This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2009)

Clothing in history

Clothing is a term that refers to a covering for the human body that is worn. The wearing of clothing is exclusively a human characteristic and is a feature of nearly all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on physical, social and geographic considerations.

Physically, clothing serves many purposes; it can serve as protection from the elements, it can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects humans from rough surfaces by providing a barrier between the skin and the environment. Clothes can protect humans from insect bites or splinters. Clothes can regulate temperature in the cold or heat. Further, it can provide a hygienic barrier, keeping toxins away from the body and limiting the transmission of germs. Clothing also provides protection from harmful UV radiation.

Origin of clothing[link]

There is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 107,000 years ago, suggesting that clothing existed at that time.^[1][2][3] Another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes^[4] and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 thousand years ago. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42,000-72,000 BP.^[5]

Functions[link]

A baby wearing many items of winter clothing: headband, cap, fur-lined coat, shawl and sweater

The primary function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, while in cold climates its thermal insulation properties are generally more important. Shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, shoes, socks, and other superficial layers are normally removed when entering a warm home, particularly if one is residing or sleeping there. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials and fewer layers of clothing are generally worn in warmer seasons and regions than in colder ones.

Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and sexual differentiation, and social status.^[6] In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, and social status. Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style.

Clothing can and has in history been made from a very wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to woven materials, to elaborate and exotic natural and synthetic fabrics. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles carried rather than worn (such as purses), worn on a single part of the body and easily removed (scarves), worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or those that serve a function other than protection (eyeglasses), are normally considered accessories rather than clothing,^{[citation needed]} as are footwear and hats.

Clothing protects people against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes act as protection from the elements, including rain, snow and wind and other weather conditions, as well as from the sun. However, if clothing is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc., the protection effect is minimized. Clothes also reduce the level of risk during activity, such as work or sport. Clothing at times is worn as protection from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances. Conversely, clothing may protect the environment from the clothing wearer, as with doctors wearing medical scrubs.

Humans have shown extreme inventiveness in devising clothing solutions to environmental hazards. Some examples include: space suits, air conditioned clothing, armor, diving suits, swimsuits, bee-keeper gear, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and other pieces of protective clothing. Meanwhile, the distinction between clothing and protective equipment is not always clear-cut, since clothes designed to be fashionable often have protective value and clothes designed for function often consider fashion in their design.

The wearing of clothes also has social implications. They are worn to cover those parts of the body which social norms require to be covered, and act as a form of adornment, as well as other social purposes.

Scholarship[link]

Although dissertations on clothing and its functionality are found from the 19th century as colonising countries dealt with new environments,^[7] concerted scientific research into psycho-social, physiological and other functions of clothing (e.g. protective, cartage) occurred in the first half of the 20th century, with publications such as Flugel's Psychology of Clothes in 1930,^[6] and Newburgh's seminal Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing in 1949.^[8] By 1968, the field of environmental physiology had advanced and expanded significantly, but the science of clothing in relation to environmental physiology had changed little.^[9] While considerable research has since occurred and the knowledge-base has grown significantly, the main concepts remain unchanged, and indeed Newburgh's book continues to be cited by contemporary authors, including those attempting to develop thermoregulatory models of clothing development.^[10]

Cultural aspects[link]

Gender differentiation[link]

Former US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and Turkish President Abdullah Gül both wearing Western-style business suits.

In most cultures, gender differentiation of clothing is considered appropriate for men and women. The differences are in styles, colors and fabrics.

In Western societies, skirts, dresses and high-heeled shoes are usually seen as women's clothing, while neckties are usually seen as men's clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively male clothing, but are nowadays worn by both genders. Male clothes are often more practical (that is, they can function well under a wide variety of situations), but a wider range of clothing styles are available for females. Males are typically allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places. It is generally acceptable for a woman to wear traditionally male clothing, while the converse is unusual.

In some cultures, sumptuary laws regulate what men and women are required to wear. Islam requires women to wear more modest forms of attire, usually hijab. What qualifies as "modest" varies in different Muslim societies; however, women are usually required to cover more of their bodies than men are. Articles of clothing worn by Muslim women for purposes of modesty range from the headscarf to the burqa.

Men may sometimes choose to wear men's skirts such as togas or kilts, especially on ceremonial occasions. Such garments were (in previous times) often worn as normal daily clothing by men. Compared to men's clothing, women's clothing tends to be more attractive, often intended to be looked at by men.^[11]

Social status[link]

Alim Khan's bemedaled robe sends a social message about his wealth, status, and power

In some societies, clothing may be used to indicate rank or status. In ancient Rome, for example, only senators were permitted to wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple. In traditional Hawaiian society only high-ranking chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa or carved whale teeth. Under the Travancore Kingdom of Kerala, (India), lower caste women had to pay a tax for the right to cover their upper body. In China, before the establishment of the republic, only the emperor could wear yellow. History provides many examples of elaborate sumptuary laws that regulated what people could wear. In societies without such laws, which includes most modern societies, social status is instead signaled by the purchase of rare or luxury items that are limited by cost to those with wealth or status. In addition, peer pressure influences clothing choice.

