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Wei Guan (220–291), style name Boyu (伯玉), formally Duke Cheng of Lanling (蘭陵成公), was an official of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He served the Jin Dynasty after the end of Cao Wei.

Early life and career[link]

Wei Guan was from Hedong Commandery (present-day Yuncheng, Shanxi). His father Wei Ji (衛覬) was a high-ranking Cao Wei official and a marquess, who died in 229. Wei Guan inherited his title, and when he grew older became an official. Throughout the years, he became known for his capability and was continuously promoted. After Cao Huan became emperor, he became the justice minister, and was known for his strength in logical thinking.

When the Cao Wei regent Sima Zhao commissioned Zhong Hui and Deng Ai to attack Shu Han in 263, Wei served as Deng's deputy. After the fall of Shu Han that year, Zhong planned a rebellion, and the first step of his preparation was to falsely accuse Deng of crimes. Sima Zhao, believing Zhong's accusations, ordered Deng arrested, and Zhong in turn ordered Wei to arrest Deng, hoping that Wei would fail and be killed by Deng so that he could further affirm his accusations against Deng. Wei knew this, and surprised Deng in the middle of the night and arrested him successfully. When Zhong later declared his rebellion, Wei pretended to be seriously ill. Zhong therefore did not guard him securely, and later, Wei participated in rousing the troops to kill Zhong and thus end the rebellion. Fearful that Deng would then retaliate him, he had Deng tracked down and killed. When Du Yu publicly denounced Wei, instead of becoming angry and retaliate against Du, Wei visited Du to apologize to him. He also declined a larger fief that Sima Zhao was ready to bestow on him for his accomplishments.

Career during the Jin Dynasty[link]

In 265, Sima Zhao died and was succeeded as regent by his son Sima Yan, who later that year forced Cao Huan to abdicate to him, ending Cao Wei and establishing Jin (as Emperor Wu). Throughout Emperor Wu's reign, Wei Guan continued to be an important official and general, serving in a variety of roles capably. As a result, one of his brothers and one of his sons were granted marquess titles. Wei attempted to implement a revised civil service system, where the civil service examiner (中正) would have less input on grading officials, and actual job performance would become more important, but while Emperor Wu liked Wei's suggestions, he did not carry them out.

Wei was one of the few officials who dared to openly speak to Emperor Wu about his choice of crown prince, his son Sima Zhong, who was developmentally disabled. On one occasion, Emperor Wu, after Wei hinted that Crown Prince Zhong should not be crown prince, sent a number of inquiries to Crown Prince Zhong to have answered. When the inquiries were appropriately answered (because Crown Prince Zhong's wife Crown Princess Jia Nanfeng had someone else answer the inquiries for Crown Prince Zhong), Emperor Wu was happy and publicly showed Wei the answers, embarrassing Wei greatly and making it clear to other officials that Wei had said something.

After Emperor Wu's death in 290, Yang Jun, the father of Empress Dowager Yang assumed the regency for Crown Prince Zhong (who ascended the throne as Emperor Hui), but in 291 was overthrown and killed by Empress Jia. Wei was then made regent, along with Emperor Hui's granduncle Sima Liang. Wei and Sima Liang tried to get the government on track, but Empress Jia continued to interfere with governmental matters. They also became concerned about the violent temper of Emperor Hui's brother Sima Wei the Prince of Chu (who was heavily involved in the coup against Yang Jun) and therefore tried to strip him of his military command, but Sima Wei persuaded Empress Jia to let him keep his military command. Sima Wei's assistants Qi Sheng (岐盛) and Gongsun Hong (公孫宏) thereafter falsely told Empress Jia that Sima Liang and Wei planned to depose the emperor. Empress Jia, who had already resented Wei for having, during Emperor Wu's reign, suggested that he change his heir selection, also wanted more direct control over the government, and therefore resolved to undergo a second coup.

In summer 291, Empress Jia had Emperor Hui personally write an edict to Sima Wei, ordering him to have Sima Liang and Wei removed from their offices. His forces thereby surrounded Sima Liang and Wei's mansions, and while both men's subordinates recommended resistance, each declined and was captured. Against what the edict said, both were killed—Sima Liang with his heir Sima Ju (司馬矩) and Wei with nine of his sons and grandsons. After Empress Jia, concerned about Sima Wei's power, then falsely declared that the edict was forged by Sima Wei and had him executed, Wei was posthumousy honored and created a duke.

See also[link]

• List of people of the Three Kingdoms

Zhao Yun
Qing Dynasty illustration of Zhao Yun
General of Shu Han
Born	(Unknown)[1]
Died	229[2]
Names
Simplified Chinese	赵云
Traditional Chinese	趙雲
Pinyin	Zhào Yún
Wade-Giles	Chao Yun
Style name	Zilong (子龍)
Posthumous name	Marquis of Shunping (順平侯)

Zhao Yun (died 229^[2]) was a military general who lived during the late Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. For most of his career, Zhao served the warlord Liu Bei, playing a part in the establishment of state of Shu Han. In literature and folklore, he is lauded as the third member of the Five Tiger Generals.

Due to limits in historical records, many facts about Zhao's life remain unclear or unknown. The original records in Chen Shou's Records of Three Kingdoms are only a couple of hundred words long. Pei Songzhi's annotations provide a relatively clear, though still incomplete picture of Zhao's life.

Biography[link]

Early life and career[link]

Zhao Yun was born in Zhending, Changshan (south of present-day Zhengding, Hebei). He joined the warlord Gongsun Zan around late 191 or early 192 as a commander of a small group of county volunteers. In 192, he became a subordinate of Liu Bei, who was serving as a major under Gongsun Zan then. Zhao commanded a contingent of several thousand Wuhuan cavalry under Liu Bei. He left Gongsun Zan and Liu Bei to attend his older brother's funeral later.

Zhao Yun rejoined Liu Bei in 200, when Liu was defeated by Cao Cao and was seeking shelter under Yuan Shao. Zhao Yun had a close friendship with Liu Bei, as they shared the same bed while they were living in Ye then. Around the same time, Liu Bei sent Zhao Yun to secretly recruit more men to join his army, while they were both still under Yuan Shao. Zhao Yun succeeded in recruiting a few hundred men, when asked, they all claimed to be Liu Bei's personal militia, and Yuan Shao was unable to know if his men deserted him for Liu. From then on, Zhao Yun followed Liu Bei in his sojourns throughout northern China.

"Zhao Yun's Fight at Changban" inside the Long Corridor on the grounds of the Summer Palace in Beijing, China. The rider in white is Zhao Yun.

In 208, Zhao Yun distinguished himself at the Battle of Changban against Cao Cao's forces. Liu Bei left his family behind while fleeing during the chaos. At the same time, Zhao Yun disappeared to the north, incurring suspicion that he had surrendered to Cao Cao. When someone reported that to Liu Bei, Liu angrily threw a handaxe and said, "Zilong (Zhao Yun's style name) would never desert me". As expected, Zhao Yun returned with Liu Bei's infant son Liu Shan and wife Lady Gan. For his success, Zhao Yun was promoted to "General of the Standard" (牙門將軍).

Efforts in establishing Shu[link]

After the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhao Yun played a major role in conquering territories in Jiangnan for Liu Bei. He was promoted to Major-General (偏將軍) and appointed Grand Administrator of Guiyang, replacing Zhao Fan, who surrendered the area to Liu Bei's forces.

When Liu Bei entered Yi Province (covering the Sichuan Basin) with his major advisor, Pang Tong, he appointed Zhao Yun as the main officer overseeing his base in Gong'an. Liu Bei's wife, Lady Sun, was the younger sister of the warlord Sun Quan, who was Liu's patron and chief ally. Emboldened by her brother's power and influence, Lady Sun and her militia often ran wild and broke the law. Liu Bei considered Zhao Yun to be serious, firm and unwavering, so he granted Zhao special authority to oversee internal affairs in Gong'an, as well to keep close watch on Lady Sun and her followers. Not long after Liu Bei left Jing Province, Sun Quan secretly summoned his sister back to Jiangdong. Lady Sun wanted to bring the young Liu Shan along with her, but Zhao Yun and Zhang Fei stopped her on the Yangtze River and retrieved their lord's son.

