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The extensive vineyards of the Languedoc-Roussillon region, southern France

A vineyard is a plantation of grape-bearing vines, grown mainly for winemaking, but also raisins, table grapes and non-alcoholic grape juice. The science, practice and study of vineyard production is known as viticulture.

A vineyard is often characterised by its terroir, a French term loosely translating as "a sense of place" that refers to the specific geographical and geological characteristics of grapevine plantations, which may be imparted in the wine.

History[link]

Common vineyard (ca. 1910)

Satyrs in vineyard. Attic red-figure volute-krater, ca. 490 BC, Staatliche Antikensammlungen.

The earliest evidence of wine production dates from between 6000 and 5000 BC.^[1] Wine making technology improved considerably with the ancient Greeks but it wasn't until the end of the Roman Empire that cultivation techniques as we know them were common throughout Europe.^[2]

In medieval Europe the Church was a staunch supporter of wine, which was necessary for the celebration of the Mass. During the lengthy instability of the Middle Ages, the monasteries maintained and developed viticultural practices, having the resources, security, stability and interest in improving the quality of their vines. They owned and tended the best vineyards in Europe and vinum theologium was considered superior to all others.

The Lavaux vineyards stretching along the northern shores of Lake Geneva.

European vineyards were planted with a wide variety of the Vitis vinifera grape. However, in the late 19th century, the entire species was nearly destroyed by the plant louse phylloxera accidentally introduced to Europe from North America. Native American grapevines include varieties such as Vitis labrusca, which is resistant to the bug. Vitis vinifera varieties were saved by being grafted onto the rootstock of native American varieties, although there is still no remedy for phylloxera, which remains a danger to any vineyard not planted with grafted rootstock.

Modern practices[link]

A vineyard with bird-netting.

The quest for vineyard efficiency has produced a bewildering range of systems and techniques in recent years. Due to the often much more fertile New World growing conditions, attention has focussed heavily on managing the vine's more vigorous growth. Innovation in palissage (training of the vine, usually along a trellis, and often referred to as "canopy management") and pruning and thinning methods (which aim to optimize the Leaf Area/Fruit (LA/F) ratio relative to a vineyard's microclimate) have largely replaced more general, traditional concepts like "yield per unit area" in favor of "maximizing yield of desired quality". Many of these new techniques have since been adopted in place of traditional practice in the more progressive of the so-called "Old World" vineyards.^[3]

Recently planted vineyard in Medanos, Argentina.

Other recent practices include spraying water on vines to protect them from sub-zero temperatures (aspersion), new grafting techniques, soil slotting, and mechanical harvesting. Such techniques have made possible the development of wine industries in New World countries such as Canada. Today there is increasing interest in developing organic, ecologically sensitive and sustainable vineyards. Biodynamics has become increasingly popular in viticulture. The use of drip irrigation in recent years has expanded vineyards into areas which were previously unplantable.

"Old World" vineyard using modern spacing and trellising methods

For well over half a century Cornell University, the University of California, Davis, and California State University, Fresno, among others, have been conducting scientific experiments to improve viticulture and educating practitioners. The research includes developing improved grape varieties and investigating pest control. The International Grape Genome Program is a multi-national effort to discover a genetic means to improving quality, increasing yield and providing a "natural" resistance to pests.

The implementation of mechanical harvesting is often stimulated by changes in labor laws, labor shortages, and bureaucratic complications. It can be expensive to hire labor for short periods of time, which does not square well with the need to reduce production costs and harvest quickly, often at night. However, very small vineyards, incompatible widths between rows of grape vines and steep terrain hinder the employment of machine harvesting even more than the resistance of traditional views which reject such harvesting.^{[citation needed]}

Current trends[link]

A vineyard in Napa Valley, California.

Numbers of New World vineyard plantings have been increasing almost as fast as European vineyards are being uprooted. Between 1990 and 2003, U.S. vineyards increased from 292,000 acres (1,180 km²) to 954,000 acres (3,860 km²), while Australian vineyard numbers more than doubled from 146,000 acres (590 km²) to 356,000 acres (1,440 km²) and Chilean vineyards grew from 161,500 acres (654 km²) to 415,000 acres (1,680 km²).^{[citation needed]} The size of individual vineyards in the New World is significant. Europe's 1.6 million vineyards are an average of 0.2 square kilometres each, while the average Australian vineyard is 0.5 square kilometres, providing considerable economies of scale. Exports to Europe from New World growers increased by 54% in the six years up to 2006.^[4]