Religion[link]

Nicolas Trigault, a Flemish Jesuit, in Ming-style Confucian scholar costume, by Peter Paul Rubens. This drawing shows a fusion between West and East also Christianity and Confucianism.

Muslim men traditionally wear white robes and a cap during prayers

Religious clothing might be considered a special case of occupational clothing. Sometimes it is worn only during the performance of religious ceremonies. However, it may also be worn everyday as a marker for special religious status.

For example, Jains and Muslim men wear unstitched cloth pieces when performing religious ceremonies. The unstitched cloth signifies unified and complete devotion to the task at hand, with no digression.^{[citation needed]} Sikhs wear a turban as it is a part of their religion.

The cleanliness of religious dresses in Eastern Religions like Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, Islam and Jainism is of paramount importance, since it indicates purity.

Clothing figures prominently in the Bible where it appears in numerous contexts, the more prominent ones being: the story of Adam and Eve, Joseph's cloak, Judah and Tamar, Mordecai and Esther. Furthermore the priests officiating in the Temple had very specific garments, the lack of which made one liable to death.

In Islamic traditions, women are required to wear long, loose, non-transparent outer dress when stepping out of the home. Women of higher status throughout history have worn more modest clothes. This dress code was democratic (for all women regardless of status) & protection from the scorching sun. The Quran says this about husbands & wives: "...They are clothing/covering (Libaas) for you; and you for them." (Chapter 2:187)

Jewish ritual also requires rending of one's upper garment as a sign of mourning. This practice is found in the Bible when Jacob hears of the apparent death of his son Joseph.^[12]

Origin and history[link]

First recorded use[link]

According to archaeologists and anthropologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of fur, leather, leaves, or grass that were draped, wrapped, or tied around the body. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, since clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared to stone, bone, shell and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia in 1988.^[13] Dyed flax fibers that could have been used in clothing have been found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia that date back to 36,000 BP.^[14][15]

Scientists are still debating when people started wearing clothes. Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking, anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, have conducted a genetic analysis of human body lice that suggests clothing originated quite recently, around 107,000 years ago. Body lice is an indicator of clothes-wearing, since most humans have sparse body hair, and lice thus require human clothing to survive. Their research suggests the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern Homo sapiens away from the warm climate of Africa, thought to have begun between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. However, a second group of researchers using similar genetic methods estimate that clothing originated around 540,000 years ago (Reed et al. 2004. PLoS Biology 2(11): e340). For now, the date of the origin of clothing remains unresolved.^{[citation needed]}

Making clothing[link]

Some human cultures, such as the various people of the Arctic Circle, traditionally make their clothing entirely of prepared and decorated furs and skins. Other cultures supplemented or replaced leather and skins with cloth: woven, knitted, or twined from various animal and vegetable fibers.

Although modern consumers may take the production of clothing for granted, making fabric by hand is a tedious and labor intensive process. The textile industry was the first to be mechanized — with the powered loom — during the Industrial Revolution.

Different cultures have evolved various ways of creating clothes out of cloth. One approach simply involves draping the cloth. Many people wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit — for example, the dhoti for men and the sari for women in the Indian subcontinent, the Scottish kilt or the Javanese sarong. The clothes may simply be tied up, as is the case of the first two garments; or pins or belts hold the garments in place, as in the case of the latter two. The precious cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes or the same person at different sizes can wear the garment.

Another approach involves cutting and sewing the cloth, but using every bit of the cloth rectangle in constructing the clothing. The tailor may cut triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth, and then add them elsewhere as gussets. Traditional European patterns for men's shirts and women's chemises take this approach.

Modern European fashion treats cloth much less conservatively, typically cutting in such a way as to leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants. Industrial sewing operations sell these as waste; home sewers may turn them into quilts.

In the thousands of years that humans have spent constructing clothing, they have created an astonishing array of styles, many of which have been reconstructed from surviving garments, photos, paintings, mosaics, etc., as well as from written descriptions. Costume history serves as a source of inspiration to current fashion designers, as well as a topic of professional interest to costumers constructing for plays, films, television, and historical reenactment.

Contemporary clothing[link]

This section requires expansion.

Fashion shows are often the source of the latest style and trends in clothing fashions.