In 214, Liu Bei's invasion of Yi Province, governed by Liu Zhang, faced desperate resistance when he reached the city of Luo (雒; northwest of Chengdu). There, rival generals Liu Xun, Zhang Ren, and Ling Bao played a staunch defense, and Pang Tong was killed in action. Zhao Yun accompanied Zhang Fei and Zhuge Liang to Yi Province to assist in the war.^[3] Zhao Yun held a separate command, with his army marching from Jiangzhou (present-day Chongqing), through Jiangyang (present-day Luzhou) and Jianwei, to enter the region. The arrival of Zhao Yun replenished the tired soldiers who were worn by the three-year campaign, and together they surrounded Chengdu, forcing Liu Zhang to yield. Liu Bei appointed Zhao Yun as "General of the Flying Army" after occupying Chengdu. At that time, many suggested to Liu Bei to grant estates and plantations around Chengdu to his generals for them to settle in. Zhao Yun argued that it was more suitable to return the lands to the locals, and Liu Bei accepted his advice.

Battle of Han River[link]

In 219, Liu Bei and Cao Cao battled for control over Hanzhong in the Hanzhong Campaign. Cao Cao had huge amounts of food supplies stocked up near the north mountain. Zhao Yun sent his soldiers to follow Huang Zhong to attack Cao Cao's army and seize the supplies. When Huang Zhong did not return on time, Zhao Yun brought a dozen men with him to find Huang. They ran into Cao Cao's vanguard army and were preparing for engagement when Cao's main force arrived. The situation became perilous for Zhao Yun as he was vastly outnumbered. Zhao Yun attacked the frontline of Cao Cao's army, surprising the enemy and causing them to momentarily disperse. However, Cao Cao's troops soon regrouped and surrounded Zhao Yun, so Zhao fought his way towards his own camp. When Zhao Yun saw that his subordinate Zhang Zhu was injured and had fallen behind, he turned back to rescue him. Cao Cao's army pursued Zhao Yun back to his camp. Zhang Yi, Administrator of Mianyang, who was stationed in Zhao Yun's camp, thought it would be best to close all the gates. However, upon entering the camp, Zhao Yun ordered all flags and banners to be hidden, all drumming to be stopped, and the gates left completely open. Cao Cao's force feared an ambush in the camp and hastily retreated. Just then, Zhao Yun ordered his drummers to beat the drums loudly and his archers to fire arrows at the enemy. Cao Cao's army was taken by surprise and disintegrated into chaos. Many of Cao Cao's soldiers drowned as they tried to flee towards the Han River to escape.

The following day after the battle, Liu Bei arrived to inspect the battle situation. He praised Zhao Yun for the victory, "Zilong has valor through and through", and threw a feast in honor of Zhao. From then on, Zhao Yun became known as "General of Tiger's Might" (虎威將軍) in Liu Bei's army.

In 221, Liu Bei proclaimed himself Emperor of Shu Han, and declared war on Eastern Wu to avenge the death of Guan Yu and the loss of Jing Province. Zhao Yun attempted to dissuade Liu Bei from waging war on Wu, and advised him to attack Wei first, but Liu Bei ignored his advice. Liu Bei then left Zhao Yun in charge of Jiangzhou, while he personally led an army to attack Wu, but was defeated at the Battle of Xiaoting.

Later life[link]

Liu Bei died in 223 and was succeeded by his son, Liu Shan. In the same year, Zhao Yun was named "South Conquering General" (征南將軍) and "Central-Protector-of-Army" (中護軍), and received the title of "Marquis of Yongchang" (永昌亭侯). He was promoted to "East Guarding General" (鎮東將軍) subsequently. In 227, Zhao Yun followed Zhuge Liang to Hanzhong to prepare for the first Northern Expedition.

Zhao Yun's last battle[link]

During the first expedition, as opposed to what was mentioned in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the honor of being the vanguard did not go to Zhao Yun. Instead, Zhao Yun was sent as a decoy against the main Wei force in Ji Valley, led by Cao Zhen. With Cao Zhen's men mostly tied up by Zhao Yun, Zhuge Liang's army marched without much opposition at first. Upon learning that the Wei emperor Cao Rui dispatched Zhang He as reinforcement, Zhuge Liang promoted Ma Su over more experienced generals such as Wei Yan and Wu Yi (吳懿) to the commander of the vanguard in order to fend off Zhang He at Jieting. Ma Su was defeated by Zhang He and the Shu forces were forced to retreat. Later, Zhuge Liang lamented on his loss in the first Northern Expedition, he pointed out "his huge army at Mount Qi and Zhao Yun's army in Ji Valley, were larger than that of the enemies."^[4] However, his defeat by a smaller force was largely a result of Zhuge Liang's allocation of resources. A log in Records of Three Kingdoms explains why Zhao Yun was defeated—the entry says " (Zhao) Yun and (Deng) Zhi's troops were weak, while the enemy was strong, so they lost at Ji Valley (雲、芝兵弱敵強，失利於箕谷)." From the record, Zhuge Liang had reserved the elite troops for his favorite, Ma Su, and himself; Zhao Yun was given only weaker soldiers.^[5] In the aforementioned dialogue of Zhuge Liang, Zhuge presumed that numbers alone would help him prevail over his rival, without considering giving more power to veteran generals like Zhao Yun, Wei Yan and others; it was only after his failure did Zhuge realize army size alone did not determine the outcome of a battle(今欲減兵省將，明罰思過，校變通之道於將來；若不能然者，雖兵多何益！).

Unable to muster a victory, Zhao Yun managed to minimize his losses by rallying his surviving men to firmly defend their positions, he then personally went to the rear to prevent enemy pursuit, and did not hurry his retreat, so supplies were not lost, and no one was left behind. When he safely returned to Hanzhong, Zhuge Liang was surprised by Zhao Yun's smooth retreat and told Zhao to distribute the excess silk fabrics to his soldiers as a consolation. However, Zhao Yun rebuked his supervisor, and said to the latter, "How can rewards be given when our campaign failed? Please store the silk in a warehouse, and distribute them in October."^[6] Zhuge Liang was delighted when he heard what Zhao Yun said. Zhao Yun was demoted to "General of Peace Maintenance" (鎮軍將軍) as an overall campaign failure, despite his role as a decoy.

Death[link]

Zhao Yun died in 229 in Hanzhong and was granted the posthumous title of "Marquis of Shunping" (順平侯) by Liu Shan in 261.^[7] Liu Shan's order for Zhao Yun to be honoured read, "When Zhao Yun was serving the late emperor (Liu Bei), his contributions were already remarkable. When I was young, I relied on his loyalty to save me from great danger. That is why I am bestowing upon him the honour." Zhao Yun was one of 12 Shu subjects to be granted posthumous titles of nobility.^{[citation needed]}

Zhao Yun had two sons, Zhao Tong (趙統) and Zhao Guang. The latter followed Jiang Wei on the campaigns against Wei, and was killed in action in Tazhong.

Appraisal[link]

Zhao Yun was a disciplinarian who was able to differentiate between personal friendship and official relation. In 202, he participated in the Battle of Bowang against Cao Cao's general Xiahou Dun. In that battle, he captured Xiahou Lan (夏侯蘭), an old acquaintance who was from the same hometown as him. Zhao Yun turned Xiahou Lan in to Liu Bei, despite their close tie, but pleaded for Xiahou's life, to which Liu agreed. Xiahou Lan, as a person who was proficient at laws, became a military judge under Zhao Yun's recommendation; however, Zhao never kept Xiahou close. Such was his carefulness in handling relationships.