There are also changes in the kinds of grapes grown. For example, in Chile, large areas of low-quality grapes have been replaced with such grapes as Chardonnay and Cabernet Sauvignon. Grape changes are often in response to changing consumer demand but sometimes result from vine pull schemes designed to promote vineyard change. Alternatively, the development of "T" budding now permits the grafting of a different grape variety onto existing rootstock in the vineyard, making it possible to switch varieties within a two year period.^{[citation needed]}

Local legislation often dictates which varieties are selected, how they are grown, whether vineyards can be irrigated and exactly when grapes can be harvested, all of which in serves to reinforce tradition. Of course, changes in the law can change which grapes are planted. For example, during Prohibition in the U.S. (1920–1933), vineyards in California expanded sevenfold to meet the increasing demand for home-brewing. However, they were largely planted in varieties with tough skins that could be transported across the country to home wine-makers and the resulting wine was of low quality.^{[citation needed]}

Terroir[link]

Vines growing in volcanic lapilli in the La Geria region of Lanzarote. The low, curved walls are traditionally used to protect the vines from the constant wind.

Terroir refers to the combination of natural factors associated with any particular vineyard. These factors include such things as soil, underlying rock, altitude, slope of hill or terrain, orientation toward the sun, and microclimate (typical rain, winds, humidity, temperature variations, etc.) No two vineyards have exactly the same terroir, although any difference in the resulting wine may be virtually undetectable.

Vineyards are often on hillsides and on soil of marginal value to other plants. A common saying is that "the worse the soil, the better the wine." Planting on hillsides, especially those facing north (in the southern hemisphere) or south (in the northern hemisphere), is most often in an attempt to maximize the amount of sunlight that falls on the vineyard. For this reason some of the best wines come from vineyards planted on quite steep hills, conditions which would make most other agricultural products uneconomic. The stereotypical vineyard site for wine grapes (in the Northern hemisphere) is a hillside in a dry climate with a southern exposure, good drainage to reduce unnecessary water uptake, and balanced pruning to force the vine to put more of its energy into the fruit, rather than foliage.

The terroir philosophy is predominately french, the flavour and character of the place defining the individuality and the special attributes of wines and combined with hundreds of years of the finest wine making traditions, terroir gives wines their distinctive taste and signature.

Vignette[link]

A vignette is a 500 square metre vineyard which is part of a larger consolidated vineyard.^{[citation needed]} Investors purchase a piece of land within a vineyard, and outsource the grape maintenance and production operations to an outside grape grower or wine producers. Because they are contracting under a co-operative structure, they benefit from economies of scale and hence cheaper labour and operational costs.

See also[link]

wine portal

• Precision viticulture
• List of vineyard soil types
• Terroir
• Vineyard designated wine
• Viticulture
• Wine
• Clos (vineyard)

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Echikson, Tom (2004). Noble Rot: A Bordeaux Wine Revolution. New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-05162-5. 
• Robinson, Jancis, ed. (1999). The Oxford Companion to Wine (Second ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866236-X. 
• Jackson, Ronald S. (2000). Wine Science: Principles, Practice, Perception. United States: Elsevier. ISBN 0-12-379062-X. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Vineyards

• Story of a vineyard: Cahors
• A directory of US Vineyards and Wineries
• Viticulture on www.extension.org

Lillian Pulitzer Rousseau (born Lillian Lee McKim on November 10, 1931), better known as Lilly Pulitzer, is a socialite and prominent fashion designer. She is known for founding Lilly Pulitzer, Inc., which produces clothing and other wares featuring bright, colorful, floral prints. Because the brand has been very popular with high society, Lilly has been called the "Queen of Prep".^[1][2][3]

Personal life[link]

Lillian Lee McKim, nicknamed Lilly, was born to socialites Robert V. McKim and Lillian McKim (née Bostwick) in Roslyn, New York on November 10, 1931. She was the middle child, with older sister Mary Maude (called Memsey) and younger sister Florence Fitch (Flossie). Her mother, Lillian, was an heir to the Standard Oil fortune. Lillian divorced Robert and re-married Ogden Phipps in 1937.

Lilly attended the Chapin School in New York City, along with Bouvier sister Jacqueline Lee. In 1949, she graduated from Miss Porter's School in Farmington, Connecticut. She attended the college-finishing school Finch College in New York City, but left after one semester to work as a midwife's assistant in West Virginia and as a volunteer at the Veterans Hospital in The Bronx.

In 1950, she eloped with Herbert (Peter) Pulitzer Jr., the grandson of publisher Joseph Pulitzer. In 1969, Lilly and Peter were divorced. She married Enrique Rousseau shortly thereafter. Although she legally changed her name to Lillian Rousseau, her clothing company continued to operate under the "Lilly Pulitzer" label. Lilly continued to reside in Palm Beach. Enrique died from cancer in 1993.