Spread of western styles[link]

By the early years of the 21st century, western clothing styles had, to some extent, become international styles. This process began hundreds of years earlier, during the periods of European colonialism. The process of cultural dissemination has perpetuated over the centuries as Western media corporations have penetrated markets throughout the world, spreading Western culture and styles. Fast fashion clothing has also become a global phenomenon. These garments are less expensive, mass-produced Western clothing. Donated used clothing from Western countries are also delivered to people in poor countries by charity organizations.

Ethnic and cultural heritage[link]

People may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or in certain roles or occupations. For example, most Korean men and women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but still wear traditional hanboks on special occasions, like weddings and cultural holidays. Items of Western dress may also appear worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu.

Sport and activity[link]

Most sports and physical activities are practiced wearing special clothing, for practical, comfort or safety reasons. Common sportswear garments include shorts, T-shirts, tennis shirts, tracksuits, and trainers. Specialized garments include wet suits (for swimming, diving or surfing), salopettes (for skiing) and leotards (for gymnastics). Also, spandex materials are often used as base layers to soak up sweat. Spandex is also preferable for active sports that require form fitting garments, such as wrestling, track & field, dance, gymnastics and swimming.

Fashion[link]

There exists a diverse range of styles in fashion, varying by geography, exposure to modern media, economic conditions, and ranging from expensive haute couture to traditional garb, to thrift store grunge.

Future trends[link]

The world of clothing is always changing, as new cultural influences meet technological innovations. Researchers in scientific labs have been developing prototypes for fabrics that can serve functional purposes well beyond their traditional roles, for example, clothes that can automatically adjust their temperature, repel bullets, project images, and generate electricity. Some practical advances already available to consumers are bullet-resistant garments made with kevlar and stain-resistant fabrics that are coated with chemical mixtures that reduce the absorption of liquids.

Political issues[link]

Working conditions[link]

This section requires expansion.

Safety garb for women workers. The uniform at the left, complete with the plastic "bra" on the right, will prevent future occupational accidents among feminine war workers. Los Angeles, California. ca. 1943.
Image reference: United States Women's Bureau, via the NARA historical fund.

Though mechanization transformed most aspects of human industry by the mid-20th century, garment workers have continued to labor under challenging conditions that demand repetitive manual labor. Mass-produced clothing is often made in what are considered by some to be sweatshops, typified by long work hours, lack of benefits, and lack of worker representation. While most examples of such conditions are found in developing countries, clothes made in industrialized nations may also be manufactured similarly, often staffed by undocumented immigrants.^{[citation needed]}

Coalitions of NGOs, designers (Katharine Hamnett, American Apparel, Veja, Quiksilver, eVocal, Edun,...) and campaign groups like the Clean Clothes Campaign (CCC) have sought to improve these conditions as much as possible by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both the media and the general public to the workers.

Outsourcing production to low wage countries like Bangladesh, China, India and Sri Lanka became possible when the Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) was abolished. The MFA, which placed quotas on textiles imports, was deemed a protectionist measure.^{[citation needed]} Globalization is often quoted as the single most contributing factor to the poor working conditions of garment workers. Although many countries recognize treaties like the International Labor Organization, which attempt to set standards for worker safety and rights, many countries have made exceptions to certain parts of the treaties or failed to thoroughly enforce them. India for example has not ratified sections 87 and 92 of the treaty.^{[citation needed]}

Despite the strong reactions that "sweatshops" evoked among critics of globalization, the production of textiles has functioned as a consistent industry for developing nations providing work and wages, whether construed as exploitative or not, to thousands of people.

Fur[link]

The use of animal fur in clothing dates to prehistoric times. It is currently associated in developed countries with expensive, designer clothing, although fur is still used by indigenous people in arctic zones and higher elevations for its warmth and protection. Once uncontroversial, it has recently been the focus of campaigns on the grounds that campaigners consider it cruel and unnecessary. PETA, along with other animal rights and animal liberation groups have called attention to fur farming and other practices they consider cruel.

Life cycle[link]

Clothing maintenance[link]

Clothing suffers assault both from within and without. The human body sheds skin cells and body oils, and exudes sweat, urine, and feces. From the outside, sun damage, moisture, abrasion and dirt assault garments. Fleas and lice can hide in seams. Worn clothing, if not cleaned and refurbished, itches, looks scruffy, and loses functionality (as when buttons fall off, seams come undone, fabrics thin or tear, and zippers fail).

In some cases, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Cleaning leather presents difficulties, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but old leather and bark clothing always look old.

But most clothing consists of cloth, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt).

Laundry, ironing, storage[link]

Humans have developed many specialized methods for laundering, ranging from early methods of pounding clothes against rocks in running streams, to the latest in electronic washing machines and dry cleaning (dissolving dirt in solvents other than water). Hot water washing (boiling), chemical cleaning and ironing are all traditional methods of sterilizing fabrics for hygiene purposes.

Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily wrinkle, and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and creates a smooth appearance without ironing.