Zhao Yun was also able to remain sensible when facing temptation. When Zhao Yun and Zhao Fan got acquainted, the latter proposed a marriage between the former and Lady Fan, the widowed wife of Zhao Fan's older brother, while Zhao Yun politely declined, saying to Zhao Fan, "I share the same surname with you, therefore I regard your older brother as mine." Zhao Yun explained later why he did not agree to the marriage, "Zhao Fan was forced to succumb, his intentions are not yet clear. Besides, there are many other women in this world."^[8] Zhao Fan indeed escaped, indicating he harbored ill intentions. On the other hand, Zhao Yun remained unharmed because of his rationalism.

In fiction[link]

Many of Zhao Yun's actual exploits were highly dramatized in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. In the novel, Zhao Yun is described as being almost perfect, possessing unparalleled physical power as well as unwavering loyalty to his lord, tremendous courage, keen intelligence and serene charisma. These traits have often been reflected in almost all modern material about Zhao Yun to date. The novel portrays him as a courageous, loyal, and heroic warrior, and depicting him surviving insurmountable odds many times single-handedly.

Rescuing Liu Shan in Changban[link]

The novel portrayed Zhao Yun quickly and single-handedly slaying numerous enemy generals as he rode from point to point during the Battle of Changban, while asking civilians the whereabouts of Lady Gan, Lady Mi, and Liu Shan. As proof of his resolve, he stated that he would search everywhere to find them and if he could not, he would die on the battlefield. One of the many generals that fell to Zhao Yun was Xiahou En, who carried one of Cao Cao's prized swords, the "Qinggang" (青釭). The sword was said to be able to cut through metal as if it were mud, and Zhao Yun took it with him after slaying Xiahou En. Upon finally finding Lady Mi and Liu Shan near an old well, Lady Mi, who was injured in the leg, gave the child to Zhao Yun and refused to go with him, saying that she would be a burden to them. With enemy soldiers approaching, the two argued until Lady Mi committed suicide by throwing herself into a nearby well. Zhao Yun strapped the child to his chest and covered him with his breast plate armour and fought his way out through overwhelming encirclement of enemy troops, armed with only a spear and the newly acquired Qinggang sword. Zhao Yun's valor impressed Cao Cao, who ordered his archers not to fire at Zhao, but capture him alive instead in hope that Zhao would surrender to him. Throughout the battle, Zhao Yun charged in and out of the enemy formation seven times, killing over 50 enemy commanders.

Zhao Yun eventually fought his way to Changban Bridge, where he met Zhang Fei, who stayed behind to block the incoming enemy troops. Zhao Yun finally returned to Liu Bei's side, returned Liu Shan to him and expressed remorse for his failure to bring back Lady Mi. Liu Bei threw the infant to the ground, saying that his son was not worth the risk taken by the general to save him. Zhao Yun barely caught the child in his arms.

Rescuing Liu Shan from Lady Sun[link]

In chapter 61 (a fictionalization of a real incident), Lady Sun returned to Jiangdong to visit her ill mother after receiving news from her older brother, Sun Quan. In fact, Sun Quan was lying, as he wanted to trick Lady Sun into bringing Liu Shan along, and hold the boy hostage in exchange for Jing Province from Liu Bei. When Zhao Yun heard that Lady Sun was leaving with Liu Shan, he rushed to the pier and saw that Lady Sun had just boarded the vessel bound for Jiangdong, manned by Zhou Shan.

Zhao Yun boarded a small fishing boat and caught up with the vessel and leapt onto it. Zhao Yun fought his way through and managed to seize back Liu Shan from Lady Sun, but was unable to get off safely. Just then, the vessel was intercepted by a fleet led by Zhang Fei. Zhou Shan attempted to stop them but was slain by Zhang Fei. Lady Sun eventually agreed to let Liu Shan leave with Zhang Fei and Zhao Yun while she returned home alone.

Modern references[link]

Zhao Yun has been featured prominently in Chinese popular culture, literature, art and anecdotes. Zhao Yun was already a relatively well-known hero from the Three Kingdoms period, as folk tales about his heroics have been passed down through centuries. He became a famous household name due to the popularity of the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Recently, Zhao Yun's popularity has moved beyond Asia and into the Western world, through various media, including the Internet and video games.

Film and television[link]

A dramatised version of Zhao Yun's life story is featured in the 2008 film Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon, starring Andy Lau as "Zhao Zilong" (a reference to Zhao Yun by his style name). Hu Jun played Zhao Yun in Red Cliff, another film based on the Three Kingdoms that was released later in the same year. In the 2010 television series Three Kingdoms, directed by Gao Xixi, Zhao Yun was portrayed by Nie Yuan.

Video games[link]

Zhao Yun appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series. He is usually featured prominently on the cover of each title, and is most often used by the developers in screenshots and other promotional materials for upcoming releases. He also appears in all installments of Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy game series.

See also[link]

• List of people of the Three Kingdoms
• List of Dynasty Warriors characters

Notes[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Zhao Yun

References[link]

• Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, with annotations by Pei Songzhi.
• Luo Guanzhong. Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
• ""Andy Lau to Star in Two Period Films - Stratege and Zhao Zilong" on MonkeyPeaches". http://www.monkeypeaches.com/0507M.html#02A. Retrieved 2007-03-03. 

Jiang Wei
Qing Dynasty illustration of Jiang Wei
Regent of Shu Han
Born	202
Died	264 (aged 62)
Names
Simplified Chinese	姜维
Traditional Chinese	姜維
Pinyin	Jiāng Wéi
Wade-Giles	Chiang Wei
Style name	Boyue (伯約)

Jiang Wei (202–264) was a military general and regent of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. He originally served Shu's rival state, Cao Wei, as a middle-level military officer, but defected to the Shu strategist Zhuge Liang,^[1] leaving his mother in Wei. After that, Jiang Wei took part in military campaigns against his native state. He joined Zhuge's first Northern Expedition against Wei in 228, and was made an army commander. Zhuge Liang had always considered Jiang Wei a resourceful and capable general, and Jiang received light-speed promotions during the regencie of Zhuge Liang and of Zhuge Liang's successors Jiang Wan and Fei Yi to eventually become Fei Yi's chief assistant. After Fei Yi's death in 253, he succeeded to Fei Yi's position, but did not have the full power that Fei Yi had, as he was only charged with military matters—and therefore was arguably a regent.

Reviving Zhuge Liang's campaigns against Wei (which Jiang Wan and Fei Yi had largely abandoned), Jiang Wei made a number of incursions against Wei — one in coordination with Eastern Wu's regent Zhuge Ke -- but each had to be abandoned due to the inadequate food supplies or due to battlefield losses, and these campaigns greatly drained Shu's resources. In 263, a Wei army, led by Deng Ai and Zhong Hui, conquered Shu. Jiang Wei tried to restore Shu by persuading Zhong Hui to declare a rebellion against the de facto Wei ruler Sima Zhao, Zhong Hui agreed but after he did so, Zhong's own soldiers rebelled against him. Both Zhong and Jiang were killed in battle.

Biography[link]

Early life in Wei[link]

Jiang Wei was born during the late Han Dynasty and was from Tianshui Commandery in Gansu.^[2][3] His father Jiang Jiong (姜冏) was a military officer who was killed in battle during a Qiang rebellion, early in Jiang Wei's life. Because of what happened to his father, Jiang Wei became a military officer himself for the state of Cao Wei.

As a general of Shu[link]

When Liu Shan's regent Zhuge Liang had his first northern expedition in 228, Jiang Wei's commanding officer suspected him of secretly wishing to join Zhuge Liang, and once, when Jiang Wei was outside the city walls with his troops, they closed the city gates and would not allow Jiang Wei to re-enter. Jiang Wei was forced to indeed defect to Zhuge's army, leaving his mother in Wei territory. Even though Jiang Wei had not shown his military skills on the battlefield, he had already been praised by Zhuge Liang as a capable officer, and was quickly made Zhuge's leading officer at the age of 27, probably out of political consideration.

After Zhuge Liang's death in 234, Jiang Wan succeeded him as regent. He continued to value Jiang Wei's understanding of, and connections in Liang Province, and he commissioned Jiang Wei with the title of the governor of Liang Province (涼州; present-day Gansu), which Shu did not control, but effectively giving Jiang Wei the authority over the northwestern border. After Jiang Wan's death in 245, Fei Yi succeeded him and made Jiang Wei his chief assistant.

