Florida[4]
Billed from	Classified (UPW)[5] West Newbury, Massachusetts (WWE)[2]
Trained by	Ultimate Pro Wrestling[5] Ohio Valley Wrestling[6]
Debut	2001[6]

John Felix Anthony Cena^[7] (/ˈsiːnə/; born April 23, 1977)^[3] is an American professional wrestler and actor. He is currently signed to WWE as a member of its Raw brand.^[8]

In WWE, Cena has won 19 championships in total, including 12 world titles (having won the WWE Championship a record 10 times^[9] and the World Heavyweight Championship twice). In addition, Cena has also won the WWE United States Championship three times,^[10] and is a four-time Tag Team Champion, having held the World Tag Team Championship twice (once each with Shawn Michaels and Batista),^[11] and the WWE Tag Team Championship twice (once each with David Otunga and The Miz). Cena also won the 2008 Royal Rumble match, and is a two-time Superstar of the Year Slammy Award winner (2009 and 2010).^[12] He also has the fourth highest number of combined days as WWE Champion behind Bob Backlund, Hulk Hogan and Bruno Sammartino.

Cena started his professional wrestling career in 2000, wrestling for Ultimate Pro Wrestling, where he held the UPW Heavyweight Championship. In 2001, Cena signed a contract with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) and was sent to Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) where he held the OVW Heavyweight Championship and the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship (with Rico Constantino).

Outside of wrestling, Cena has released the rap album You Can't See Me, which debuted at No.15 on the US Billboard 200 chart, and starred in the feature films The Marine (2006), 12 Rounds (2009), and Legendary (2010).^[13] Cena has also made appearances on television shows including Manhunt, Deal or No Deal, MADtv, Saturday Night Live, Punk'd, and Psych. Cena was also a contestant on Fast Cars and Superstars: The Gillette Young Guns Celebrity Race, where he made it to the final round before being eliminated, placing third in the overall competition.

Early life[link]

John Cena was born April 23, 1977, in West Newbury, Massachusetts,^[3] the son of Carol and John Cena, Sr.^[14] He is the second eldest of five brothers – Dan, Matt, Steve, and Sean.^[15] After graduating from Cushing Academy, Cena attended Springfield College in Springfield, Massachusetts.^[16] In college he was a Division III All-American center on the college football team,^[17] wearing the number 54,^[16] which is still used on some of his WWE merchandise.^[18][19] He graduated from Springfield in 1998 with a degree in exercise physiology,^[20] after which he pursued a career in bodybuilding,^[21][22] and also worked as a chauffeur for a limousine company.^[23]

Professional wrestling career[link]

Training (2000–2001)[link]

UPW[link]

Cena started training to become a professional wrestler in 2000 at the California-based "Ultimate University" operated by Ultimate Pro Wrestling. Once he was placed into an in-ring role, Cena began using a semi-robotic character known as The Prototype.^[24][25] Some of this period of his career was documented in the Discovery Channel program Inside Pro Wrestling School.^[26] While in UPW, Cena held the UPW Heavyweight Championship for just shy of a month in April 2000.^[27]

OVW[link]

In 2001, he signed a developmental contract with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) and was assigned to its developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW).^[28] During his time there, Cena wrestled as both The Prototype and Mr. P, and held the OVW Heavyweight Championship for three months and the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship (with Rico Constantino) for two months.^[29][30][31]

World Wrestling Entertainment[link]

Debut (2002–2004)[link]

Cena performing an FU (now "Attitude Adjustment") to Kurt Angle.

Cena made his television debut answering an open challenge by Kurt Angle on June 27, 2002.^[32] Inspired by a speech given by WWE Chairman Vince McMahon to the rising stars of the company, exhorting them to show "ruthless aggression" to earn a place among the legends, Cena took advantage of the opportunity to face Angle. Cena managed to counter the Angle Slam and the ankle lock submission hold,^[33] but ultimately lost to a hard amateur wrestling-style pin.^[33] Following the near-win, Cena became a fan favorite and started feuding with Chris Jericho, defeating Jericho at Vengeance.^[32] In October, Cena and Billy Kidman took part in a tag team tournament to crown the first WWE Tag Team Champions of the SmackDown! brand, losing in the first round.^[34] The next week, Cena turned on and attacked Kidman, blaming him for their loss, becoming a villain.^[32]

Shortly after the Kidman attack, on a Halloween themed episode of SmackDown, Cena dressed as Vanilla Ice performing a freestyle rap.^[32] The next week, Cena received a new character: a rapper who cut promos while rhyming.^[32] As the gimmick grew, Cena began adopting a variant of the 1980s WWF logo – dropping the "F" – as his "signature symbol", along with the slogan "Word Life".^[35] Moreover, he was joined by an enforcer, Bull Buchanan, who was rechristened B-2 (also written B² and pronounced "B-Squared").^[32] Buchanan was later replaced by Red Dogg,^[32] until he was sent to the Raw brand in February.

For the first half of 2003, Cena sought the WWE Championship and chased the reigning champion, Brock Lesnar, performing weekly "freestyles" challenging him to matches.^[36][37][38] During the feud, Cena unveiled a new finishing maneuver: the FU, a Fireman's carry powerslam, named to Brock Lesnar's F-5, with his first victim being Rikishi.^[39] Cena won a number one contenders tournament against Lesnar at Backlash. However, Cena was defeated by Lesnar. At Vengeance Cena lost a singles match against The Undertaker.^[32][40] At the end of the year, Cena became a fan favorite again when he joined Kurt Angle as a member of his team at Survivor Series.^[41][42]

United States and WWE Champion (2004–2005)[link]

Cena, wearing his customized U.S. Championship belt

In early 2004, Cena participated in the Royal Rumble match at the 2004 Royal Rumble,^[43] making it to the final six before being eliminated by Big Show and the Match being won by Chris Benoit.^[44] The Royal Rumble elimination led to a feud with Big Show,^[45][46] which Cena won the United States Championship from Big Show at WrestleMania XX.^[47] During his reign, Cena came into contention with SmackDown General Manager Kurt Angle over issues arising with René Duprée and Torrie Wilson.^[48] The reign ended almost four months later, when he was stripped of the belt on July 8 by Angle after he accidentally knocked him over, thus attacking an official.^[49] Cena won the championship back defeating Booker T in a best of five series that culminated at No Mercy,^[50] only to lose it to the debuting Carlito Caribbean Cool the next week.^[51] After the loss to Carlito, the duo began a feud, which Cena was stabbed in the kidney while at a Boston-area nightclub by Carlito's bodyguard, Jesús.^[52][53] This worked injury was used to keep Cena out of action for a month, while Cena was filming The Marine.^[30] Immediately on his return in November, Cena won the United States Championship back from Carlito debuting a "custom made" spinner-style championship belt.^[54][55]