Once clothes have been laundered and possibly ironed, they are usually hung on clothes hangers or folded, to keep them fresh until they are worn. Clothes are folded to allow them to be stored compactly, to prevent creasing, to preserve creases or to present them in a more pleasing manner, for instance when they are put on sale in stores.

Many kinds of clothes are folded before they are put in suitcases as preparation for travel. Other clothes, such as suits, may be hung up in special garment bags, or rolled rather than folded. Many people use their clothing as packing material around fragile items that might otherwise break in transit.

Non-iron[link]

A resin used for making non-wrinkle shirts releases formaldehyde, which could cause contact dermatitis for some people; no disclosure requirements exist, and in 2008 the U.S. Government Accountability Office tested formaldehyde in clothing and found that generally the highest levels were in non-wrinkle shirts and pants.^[16] In 1999, a study of the effect of washing on the formaldehyde levels found that after 6 months after washing, 7 of 27 shirts had levels in excess of 75 ppm, which is a safety limit for direct skin exposure.^[17]

Mending[link]

In past times, mending was an art. A meticulous tailor or seamstress could mend rips with thread raveled from hems and seam edges so skillfully that the tear was practically invisible. When the raw material — cloth — was worth more than labor, it made sense to expend labor in saving it. Today clothing is considered a consumable item. Mass-manufactured clothing is less expensive than the labor required to repair it. Many people buy a new piece of clothing rather than spend time mending. The thrifty still replace zippers and buttons and sew up ripped hems.

Recycling[link]

Used, unwearable clothing can be used for quilts, rags, rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. It can also be recycled into paper. In Western societies, used clothing is often thrown out or donated to charity. It is also sold to consignment shops, dress agencies and flea markets and in online auctions. Used clothing is also often collected on an industrial scale to be sorted and shipped for re-use in poorer countries.

There are many concerns about the life cycle of synthetics, which come primarily from petrochemicals.^{[weasel words]} Unlike natural fibers, their source is not renewable and they are not biodegradable.^{[citation needed]}

See also[link]

• History of clothing and textiles
• Naturism (which includes nudism)
• Second hand store
• Thermoregulation
• Timeline of non-sexual social nudity
• Timeline of requisite dress in Western civilization
• Bangladesh textile industry

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Finnane, Antonia (2008), Changing Clothes in China: Fashion, History, Nation, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-14350-9, http://books.google.com/?id=Ju3N4VeiQ28C&printsec=frontcover&dq=clothes+history&q, retrieved 8 September 2010  ebook ISBN 978-0-231-51273-2
• Forsberg, Krister & Mansdorf, S.Z (2007), Quick Selection Guide to Chemical Protective Clothing (5th ed.), Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-470-14681-1, http://books.google.com/?id=UkA2MK9vXEIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=clothing+protective&q, retrieved 8 September 2010 
• Gavin, Timothy P (2003), "Clothing and Thermoregulation During Exercise", Sports Medicine 33 (13): 941–947, DOI:10.2165/00007256-200333130-00001, PMID 14606923, http://adisonline.com/sportsmedicine/Abstract/2003/33130/Clothing_and_Thermoregulation_During_Exercise.1.aspx, retrieved 8 September 2010 
• Hollander, Anne L (1993), Seeing Through Clothes, Berkley & Los Angeles, California, and London, UK: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-08231-1, http://books.google.com/?id=CSItqzbG9nIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=clothes&q, retrieved 8 September 2010 
• Montain, Scott J; Sawaka, Michael N; Cadarett, Bruce S; Quigley, Mark D; McKay, James M (1994), "Physiological tolerance to uncompensable heat stress: effects of exercise intensity, protective clothing, and climate", Journal of Applied Physiology 77 (1): 216–222, PMID 7961236, http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA283851&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf, retrieved 8 September 2010 
• Ross, Robert (2008), Clothing, a Global History: or, The Imperialist's New Clothes, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, ISBN 978-0-7456-3186-8, http://books.google.com/?id=e7LZe4b18ScC&printsec=frontcover&dq=clothes+history&q, retrieved 8 September 2010  Paperback ISBN 978-0-7456-3187-5
• Tochihara, Yutaka & Ohnaka, Tadakatsu, ed. (2005), Environmental Ergonomics: The Ergonomics of Human Comfort, Health and Performance in the Thermal Environment, Vol.3, Amsterdam & Boston: Elsevier, pp. 315–320, ISBN 0-08-044466-0, http://books.google.com/?id=qvh2sdJoQR8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=environmental+ergonomics&q, retrieved 8 September 2010  (see especially sections 5 – 'Clothing' – & 6 – 'Protective clothing').
• Yarborough, Portia & Nelson, Cherilyn N, ed. (2005), Performance of Protective Clothing: Global Needs and Emerging Markets, 8th Vol., West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International, ISBN 0-8031-3488-6, ISSN 1040-3035, http://books.google.com/?id=pbnN_SL4H9AC&printsec=frontcover&dq=protective+clothing+nelson&q, retrieved 8 September 2010 