Jiang Wei had constantly desired to revive Zhuge Liang's strategy of actively waging wars against Wei, but Fei disagreed, because the resources put into large-scaled wars had already been too much. Instead, Fei Yi kept Jiang Wei on a short leash, and authorized the latter to lead a detachment of 10,000 troops to harass Wei's border. Jiang Wei appeared to be fairly effective under Fei Yi's command, and was successful in persuading a number of non-Han tribes to resist Wei.

As a paramountcy of military[link]

After Fei Yi's assassination in 253, Jiang Wei took over Fei's position, making him the head of the army — but unlike his deceased supervisor, his influence on domestic matters was limited, as those matters appeared to be dominated by Liu Shan's trusted eunuch Huang Hao, and Zhuge Liang's son, Zhuge Zhan. Jiang Wei, however, was the supreme authority in military matters. Jiang Wei attempted to weaken Wei, however, there was dissension within the highest ranked officials, because both Zhuge Zhan and Huang Hao feared Jiang Wei would use the military campaigns as a mean to increase his personal influence. Besides the political hinder, several generals also pointed out the strategic shortcomings of waging wars against a stronger state. Thus, Jiang Wei's northern expeditions faced opposition from within Shu.

Campaigns against Wei[link]

A statue of Jiang Wei in Zhuge Liang's temple in Chengdu. It was made in 1672.

Ignoring the oppositions, Jiang Wei immediately revived Zhuge Liang's northern strategy after he gained full control of the army, and in 253 he set up a coordinated effort with Wu's regent Zhuge Ke to attack Wei on two fronts — Shu on the west and Wu on the east. Jiang Wei attacked the border city of Didao (狄道; in present-day Dingxi, Gansu) as Zhuge Ke launched a massive attack on Hefei. Wei's regent Sima Shi correctly judged the Wu force to be the more serious threat and personally led the main Wei force to the eastern front while sending a smaller detachment to relieve Didao. As the first sign of what would eventually recur, Jiang, while sieging Didao, ran out of food supplies and had to withdraw. Eventually, Zhuge Ke's army suffered a great loss due to an unsuccessful long-term siege and plagues, leading to Zhuge Ke's downfall later that year.

In 254, Jiang Wei, after Li Jian (李簡), the county magistrate of Didao secretly declared that he would defect, again advanced on Didao and took the city, but was hindered from a local resistance force led by Xu Zhi (徐質). Jiang Wei kidnapped some local residents and returned to a stronghold in Longxi, before Guo Huai arrived the battlefield.

In the summer of 255, despite the opposition from Zhang Yi (under the rationale that Shu could not sustain continuous campaigns against Wei), Jiang Wei again attacked Didao, and was highly successful in his initial battles against Wei's Yong Province (雍州; present-day Shaanxi) governor Wang Jing (王經), nearly annihilating Wang's troops. Zhang Yi again tried to persuade Jiang Wei to stop his campaign at this point, but Jiang refused. Instead, he sieged Didao again and eventually was forced to lift the siege when additional Wei forces arrived under the command of Chen Tai. Jiang and Chen's forces remained in a stalemate throughout the entire winter. In the summer of 256, as Jiang Wei shifted his strategy to advance instead on Shanggui (上邽; in present-day Tianshui, Gansu), his move was anticipated by the Wei general Deng Ai, who intercepted him and dealt him a major loss—a loss that would cause the people of Shu to begin to resent Jiang.

In 257, when Cao Wei was dealing with the rebellion of Zhuge Dan (who had anticipated an usurpation by Sima Shi's brother and successor Sima Zhao and wanted to resist it), Jiang Wei again attacked, this time advancing all the way to Mangshui (芒水; in present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi), but could not induce Wei's forces, commanded by Deng Ai and Sima Wang, to engage him in battle. After Zhuge was defeated in 258, Jiang withdrew.

In 262, Jiang Wei, despite Liao Hua's opposition, again attacked Wei, targeting Taoyang (洮陽; in present-day Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (Hezuo), Gansu), but was defeated by Deng Ai. He withdrew to Tazhong (沓中; also in present-day Gannan), and, apprehensive that Huang Hao might take this opportunity to damage him politically, did not dare to return to the Shu Han capital Chengdu, but remained at Tazhong, perhaps to carry out one strategy that Zhuge considered late in his campaigns — have soldiers grow wheat to use as next year's food supply. Why Jiang was particularly apprehensive of Huang at this point was that he had unsuccessfully tried to persuade Liu Shan to execute Huang Hao earlier that year, and Huang was trying to find an opportunity to replace Jiang Wei with his friend Yan Yu (閻宇).

Fall of Shu[link]

In 258, Jiang Wei had suggested the following strategic plan be drawn up in case of a major Wei attack — that the border cities do not try to resist, but instead have the main forces to withdraw to the mountain passes to wait for Wei forces to be worn out, and then close up their path of withdrawal. Liu Shan approved the strategy and made it the official plan to follow in case Wei attacked.

Late in 262, aggravated by Jiang's constant attacks, Sima Zhao considered hiring assassins to kill Jiang Wei. At his strategists' suggestion, he decided instead to try to wipe out Shu once and for all, and commissioned Deng Ai and Zhong Hui to lead the Wei forces against Shu. Jiang Wei quickly realized that Wei was about to attack and petitioned Liu Shan to send forces to block off the key passes, but Huang Hao, believing in fortunetellers, disagreed and persuaded Liu Shan to take no actions on Jiang Wei's petition.

In 263, while Jiang was still at Tazhong, the Wei attack was launched. Liu Shan ordered that Jiang Wei's plan from 258 be carried out — but much to Liu Shan's surprise, the Wei forces took no heed of Shu border cities at all and headed directly for the key passes. Jiang Wei quickly withdrew his forces to try to defend against the attack, and after some initial failures, was finally able to block off Zhong Hui's forces at Jiange (劍閣; in present-day Guangyuan, Sichuan). Zhong Hui considered retreating, but Deng Ai led a smaller detachment through a treacherous mountain pass descending on Jiangyou (江油; in present-day Mianyang, Sichuan), defeating Zhuge Liang's son Zhuge Zhan and heading directly for the Shu capital Chengdu. Surprised and believing that Chengdu was defenseless, Liu Shan surrendered and ordered Jiang Wei to surrender to Zhong Hui, even though Chengdu was still manned by hundreds of thousands of soldiers. Zhong Hui treated Jiang Wei with respect and quickly made him a key advisor.

Efforts to reestablish Shu and death[link]

Jiang Wei quickly saw that Zhong Hui had other ideas — Zhong considered his abilities superior to all Wei generals, even Sima Zhao, and wanted to overthrow Sima. Jiang Wei encouraged Zhong to rebel against Sima Zhao, and Zhong agreed. Zhong Hui first falsely reported to Sima Zhao that Deng Ai was planning a rebellion, and forged letters to and from Deng to increase the tension between Sima Zhao and Deng Ai. In early 264, Sima ordered that Zhong arrest Deng and seize his troops — but at the same time led a force personally, heading toward Chengdu from the Wei capital Luoyang. Zhong Hui, after seizing Deng Ai's troops, realized that Sima Zhao had seen through his intentions, and declared a rebellion.

Jiang Wei had other plans, however. He tried to persuade Zhong Hui to kill all of the high level Wei officers, with his own plan that after Zhong did so, he would kill Zhong Hui and then all of the Wei soldiers and redeclare Shu's independence. He wrote letters to Liu Shan explaining his actions. Zhong Hui tentatively agreed with Jiang Wei's suggestion to kill all of the key officers, but hesitated in carrying the plan out. The plan leaked, however, and Zhong's soldiers turned against him. Jiang Wei led Zhong's personal guards against the rebelling soldiers, but eventually Jiang, and then Zhong, were killed.