Peter Pulitzer Jr. remarried, preceding a divorce, where he won custody of his two sons.

Lilly has three children from her marriage to Peter:

Peter, Minnie, and Liza. Peter lives in Bridgehampton, NY, with his wife, Elise, and five children: Fiona, Caleb, Stefan, Aaron, and Daniella.

Liza currently lives in West Palm Beach, Florida, with her two children: Taylor and Annah.

"Minnie" lives in Palm Beach, Florida, with her husband Kevin and three children: Rodman, Lillian, and Jack.

History[link]

Lilly opened a juice stand in Palm Beach Florida where she decided to make colorful dresses to hide the stains. These dresses were also sleeveless. Lilly's schoolmate Jacqueline Kennedy (former first lady) wore one of the dresses while on vacation. After Jacqueline was photographed, people everywhere wanted the dresses designed by Lilly. Today colors on the dresses are always chosen first for the design.^[4]

Business[link]

Lilly and Peter settled in Palm Beach, Florida, shortly after their marriage. Peter owned several Florida citrus groves, and with produce from the groves Lilly opened a juice stand on Via Mizner, just off Worth Avenue in Palm Beach.

In the course of working at the juice stand, Lilly found that squeezing juice made a mess of her clothes. Seeking to camouflage the juice stains, she designed a sleeveless shift dress made of bright, colorful printed cotton. Lilly found that customers loved her dress, so she produced more in order to sell them at her juice stand. Eventually, she was selling more dresses than juice, and decided to focus on designing and selling what had become known as her "Lillys".^[5]

In 1959, Lilly became president of her own company, Lilly Pulitzer, Inc. The company's main factory was located in Miami, Florida and the fabrics were produced by the Key West Hand Print Fabrics company in Key West.^[3]

From the 1960s to the early 1980s, Lilly's bright, colorful clothes were very popular, worn by elites such as First Lady Jackie Kennedy and her daughter Caroline, and members of the Rockefeller, Vanderbilt and Whitney families.^[3] However, by 1984 Lilly felt she was not having as much fun as she used to and retired, closing down her entire clothing operation.^[6]

Revival of the brand[link]

In 1993, the rights to the brand were purchased by Sugartown Worldwide, Inc.^[7] They contacted Lilly with the hopes of reviving the brand because, "they just loved Lilly, their mothers and sisters loved Lilly, and they wanted to bring the line back," according to Lilly herself.^[6] Lilly is not involved in the day to day administration of the company, but she continues to serve in the role of creative consultant, approving new designs, fabrics, and collections, and branching out into other product lines.

Today, the company maintains 75 Lilly Pulitzer Signature Stores (also known as Via Stores), several company-owned retail stores, sells to independently owned stores and is in major department stores such as Bloomingdales, Lord and Taylor, Nordstrom, and Neiman Marcus. On December 21, 2010, Sugartown Worldwide, Inc. was purchased by Oxford Industries, Inc.^[8]

Products[link]

A Lilly Pulitzer store at The Gardens Mall in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida

Along with women's clothing, the company also produces men's clothing, children's clothing, maternity clothes, shoes, jewelry, accessories, bedding (revived in 2010^[9]), and stationery. The company launched an exclusive Bridal Collection in 2010.^[10][11]

Lilly Pulitzer has published a pair of lifestyle books—Essentially Lilly: A Guide to Colorful Entertaining and Essentially Lilly: A Guide to Colorful Holidays—with her friend, author Jay Mulvaney, showcasing the "barefoot elegance" that characterizes her entertaining style. She has also released two desk calendar books, Essentially Lilly 2005 Social Butterfly Engagement Calendar and Essentially Lilly 2006 Party Animal Engagement Calendar.

Lilly Pulitzer has been known to make special collections with sorority prints on them.^[12] She has held contests on her Facebook page to vote on which sororities will get their own prints.^[13]

Cultural impact[link]

Lisa Birnbach's tongue-in-cheek "guides", The Official Preppy Handbook and its sequel True Prep: It’s a Whole New Old World, feature Lilly Pulitzer clothing as must-have items for "preppy" women.

The Museum of Lifestyle & Fashion History in Boynton Beach, Florida, ran an exhibit from August 2010 through May 2011 about the clothing and designs of Lilly Pulitzer.^[3] Museum director Lori Durante stated "Lilly Pulitzer fashion is relative to the American experience ... It is relevant to Palm Beach County, to Florida."^[2]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Lilly Pulitzer designer profile at Fashion Model Directory
• "Lilly Pulitzer Biography"