External links[link]

Find more about clothing on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

• BBC Wiltshire Dents Glove Museum
• International Textile and Apparel Association, scholarly publications
• German Hosiery Museum (English language)
• Molecular Evolution of Pediculus humanus and the Origin of Clothing by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking (.PDF file)
• Cornell Home Economics Archive: Research, Tradition, History (HEARTH)

This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (October 2010)

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2010)

Black Milk
Background information
Birth name	Curtis Cross
Born	(1982-08-14) August 14, 1982 (age 29)
Origin	Detroit, Michigan, United States
Genres	Midwest hip hop Detroit hip hop
Occupations	Record producer, rapper
Instruments	Drums, Turntable, Sampler, Keyboards, Synthesizer, Fender Rhodes, Drum Machine
Years active	2002–present
Labels	Fat Beats Records / Decon
Associated acts	Danny Brown, B.R. Gunna, Slum Village, J Dilla, Random Axe, Royce da 5'9", Elzhi, Bishop Lamont, Jack White, Name Tag, Phat Kat, Guilty Simpson

Curtis Cross, (born August 14, 1982) better known as Black Milk, is a hip hop producer and MC from Detroit, Michigan.^[1][2]

Biography[link]

Performing in Toronto in 2012

In 2004, he formed B.R. Gunna, with Young RJ, and Fat Ray, and together they released Dirty District: Vol. 2, a follow up to a compilation released in 2001 by Slum Village, which he had contributed production to. Black Milk released a solo album, Sound of the City, Vol. 1, the following year and in 2006 he signed a record contract with Fat Beats Records (Fat Beats is currently distributed by Koch Entertainment, the largest independent distributor in the U.S.). In the fall of 2006, he released an EP, entitled Broken Wax. March 13, 2007 he released a second album, Popular Demand.^[1]

In addition to Slum Village, Black Milk has worked with J Dilla,^[3] Elzhi, Phat Kat, Frank-N-Dank, Lloyd Banks, Canibus, and Pharoahe Monch, and handled most of the production on T3's Olio mixtape of 2006.

In the Winter of 2007/2008 Black Milk paired with Aftermath recording artist Bishop Lamont to release a mixtape entitled Caltroit, which was nominated for Best Hip Hop Mixtape at Justo's Mixtape Awards.^{[citation needed]}

Black Milk released an album with Fat Ray entitled The Set Up on March 4, 2008 and his third official solo release "Tronic" on October 28, 2008. He also handled the majority of production^[4] on Elzhi's album The Preface, released August 12.

Elzhi's "The Leftovers Unmixedtape" was released on December 11, 2009. Black Milk produced four of the tracks on it.

On December 25, 2009, he leaked the first single from his upcoming album Album Of The Year. The song is called "Keep Going". He also released two more singles named "Welcome (Gotta Go)" and "Deadly Medley" featuring Royce Da 5'9" and Elzhi.

On August 22, 2010, he released the music video for "Deadly Medley". The video features Black Milk, Royce da 5'9" and Elzhi.

Album Of The Year was released on September 14, 2010 through Fat Beats and Decon. Black Milk has announced he has already started work on his 5th studio album which he aims to finish and release some time in Summer 2012.

In March 2011, Black Milk released a 7" single entitled 'Brain'. The single was the result of a collaboration between, Black Milk and his band (AB, Daru Jones and Malik Hunter) and Jack White of the White Stripes. A B Side, entitled Royal Mega, was also released.
As the buzz of many of hip hop’s young leaders-to-be evolves from loud commotion into hushed whispers, Black Milk has stayed relevant by remaining focused on creating music that endures. He’s achieved recognition from fans, critics, and his peers as one of the best producers around, and when coupling that talent with his sharp lyricism and stylish delivery as an emcee, Black has proven to be one of the most vital hip hop artists of his generation.

This is already clear to those who heard his 2008 album Tronic, which capped a successful and astonishingly prolific year (in which he also released collaborative full-length releases with rappers Bishop Lamont and Fat Ray, as well as producing the acclaimed solo album from Slum Village’s Elzhi). Tronic showcased a growth in production technique that few expected from a beatmaker best-known for chopping samples, as his signature drums were now peppered with live instrumentation and richer arrangements.