Appraisal[link]

Jiang Wei was one of the most controversial figures in Chinese history. In Bo Yang's Modern Chinese Edition of Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian, for example, Bo cited seven different and discordant views of Jiang's career — ranging from ringing endorsements of his recklessness and loyalty for the sake of Shu (Pei Songzhi (裴松之), commentator to the Records of Three Kingdoms) to criticism of his constant draining campaigns (Chen Shou, author of Records of Three Kingdoms) to outright condemnation (Sun Sheng (孫盛), author of the Spring and Autumn Annals of Jin), each of which could be considered a potentially valid view of his complicated character. (Bo himself declined comment, but later in an open letter to a reader suggested that all of the views were, indeed, correct — that Jiang's fatal errors were to drain the energy of his people, but that he was indeed a loyal man, willing to lay down his life in a futile attempt to reestablish Shu.)

Appointments and titles held[link]

The following appointments were held by Jiang Wei when he served the state of Wei in Tianshui Commandery

• Household Officer (中郎)
• Army Adviser (參軍事)

The following appointments and titles were held by Jiang Wei when he served the state of Shu

• Assistant Logistics Officer (倉曹掾)
• Central Army Inspector (中監軍)
• General Who Attacks the West (征西將軍)
• Right Inspector of the Army (右監軍)
• General Who Assists Han (輔漢將軍)
• Marquis of Pingxiang (平襄侯)
• Senior General Who Guards the West (鎮西大將軍)
• General of the Guards (衛將軍)
• Imperial Secretary (錄尚書事)
• General-in-Chief (大將軍)

Modern references[link]

Jiang Wei appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series, where he is portrayed as a handsome young man who is fiercely devoted to his mentor Zhuge Liang. He also appears in Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms series.

See also[link]

• List of people of the Three Kingdoms
• List of Dynasty Warriors characters

References[link]

• Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 44, Biographies of Jiang Wan, Fei Yi, and Jiang Wei.
• Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 26, Biographies of Man, Tian, Qian, and Guo.
• Chen Shou. Records of Three Kingdoms, Volume 28, Biographies of Wang, Guanqiu, Zhuge, Deng and Zhong.

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Guan Yu
General of Liu Bei
Born	(Unknown)
Died	219
Names
Simplified Chinese	关羽
Traditional Chinese	關羽
Pinyin	Guān Yǔ
Wade-Giles	Kuan Yu
Style name	Yunchang (雲長)
Posthumous name	Marquis Zhuangmou (壮缪侯) 1
Buddhist name	Sangharama Bodhisattva Qíelán Púsà (伽藍菩薩)
Deity name	Guan Sheng Di Jun (關聖帝君) Saintly Emperor Guan
Other names	Guan Gong (關公) Lord Guan Guan Er Ye (關二爺) Lord Guan the Second Mei Ran Gong (美髯公) Lord of Magnificent Beard Guan Di (關帝) Emperor Guan Changsheng (長生) Shouchang (壽長) Possible former stylenames
^1 See General worship for more posthumous titles.

Guan Yu (died 219)^[1] was a general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. He played a significant role in the civil war that led to the collapse of the Han Dynasty and the establishment of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period, of which Liu Bei was the first emperor.^[2]

As one of the best known Chinese historical figures throughout East Asia, Guan's true life stories have largely given way to fictionalized ones, mostly found in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms or passed down the generations, in which his deeds and moral qualities have been lionized. Guan is respected as an epitome of loyalty and righteousness.

Guan was deified as early as the Sui Dynasty and is still worshipped by many Chinese people today, especially in southern China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong and their descendants overseas. He is a figure in Chinese folk religion, popular Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese Buddhism, and small shrines to Guan are almost ubiquitous in traditional Chinese shops and restaurants.^[3]

Physical appearance[link]

Guan is traditionally portrayed as a red-faced warrior with a long lush beard. While his beard was mentioned in the Records of Three Kingdoms, the idea of his red face may have derived from a later description of him in Chapter One of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, where the following passage appears:

Alternatively, the idea of his red face could have been borrowed from opera representation, where red faces depict loyalty and righteousness^{[citation needed]}. Supposedly, Guan's weapon was a guan dao named Green Dragon Crescent Blade, which resembled a halberd and was said to weigh 82 catties (about 18.25 kg or 40 lbs). A wooden replica can be found today in the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou County, China. He traditionally dons a green robe over his body armour, as depicted in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Statue of Guan Yu in Zhuge Liang's temple in Chengdu

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Guan Yu was born in Xie County, Hedong (present day Yuncheng (运城市), Shanxi). No details of the time of his birth are found in historical records until the late Qing Dynasty, when the tomb of Guan Yu was discovered, bearing some details of his family.^{[citation needed]} It was written that Guan Yu was actually born from a family of scholars.^{[citation needed]} His grandfather's name was Guan Shen. His father's name was Guan Yi. Guan Yu was born in the year 160^{[citation needed]}, and like his ancestors, often read the classics Book of Changes and Spring and Autumn Annals. He married Lady Hu and his son Guan Ping was born in 178.^{[citation needed]}

Guan Yu fled his hometown at the age of 23^{[citation needed]}, after slaying a local despot named Lü Xiong (呂熊). Five years later, he arrived in Zhuo Commandery (present day Zhuozhou, Hebei). He met Liu Bei, who was recruiting volunteers to form a civilian army to suppress the Yellow Turbans Rebellion. Together with Zhang Fei, Guan Yu joined Liu Bei and participated actively in fighting the Yellow Turban rebels in northern China.

When Liu Bei was appointed as the governor of Pingyuan County, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were made "Senior Major" (别部司马) under Liu. According to Records of Three Kingdoms, the relationship of the three men was described to be as close as brothers. They slept in the same room and had their meals together, behaving as though they were real brothers. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei followed Liu Bei most of the time wherever he went and protected him from danger regardless of how perilous the situation was.

In 199, Liu Bei attacked Xu Province with an army after gaining independence from the warlord Cao Cao. He killed Che Zhou, the governor of Xu Province, and placed Guan Yu in charge of the regional capital city of Xiapi. Liu Bei returned to the city of Xiaopei.  Shortly after, Cao Cao personally led a campaign to reclaim Xu Province from Liu Bei and defeated him in battle.  Liu Bei fled to Hebei and joined the warlord Yuan Shao. Xiapi fell and Guan Yu was captured by Cao Cao's men. Cao Cao treated Guan Yu respectfully, and Guan surrendered to him under conditions. Guan Yu was appointed by Cao Cao as a Lieutenant General.

Service under Cao Cao[link]

In 200, Yuan Shao mustered an army of about 100,000 and started a campaign against Cao Cao, which subsequently culminated in the Battle of Guandu. To ensure a safe crossing of the Yellow River, Yuan Shao sent his general Yan Liang to attack Boma (northeast of present day Hua County, Henan), in order to claim a foothold on the southern bank of the Yellow River. Using a diversionary tactic, Cao Cao moved his main force westward towards Yan Ford along the river. Yuan Shao withdrew his troops from Baima and Cao Cao's forces struck back eastward to relieve the siege on Baima. Guan Yu and Zhang Liao led the vanguard, and attacked Yuan Shao's remaining troops at Baima. Identifying Yan Liang's parasol, Guan Yu slew Yan Liang in the midst of battle and brought back Yan's severed head.

On recommendation of Cao Cao, Guan Yu was conferred the title of "Marquis^[I] of Hanshou" (漢壽亭侯) in recognition of his effort in Boma. After that, Guan Yu left for Hebei to rejoin Liu Bei, who was currently in Yuan Shao's camp. He did not take any of Cao Cao's gifts with him and left behind a farewell letter. Some of Cao Cao's subordinates wanted to pursue Guan Yu and bring him back but Cao stopped them, saying "We are only serving different lords, let him go."

Battle of Red Cliffs[link]

Guan Yu captures Pang De, a Ming Dynasty painting by Shang Xi, c. 1430

After the Battle of Guandu, Liu Bei was defeated at the Battle of Runan by Cao Cao and forced to flee south. He sought refuge under the Jing Province governor Liu Biao. Liu Bei and his forces were placed in charge of the city of Xinye by Liu Biao.