2009 looked to be another year of tremendous progress for Black Milk’s career. After touring Europe with his newly-formed band, consisting of drummer Daru Jones and keyboardist/singer AB, he returned home to Detroit ready to launch efforts on his next album. The year took an unexpected turn as his mentor Baatin of Slum Village–who Black credits with launching his professional career–died. Only weeks later, Black’s manager HexMurda fell into a coma and was paralyzed with a rare pontine stroke. The quick succession of these events eerily mirrored the abrupt deaths of Detroit legends J Dilla and Proof in 2006, stunning the close-knit hip hop community in the Motor City. Things only got worse for Black as he dealt with additional deaths within his family over the next few months. 2009 had become the most difficult year of his life.

As the year came to a close, he returned to recording, and announced that his next release would be audaciously titled Album of the Year. Black quickly explained that the title was referring to the course of events from the previous 12 months. Many fans and critics discounted that explanation, expressing either excitement or objection that he was brashly proclaiming that his work would be the year’s best before the year had even started.

Far from a melancholic work, Album of the Year once again sees Black Milk working to break new ground in hip hop production, and to both refine and redefine his sound. While continuing to construct the skeletons of the tracks on his same trusted AKAI MPC-2000 XL that he’s been using for years, he now employs a team of studio musicians and session players to add new layers of fat and muscle to his songs, with most of the players’ parts composed by the artist himself. A broad range of influence shines through in the tracks, with tinges of rock, reggae, and afrobeat joining his trademark hip hop bangers.

Other than the heavy contributions from both members of his live band (vocalist/keyboardist AB and drummer Daru Jones), the album exclusively features players and vocalists from his hometown of Detroit, including vocalist Melanie Rutherford, bassist Tim Shellabarger, and the versatile horn player and string arranger Sam Beaubien (who arranged horns and strings on Mayer Hawthorne’s A Strange Arrangement). The few guest raps are provided by Royce Da 5’9″, Elzhi, and newcomer Danny Brown.

Few artists in hip hop are able to create music that can rise above expectations and defy categorization. Black Milk welcomes the challenge to accomplish what others cannot, and he’s doing it not only with his acclaimed recordings but also with an electrifying live show. Performing with Daru and AB, the tracks are taken to another level on stage. Both Album of the Year and exciting live performances across the globe are sure to elevate Black Milk that much closer to the star status many have predicted.

Musical style and influences[link]

Cross cites some of his main musical influences as J. Dilla, Easy Mo Bee, Pete Rock, Questlove, A Tribe Called Quest, and De La Soul. His music is very soulful, as he was raised on the sounds of the latter two in the 80s and 90s. The late producer J. Dilla had a large impact on him with his soul-influenced, jazzy beats.

Discography[link]

Solo[link]

• 2005: Sound of the City
• 2006: Broken Wax
• 2007: Popular Demand
• 2008: Tronic (US R&B: #76)
• 2010: Album of the Year (US: #136, US R&B: #28)

Collaborations[link]

• 2004: Dirty District Vol. 2 (with Young RJ as B.R. Gunna)
• 2008: Caltroit (with Bishop Lamont)
• 2008: The Set Up (with Fat Ray)
• 2008: The Preface (with Elzhi)
• 2011: Random Axe (with Sean Price and Guilty Simpson as Random Axe)
• 2011: "Brain" b/w "Royal Mega"(with Jack White)
• 2011: Black & Brown EP (with Danny Brown)^[5]
• 2012: Searching for Sanity (with Melanie Rutherford)

Production[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Black Milk

• Black Milk on Myspace
• Official website
• Template:Http://blackmilk.biz/bio/
• Black Milk RBMA lecture

Emma Watson
Watson at the 2012 Tribeca Film Festival premiere of Struck by Lightning
Born	Emma Charlotte Duerre Watson[1] (1990-04-15) 15 April 1990 (age 22) Paris, France
Occupation	Actress, model
Years active	2001–present
Website
www.emmawatson.com

Emma Charlotte Duerre Watson (born 15 April 1990) is an English actress and model.

Watson rose to prominence playing Hermione Granger in the Harry Potter film series. Watson was cast as Hermione at the age of nine, having previously acted only in school plays.^[2] From 2001 to 2011, she starred in all eight Harry Potter films alongside Daniel Radcliffe and Rupert Grint.^[3] Watson's work on the Harry Potter series has earned her several awards and more than £10 million.^[4] She made her modelling debut for Burberry's Autumn/Winter campaign in 2009.

In 2007, Watson announced her involvement in two productions: the television adaptation of the novel Ballet Shoes and an animated film, The Tale of Despereaux. Ballet Shoes was broadcast on 26 December 2007 to an audience of 5.2 million, and The Tale of Despereaux, based on the novel by Kate DiCamillo, was released in 2008 and grossed over US $86 million in worldwide sales.^[5][6]

Early life[link]

Emma Watson was born in Paris to Jacqueline Luesby and Chris Watson, both British lawyers.^[7][8] Watson has one French grandmother,^[9] and lived in Paris until the age of five. Following her parents' divorce, she moved with her mother and younger brother to Oxfordshire.^[7]

From the age of six, Watson had wanted to become an actress,^[10] and for a number of years she trained at the Oxford branch of Stagecoach Theatre Arts, a part-time theatre school where she studied singing, dancing and acting.^[11] By the age of ten, she had performed in various Stagecoach productions and school plays, including Arthur: The Young Years and The Happy Prince,^[12] but she had never acted professionally before the Harry Potter series. "I had no idea of the scale of the film series," she stated in a 2007 interview with Parade; "If I had I would have been completely overwhelmed."^[13]

Career[link]

Harry Potter[link]

Handprints, footprints and wand prints of (from left to right) Watson, Radcliffe, Grint.

In 1999, casting began for Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (released as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the United States), the film adaptation of British author J. K. Rowling's best-selling novel. Casting agents found Watson through her Oxford theatre teacher,^[10] and producers were impressed by her confidence. After eight auditions, producer David Heyman told Watson and fellow applicants Daniel Radcliffe and Rupert Grint that they had been cast for the roles of the schoolfriends Hermione Granger, Harry Potter and Ron Weasley respectively. Rowling supported Watson from her first screen test.^[10]

The release of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in 2001 was Watson's debut screen performance. The film broke records for opening-day sales and opening-weekend takings and was the highest-grossing film of 2001.^[14][15] Critics praised the performances of the three leads, often singling out Watson for particular acclaim; The Daily Telegraph called her performance "admirable",^[16] and IGN said she "stole the show".^[17] Watson was nominated for five awards for her performance in Philosopher's Stone, winning the Young Artist Award for Leading Young Actress.^[18]

A year later, Watson again starred as Hermione in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second instalment of the series. Reviewers praised the lead actors' performances. The Los Angeles Times said Watson and her peers had matured between films,^[19] while The Times criticised director Chris Columbus for "under-employing" Watson's hugely popular character.^[20] Watson received an Otto Award from the German magazine Bravo for her performance.^[21]

Watson at the premiere of Goblet of Fire in November 2005

In 2004, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was released. Watson was appreciative of the more assertive role Hermione played, calling her character "charismatic" and "a fantastic role to play".^[22] Although critics panned Radcliffe's performance, labelling him "wooden", they praised Watson; The New York Times lauded her performance, saying "Luckily Mr. Radcliffe's blandness is offset by Ms. Watson's spiky impatience. Harry may show off his expanding wizardly skills ... but Hermione ... earns the loudest applause with a decidedly unmagical punch to Draco Malfoy's deserving nose."^[23] Although Prisoner of Azkaban remains the lowest-grossing Harry Potter film as of April 2009, Watson's personal performance won her two Otto Awards and the Child Performance of the Year award from Total Film.^[24][25][26]

With Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2005), both Watson and the Harry Potter film series reached new milestones. The film set records for a Harry Potter opening weekend, a non-May opening weekend in the US, and an opening weekend in the UK. Critics praised the increasing maturity of Watson and her teenage co-stars; the New York Times called her performance "touchingly earnest".^[27] For Watson, much of the humour of the film sprang from the tension among the three lead characters as they matured. She said, "I loved all the arguing. ... I think it's much more realistic that they would argue and that there would be problems."^[28] Nominated for three awards for Goblet of Fire, Watson won a bronze Otto Award.^[29][30][31] Later that year, Watson became the youngest person to appear on the cover of Teen Vogue,^[32] an appearance she reprised in August 2009.^[33] In 2006, Watson played Hermione in The Queen's Handbag, a special mini-episode of Harry Potter in celebration of Queen Elizabeth II's 80th birthday.^[34]

Watson at the premiere of Half-Blood Prince in July 2009

The fifth film in the Harry Potter franchise, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, was released in 2007. A huge financial success, the film set a record worldwide opening-weekend gross of $332.7 million.^[35] Watson won the inaugural National Movie Award for Best Female Performance.^[36] As the fame of the actress and the series continued, Watson and fellow Harry Potter co-stars Daniel Radcliffe and Rupert Grint left imprints of their hands, feet and wands in front of Grauman's Chinese Theater in Hollywood on 9 July 2007.^[37]

By July 2007, Watson's work in the Harry Potter series was said to have earned her more than £10 million, and she acknowledged she would never have to work for money again.^[4] In March 2009, she was ranked 6th on the Forbes list of "Most Valuable Young Stars",^[38] and in February 2010, she was named as Hollywood's highest paid female star, having earned an estimated £19 million in 2009.^[39]