In 208, Cao Cao initiated a southern campaign and seized control of parts of Jing Province north of the Yangtze River. Liu Biao had died of illness then and was succeeded by his son, Liu Cong, who surrendered to Cao Cao. Jing Province was thrown into confusion, and Guan Yu was ordered by Liu Bei to lead a navy and sail to Jiangling. Meanwhile, Liu Bei led some 100,000 refugees south, but was caught up by the elite cavalry of Cao Cao at Changban. Leaving his family and the populace behind, Liu Bei galloped away eastward to Han Ford, where he met up with Guan Yu's navy. Together, they sailed downstream to Xiakou to rendezvous with Liu Qi, who was the older son of Liu Biao. Liu Bei then successfully formed an alliance with the warlord Sun Quan, who held substantial influence in southeastern China, and the allies defeated Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs. As a result, the allied force pursued Cao Cao's forces to Jiangling.

Effort in the battle of Jiangling[link]

During the Battle of Jiangling, Guan Yu was sent to block Cao Ren's supply lines via infiltration. He led a special force composed of navy and infantry, to go up the Han River, and attacked the city of Xiangyang, which was guarded by Yue Jin. Guan Yu was defeated by Yue Jin outside the city walls.^[10] However, Liu Bei became a powerful warlord as he was joined by Lei Xu (雷绪) and his troops numbering to tens of thousands, and soon conquered southern Jing Province without much resistance. Liu Bei promoted Guan Yu to the rank of "General Who Exterminates Rebels" (蕩寇將軍) and appointed him as the governor of the city of Xiangyang. Backed by Liu Bei, Guan Yu led a force to Xiakou to fight Yue Jin and Wen Ping, but was repelled by his rivals.^[11] Wen Ping trailed Guan Yu to Han Ford, in which he had Guan's food storage burnt to the ground.^[12] As a result, Guan Yu attempted to recuperate at Jingcheng (荆城); however, his pursuer would not allow him to rest, and Guan was forced to fight a naval battle with Wen Ping, which resulted in a total destruction of the navy.^[13] Later, Guan Yu set up some layers of blockades to prevent Li Tong from reinforcing Jiangling, but Li removed the blockades and fought his way through. Guan Yu ordered a retreat and Li Tong managed to enter Jiangling.

After almost a year of fighting, Cao Cao could no longer afford continuous loss of materiel and labor in the siege, and ordered Cao Ren to withdraw from Jiangling fortress. Liu Bei convinced Sun Quan to lend him Nan Commandery, and stationed Guan Yu in its capital city, Jiangling. In 213, Liu Bei left for Yi Province (covering the Sichuan Basin) and wrestled control of the land from Liu Zhang after two years. Since then, Guan Yu had been the leading figure of Jing Province. Most of the Liu Bei's forces went to Yi Province when Liu was experiencing difficulty in his invasion, while Guan Yu and part of Liu's forces remained in Jing Province.

Defeat and death[link]

In 219, Guan Yu attacked the nearby enemy city of Fancheng (present-day Fancheng District, Xiangyang, Hubei), which was guarded by Cao Ren, and besieged it. In autumn, heavy showers in the region caused the Han River next to the city to overflow. The flood destroyed reinforcements troops from Cao Cao led by Yu Jin and Pang De. Both Yu Jin and Pang De were captured by Guan Yu in battle. However, reinforcements led by Xu Huang managed to force Guan Yu's troops to retreat.

At that time, Guan Yu realised that Sun Quan had secretly formed an alliance with Cao Cao and attacked Jing Province while he was attacking Fancheng. Mi Fang and Shi Ren, whom he left in charge of Jing Province, had surrendered to Sun Quan. When Guan Yu's troops received news that their families in Jing Province had fallen into the control of Sun Quan, some of them started deserting and returning to Jing Province to reunite with their families.

Guan Yu's army was severely depleted due to the desertions so he attempted to retreat to Yi Province in the west but was surrounded and besieged by Sun Quan's forces at Maicheng (southeast of present day Dangyang, Hubei). Guan Yu attempted to break out of the encirclement with his son Guan Ping and subordinate Zhao Lei but failed. They were captured in Zhang Town (east of present-day Yuan'an County, Hubei) and executed by Sun Quan after refusing to surrender. Sun Quan sent Guan Yu's severed head to Cao Cao, who performed the proper funeral rites and buried Guan's head with full honours. In 260, Liu Shan gave Guan Yu the posthumous title of "Marquis Zhuangmou" (壯繆侯), which states that he does not live up to his name in terms of his ability.^[14]

Family[link]

• Grandfather: Guan Shen (關審), style name Wenzhi (問之)

• Father: Guan Yi (關毅), style name Daoyuan (道遠)

• Spouse: Lady Hu (胡氏)

• Children:
  • Guan Ping, oldest son of Guan Yu, served in Liu Bei's army and was executed along with his father by Sun Quan. He was an adopted son of Guan Yu in Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
  • Guan Xing, second son of Guan Yu, served as a civil officer in Shu
  • Lady Guan, daughter of Guan Yu. Her name was said to be "Guan Yinping" (關銀屏) in folk tales. Sun Quan once proposed a marriage between his son and her, but was refused by Guan Yu.
  • Guan Suo, alleged third son of Guan Yu in folklores, not mentioned in historical records.

• Grandchildren:
  • Guan Tong, son of Guan Xing, married a princess, served as a general in Shu, did not have any children.^[15]
  • Guan Yi (關彝), son of Guan Xing, born to Guan Xing's concubine, succeeded Guan Tong and was killed during the turmoil caused by Zhong Hui.

According to Pei Songzhi's annotations in Records of Three Kingdoms, after the fall of Shu, Pang Hui (son of Pang De) massacred the Guan clan to avenge his father, who was put to death by Guan Yu.^[16]

Appointments and titles held[link]

• Senior Major (別部司馬)
• Administrator of Xiapi (下邳太守)
• Lieutenant General (偏將軍)
• Marquis of Hanshou (漢壽亭侯)
• Administrator of Xiangyang (襄陽太守)
• General Who Rocks the Bandits (盪寇將軍)
• General of the Vanguard (前將軍)
• Marquis Zhuangmou (壯繆侯) - granted to Guan Yu posthumously

In fiction[link]

Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms glorified Guan Yu by portraying him as a righteous and loyal warrior. Guan Yu was one of the most altered and aggrandised characters in the novel, which accounted for his popular image in Chinese society. The following are some significant stories involving Guan Yu from the novel:

Early life[link]

In Chapter 1, Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei met in Zhuo County and took an oath of fraternity in the fabled Peach Garden, thus becoming sworn brothers. Guan Yu was ranked second in seniority among the three. The oath served as a guiding principle for Guan Yu and influenced much of his later life. Guan Yu held on to his oath until his death and was always loyal to his sworn brothers.

In Chapter 5, Guan Yu made his name by slaying the seemingly "undefeatable" warrior Hua Xiong in the campaign against Dong Zhuo. Later, the sworn brothers challenged the mighty warrior Lü Bu at the Battle of Hulao Pass and managed to force him to retreat even though they were unable to defeat him.

Short service under Cao Cao[link]

In Chapter 25, Cao Cao attacked Liu Bei's territory of Xu Province and defeated Liu's army. The sworn brothers were temporarily separated. Guan Yu was in charge of defending Xiapi, where Liu Bei's wives were housed. Guan Yu was lured out of the city and besieged on a nearby knoll while the city fell to Cao Cao's troops. Cao Cao sent Zhang Liao to persuade Guan Yu to surrender. Guan Yu was worried about the safety of his sisters-in-law as he saw that as his responsibility. After much consideration, Guan Yu agreed to submit to Cao Cao on three conditions:

1. In name, Guan Yu submits to the Emperor Xian (who was actually a puppet ruler in Cao Cao's control) and not to Cao Cao.
2. Liu Bei's wives must not be harmed in any way. They must be treated with full respect and honour.
3. If Guan Yu discovers the whereabouts of Liu Bei (whose fate was unknown after the battle) one day, he will leave Cao Cao and reunite with his sworn brother.