Despite the success of Order of the Phoenix, the future of the Harry Potter franchise became surrounded in doubt, as all three lead actors were hesitant to sign on to continue their roles for the final two episodes.^[40] Radcliffe eventually signed for the final films on 2 March 2007,^[40] but Watson was considerably more hesitant.^[41] She explained that the decision was significant, as the films represented a further four-year commitment to the role, but eventually conceded that she "could never let [the role of] Hermione go",^[42] signing for the role on 23 March 2007.^[43] In return for committing to the final films, Watson's pay was doubled to £2 million per film;^[44] she concluded that "in the end, the pluses outweighed the minuses".^[13] Principal photography for the sixth film began in late 2007, with Watson's part being filmed from 18 December to 17 May 2008.^[45][46]

Watson with Daniel Radcliffe (left) and Rupert Grint at the London premiere of Deathly Hallows – Part 2 in July 2011

Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince premiered on 15 July 2009,^[47] having been delayed from November 2008.^[48] With the lead actors now in their late teens, critics were increasingly willing to review them on the same level as the rest of the film's all-star cast, which the Los Angeles Times described as "a comprehensive guide to contemporary UK acting".^[49] The Washington Post felt Watson to have given "[her] most charming performance to date",^[50] while The Daily Telegraph described the lead actors as "newly-liberated and energised, eager to give all they have to what's left of the series".^[51]

Watson's filming for the final instalment of the Harry Potter series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, began on 18 February 2009^[52] and ended on 12 June 2010.^[53] For financial and scripting reasons, the original book has been divided into two films which were shot consecutively.^[54][55] Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows part 1 was released in November 2010 while the second film was released in July 2011.

Other acting work[link]

Watson's first non-Potter role was the 2007 BBC film Ballet Shoes, an adaptation of the novel of the same title by Noel Streatfeild.^[56][57] The film's director Sandra Goldbacher commented that Watson was "perfect" for the starring role of aspiring actress Pauline Fossil: "She has a piercing, delicate aura that makes you want to gaze and gaze at her."^[58] Ballet Shoes was broadcast in the UK on Boxing Day 2007 to an audience of 5.7 million viewers, to mixed reviews.^{[59][60][61][62][63]} Watson also lent her voice to the role of Princess Pea in the animated film The Tale of Despereaux, a children's comedy starring Matthew Broderick with Harry Potter co-star Robbie Coltrane (playing the character of Rubeus Hagrid) also starring in the film.^[64] The Tale of Despereaux was released in December 2008 and grossed $87 million worldwide.^[5] In December 2008, Watson stated she wanted to go to university after she completed the Potter series.^[65]

In May 2010, Watson was reported to be in talks to star in a film adaptation of The Perks of Being a Wallflower.^[66] Filming began in summer 2011.^[67] Also that month, she announced that she would appear in a music video for One Night Only after meeting lead singer George Craig at the 2010 Winter/Summer Burberry advertising campaign. The video, "Say You Don't Want It", was screened on Channel 4 on 26 June 2010 and released on 16 August.^[68] In her first post-Harry Potter film, Watson appeared in 2011's My Week with Marilyn as Lucy, a wardrobe assistant who has a few dates with the main character, Colin Clark.^[69][70] Watson has also expressed interest in being in a musical film.^[71]

Modelling[link]

Watson at the U.S. premiere of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 in November 2010

In 2008, the British press reported that Watson was to replace Keira Knightley as the face of the fashion house Chanel, but this was denied by both parties.^[72][73] In June 2009, following several months of rumours, Watson confirmed that she would be partnering with Burberry as the face of their Autumn/Winter 2009 campaign, for which she received an estimated six-figure fee.^[74][75][76] She also appeared in Burberry's 2010 Spring/Summer campaign alongside her brother Alex, musicians George Craig and Matt Gilmour, and model Max Hurd.^[77] In February 2011, Watson was awarded the Style Icon award from British Elle by Dame Vivienne Westwood.^[78][79] Watson continued her involvement in fashion advertising when she announced she had been chosen as the face of Lancôme in March 2011.^[80]

In September 2009, Watson announced her involvement with People Tree, a Fair Trade fashion brand.^[81] Watson worked as a creative advisor for People Tree to create a spring line of clothing, which was released in February 2010;^[81][82] the range featured styles inspired by southern France and London.^[82][83] The collection, described by The Times as "very clever" despite their "quiet hope that [she] would become tangled at the first hemp-woven hurdle",^[84] was widely publicised in magazines such as Teen Vogue,^[85] Cosmopolitan, and People. Watson, who was not paid for the collaboration,^[86] admitted that competition for the range was minimal,^[84] but argued that "Fashion is a great way to empower people and give them skills; rather than give cash to charity you can help people by buying the clothes they make and supporting things they take pride in";^[87] adding, "I think young people like me are becoming increasingly aware of the humanitarian issues surrounding fast fashion and want to make good choices but there aren't many options out there."^[84] Watson continued her involvement with People Tree, resulting in the release of a 2010 Autumn/Winter collection.^[88]