Cao Cao agreed to the conditions although he felt uneasy about the last one. Guan Yu then submitted to Cao Cao and served Cao for a short period of time. Cao Cao treated Guan Yu with the utmost respect and bestowed upon him several gifts, luxuries and women, as well as the famous steed Red Hare, which once belonged to Lü Bu. Guan Yu was not very appreciative towards Cao Cao's other gifts, but when Cao gave him the steed, he knelt down and thanked Cao. When Cao Cao inquired the reason, Guan Yu replied, "Sir, I'm very grateful to you for the steed because with it, I can reach my sworn brother in a shorter period of time if I ever know where he is."

Also in Chapter 25, during the battle between the forces of Cao Cao and the warlord Yuan Shao on the banks of the Yellow River, Cao's generals were defeated by Yuan's general Yan Liang. Cao Cao wanted to send Guan Yu to challenge Yan Liang but he hesitated because he did not want Guan to make any contributions. Guan Yu had earlier said that he would show his gratitude towards Cao Cao by making some contributions during the period of time when he served Cao. Eventually, Cao Cao did send Guan Yu to fight Yan Liang and Guan emerged victorious, slaying Yan and returning with his opponent's head. In the following chapter, Wen Chou, another of Yuan Shao's generals, came to avenge Yan Liang. Wen Chou defeated a few of Cao Cao's best warriors, including Zhang Liao and Xu Huang. Guan Yu made another great contribution to Cao Cao again by slaying Wen Chou.

Crossing Five Passes and Slaying Six Generals[link]

Mural of Guan Yu's Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles (千里走單騎) in the Summer Palace

In Chapter 26, Guan Yu finally received news that Liu Bei was alive and currently in Yuan Shao's camp. He decided to leave Cao Cao with Liu Bei's wives to rejoin his sworn brother. Guan Yu attempted to bid Cao Cao farewell in person before his departure but Cao did not give him the chance to do so. Frustrated, Guan Yu eventually wrote a farewell letter to Cao Cao and left. He took with him none of the luxuries and gifts Cao Cao gave him, except the Red Hare. He even gave up his title as Marquis of Hanshou by leaving behind his official seal. Cao Cao's subordinates felt that Guan Yu behaved far too rudely and arrogantly by leaving without bidding farewell and wanted to pursue him and bring him back. However, Cao Cao knew that no one could stop Guan Yu and he gave orders for the officials along the way to give passage to Guan.

Guan Yu rode beside the carriage carrying his sisters-in-law and escorted them safely all the way. The first pass they reached was Dongling Pass (south of present-day Dengfeng, Henan). The guarding officer Kong Xiu denied Guan Yu passage as Guan did not have any official permits with him. Infuriated, Guan Yu killed Kong Xiu and forced his way through the pass.

They next reached the city of Luoyang. The governor Han Fu led 1,000 men to block Guan Yu. Han Fu's deputy Meng Tan challenged Guan Yu to a duel but was sliced in two by Guan. While Guan Yu was fighting with Meng Tan, Han Fu secretly took aim and fired an arrow at Guan. The arrow hit Guan Yu's arm and wounded him, but Guan drew the arrow from the wound and proceeded to kill Han Fu. The shocked soldiers immediately gave way and Guan Yu's party passed through safely.

Guan Yu's party arrived at Sishui Pass (north of present-day Xingyang, Henan). The guarding officer Bian Xi received Guan Yu's party with a warm welcome and invited Guan to a feast at the temple outside the pass. In fact, Bian Xi had ordered 200 men to lie in ambush inside the temple and kill Guan Yu. Fortunately, one of the monks called Pujing, who was also from Guan Yu's hometown, hinted to Guan of the hidden danger. The ambush failed and Guan Yu killed Bian Xi and passed through Sishui Pass.

The governor of Xingyang, Wang Zhi, adopted a similar scheme to kill Guan Yu. Like Bian Xi, he pretended to be welcoming towards Guan Yu and led Guan's party to a courier station for them to settle in for the night. After that, Wang Zhi ordered his subordinate Hu Ban to lead 1,000 men to surround the station secretly and set fire to it in the middle of the night. Curious to know how Guan Yu looked like, Hu Ban stole a glance at Guan. Guan Yu noticed Hu Ban and invited him into the room. Guan Yu had met Hu Ban's father earlier and carried a letter with him. He gave the letter to Hu Ban and, after reading his father's letter, Hu Ban decided to help Guan Yu. Hu Ban revealed Wang Zhi's plot and opened the city gates secretly for Guan Yu and his party to leave. Wang Zhi caught up with the party a while later but Guan Yu turned back and killed him.

Guan Yu's party finally arrived at a ferry crossing on the southern bank of the Yellow River. Qin Qi, the officer in charge, refused to allow them to cross the river and was killed by Guan Yu in anger. Guan Yu and his party then crossed the river safely and entered Yuan Shao's domain. However, they soon realised that Liu Bei was no longer in Yuan Shao's territory and had already left for Runan. Guan Yu and his party then made their long journey back and were finally reunited with Liu Bei and Zhang Fei at Gucheng.

During this trip of crossing five passes, Guan Yu met many men who would become his subordinates and remain loyal to him until his death, including Liao Hua, Zhou Cang, and even his adoptive son Guan Ping.

Releasing Cao Cao at Huarong Trail[link]

In Chapter 50, after his defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs, Cao Cao made his escape with his surviving men towards the city of Jiangling. Liu Bei's strategist Zhuge Liang had foreseen Cao Cao's defeat and predicted Cao's escape route. He ordered Guan Yu to lead 5,000 men and lie in ambush along the Huarong Trail, a narrow shortcut in the woods leading towards Jiangling. Before his departure, Guan Yu made a military pledge that he would not spare Cao Cao's life on account of his past relationship with the warlord. If he failed to do so, he would face execution under military law. As expected, Cao Cao did pass through Huarong Trail after having met with several ambushes along his escape route.

Cao Cao and his men encountered Guan Yu and his army. Cao Cao spoke to Guan Yu and begged him to spare his life on account of their past relationship. Guan Yu was moved when he recalled the favours he received from Cao Cao while he was serving the warlord earlier for a short period of time. When he saw the plight of Cao Cao's defeated troops and Zhang Liao, whom he befriended when he serving Cao earlier, he decided to allow Cao and his men to leave. Upon his return, Guan Yu pleaded guilty to having violated the pledge he made earlier and expressed his willingness to accept execution. However, with the interference of Liu Bei and Zhang Fei, Zhuge Liang decided to pardon Guan Yu on account of his past contributions. It was later revealed that Zhuge Liang had expected Guan Yu to spare Cao Cao and his intention was actually to allow Cao to escape so as to hasten the formation of the Three Kingdoms, as detailed in his Longzhong Plan.

Hua Tuo treats Guan Yu's arm[link]

A 19th century Japanese woodcut of Guan Yu by Utagawa Kuniyoshi. In this scene he is being attended to by the physician Hua Tuo while playing weiqi.

In Chapter 75, during a siege on Fancheng (present-day Fancheng District, Xiangyang, Hubei), Guan Yu's arm was wounded by a bolt fired by enemy crossbows. The arrow was promptly removed but the poison smeared on the arrowhead had already seeped through the wound into Guan Yu's arm. Guan Yu was unwilling to order a retreat so his subordinates had to send for a physician to treat his wound. The famous physician Hua Tuo appeared to treat Guan Yu's wound.

Hua Tuo diagnosed that he needed to perform surgery on Guan Yu's arm by cutting open the flesh and scraping off traces of poison on the bone. He also suggested that Guan Yu be blindfolded and have his arm secured tightly because the surgery would be performed in the absence of anesthesia and most patients were unable to bear with the excruciating pain. However, Guan Yu requested that the surgery be performed on the spot and he proceeded to continue a game of weiqi with Ma Liang during the surgery. Throughout the surgery, those watching nearby cringed as they watched the gory scene before them, but Guan Yu remained calm and did not show any sign of pain at all. Eventually, Hua Tuo managed to heal Guan Yu's wound and sewed it up after applying medication and then left without accepting any reward.

Enlightenment on Yuquan Hill[link]

In Chapter 77, after Guan Yu's death at the hands of Sun Quan, his spirit roamed the land, crying out, "Return my head!" His spirit came to Yuquan Hill outside Dangyang County (present-day Dangyang, Hubei), and encountered Pujing, the monk who saved his life several years ago at Sishui Pass. Pujing spoke to the spirit, "Now you ask for your head, but from whom should Yan Liang, Wen Chou, the pass guardians and many others ask for theirs?" Guan Yu's spirit was enlightened and disappeared, but henceforth it manifested itself around the hill and protected the locals from evil. The locals built a temple on the hill to worship the spirit.

The Buddhist monk Pujing was said to have built a grass hut for himself at the southeastern foot of Yuquan Hill during the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. The Yuquan Temple (玉泉寺), the oldest temple in the Dangyang region from where the worship of Guan Yu originated, was built on the exact location of the hut, and its construction was completed only until the Sui Dynasty.

After death[link]

In Chapter 77, after Sun Quan's general Lü Meng captured Jing Province and killed Guan Yu, Sun threw a banquet to celebrate the victory in honour of Lü Meng, who planned the attack. During the feast, Guan Yu's spirit possessed Lü Meng and seized Sun Quan. As the others rushed forward to save Sun Quan, the possessed Lü Meng swore vengeance before collapsing onto the floor and dying moments later. Sun Quan was terrified and he sent Guan Yu's head to Cao Cao, hoping to push the responsibility of Guan's death to Cao and sow discord between Liu Bei and Cao.

When Cao Cao opened the box containing Guan Yu's head, he saw that Guan's facial expressions resembled that of a living person. He smiled and spoke to the head, "I hope you are well since we last parted." To his horror, Guan Yu's head opened its eyes and mouth and the long beard and hairs stood on their ends. Cao Cao collapsed and did not regain consciousness until a long time later. When he came to, he exclaimed, "General Guan is truly a god from heaven!" Then he ordered the head to be buried with full honours befitting that of a noble.

Worship of Guan Yu[link]

Burning of incense during the veneration of lord Guan Yu, Xingtian Temple

Guan Yu was deified as early as the Sui Dynasty (581–618), and is still popularly worshipped today among the Chinese people. He is variedly worshiped as an indigenous Chinese deity, a bodhisattva in Buddhist tradition and as a guardian deity in Taoism and many religious bodies.^[17] He is also held in high esteem in Confucianism. These roles are not necessarily contradictory or even distinguished within the Chinese religious system, which often merge multiple ancient philosophies and religions.

In the Western world, Guan Yu is sometimes called the Taoist God of War, probably because he is one of the most well-known military generals worshiped by the Chinese people. This is a misconception of his role, as, unlike the Greco-Roman deity Mars or the Norse god Týr, Guan Yu, as a god, does not necessarily bless those who go to battle but rather people who observe the code of brotherhood and righteousness.

General worship[link]

A Guan Yu statue holding the guan dao in the right hand.

In general worship, Guan Yu is widely referred to as Emperor Guan (關帝), short for his Taoist title "Saintly Emperor Guan" (關聖帝君), and as "Guan Gong" (關公; literally "Lord Guan"). Temples and shrines dedicated exclusively to Guan can be found in parts of mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and other places with Chinese influence such as Vietnam, South Korea, and Japan. Some of these temples, such as the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou (解州), Shanxi, were built exactly in the layout of a palace, befitting his status as an "emperor".

The apotheosis of Guan Yu occurred in stages, as he was given ever higher posthumous titles. Liu Shan, the second emperor of Shu, gave Guan Yu the posthumous title of "Marquis Zhuangmou" (壯繆侯) four decades after his death. During the Song Dynasty, Emperor Huizong bestowed upon Guan Yu the title of "Duke Zhonghui" (忠惠公), and later the title of a prince.  In 1187, during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong, Guan Yu was established as "Prince Zhuangmou Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (壯繆義勇武安英濟王). After the Song Dynasty was annihilated by the Mongols, who established the Yuan Dynasty in China, Guan Yu was renamed "Prince of Xianling Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (顯靈義勇武安英濟王) by Emperor Wenzong.

The escalation of Guan Yu's status to that of an emperor took place during the Ming Dynasty. In 1614, the Wanli Emperor bestowed on Guan Yu the title of "Saintly Emperor Guan the Great God Who Subdues Demons of the Three Worlds and Whose Awe Spreads Far and Moves Heaven" (三界伏魔大神威遠震天尊關聖帝君). During the Qing Dynasty, the Shunzhi Emperor gave Guan Yu the title of "Zhongyi Shenwu Great Saintly Emperor Guan" (忠義神武關聖大帝) in 1644. This title was expanded to "The Grand Emperor Zhongyi Shenwu Lingyou Renyong Weixian Huguo Baomin Jingcheng Suijing Yizan Xuande Guan Sheng Dadi" (仁勇威顯護國保民精誠綏靖翊贊宣德忠義神武關聖大帝), a total of 24 Chinese characters, by mid-19th century. This name is often shortened to "Saint of War" (武聖), which is of the same rank as Confucius, who was known as the "Saint of Culture" (文聖) during the same period. The Qing advancement of Guan Yu served to strengthen the loyalty of Mongol tribes, as the Mongols revered Guan as second only to their lamas.^[18]

Throughout history, Guan Yu has also been credited with many military successes. During the Ming Dynasty, his spirit was said to have aided Zhu Yuanzhang (founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty)'s fleet at the Battle of Lake Poyang. In 1402, Zhu Di launched a coup d'état and successfully deposed his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor. Zhu Di claimed that he was blessed by the spirit of Guan Yu. During the last decade of the 16th century, Guan Yu was also credited with the repulse of Japanese invasion of Korea by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (called the Seven-Year War of Korea). The ruling Manchu house of the Qing Dynasty was also associated with Guan Yu's martial qualities. During the 20th century, Guan Yu was worshipped by the warlord Yuan Shikai, president and later a short-lived emperor of China.

Today, Guan Yu is still widely worshiped by the Chinese, with many shrines to him are found in homes or businesses. In Hong Kong, a shrine for Guan is located in each police station. Though by no means mandatory, most Chinese policemen worship and pay respect to him. Although seemingly ironic, members of the triads and Heaven and Earth Society worship Guan as well. Statues used by triads tend to hold the halberd in the left hand, and statues in police stations tend to hold the halberd in the right hand. This signifies which side Guan Yu is worshiped, by the righteous people or vice versa. The appearance of Guan Yu's face for the triads is usually more stern and threatening than the usual statue. This exemplifies the Chinese belief that a code of honor, epitomized by Guan Yu, exists even in the underworld. In Hong Kong, Guan Yu is often referred to as "Yi Gor" (二哥, Cantonese for "second big brother") for he was second to Liu Bei in their fictional sworn brotherhood. Guan Yu is also worshipped by Chinese businessmen in Shanxi, Hong Kong, Macau and Southeast Asia as an alternative wealth god, since he is perceived to bless the upright and protect them from the wicked. Another reason being related to the release of Cao Cao during the Huarong Trail incident, in which he let Cao and his men pass through safely. For that, he was perceived to be able to extend the lifespan of people in need.

Among the Cantonese people who emigrated to California during the mid-19th century, the worship of Guan Yu was an important element. Statues and tapestry images of the god can be found in a number of historical California joss houses (a local term for Taoist temples), where his name may be given with various Anglicized spellings, including Kwan Dai, Kwan Tai, Kuan Ti, Kuan Kung, Wu Ti, Mo Dai, Guan Di, Kuan Yu, Kwan Yu, or Quan Yu. The Mendocino Joss House, a historical landmark also known as Mo Dai Miu, The Military God-King's Temple, or Temple of Kwan Tai, built in 1852, is a typical example of the small shrines erected to Guan Yu in America.

Worship in Taoism[link]