Acropolis of Athens, a noted polis of classical Greece.

Ancient Alexandria, a polis of Hellenistic Egypt.

Theatre of ancient Syracuse, a classical polis.

Polis ( /ˈpɒlɨs/; πόλις, Ancient Greek: [pólis]), plural poleis ( /ˈpɒleɪz/, πόλεις [póleːs]), literally means city in Greek. It could also mean citizenship and body of citizens. In modern historiography "polis" is normally used to indicate the ancient Greek city-states, like Classical Athens and its contemporaries, so polis is often translated as "city-state."

The word originates from the ancient Greek city-states, which developed during the Archaic period, the ancestor of city, state and citizenship, and persisted (though with decreasing influence) well into Roman times, when the equivalent Latin word was civitas, also meaning 'citizenhood', while municipium applied to a non-sovereign local entity. The term city-state which originated in English (alongside the German Stadtstaat) does not fully translate the Greek term. The poleis were not like other primordial ancient city-states like Tyre or Sidon, which were ruled by a king or a small oligarchy, but rather a political entity ruled by its body of citizens. The traditional view of archaeologists, that the appearance of urbanization at excavation sites could be read as a sufficient index for the development of a polis was criticised by François Polignac in 1984^[1] and has not been taken for granted in recent decades: the polis of Sparta for example was established in a network of villages.The term polis which in archaic Greece meant city, changed with the development of the governance center in the city to indicate state (which included its surrounding villages), and finally with the emergence of a citizenship notion between the land owners it came to describe the entire body of citizens. The ancient Greeks didn't always refer to Athens, Sparta, Thebes and other poleis as such; they often spoke instead of the Athenians, Lacedaemonians, Thebans and so on. The body of citizens came to be the most important meaning of the term polis in ancient Greece as a polis.

The Greek term which specifically meant the totality of urban buildings and spaces was ἄστυ (pronounced [ásty]).

Archaic and Classical polis[link]

Basic and indicating elements are:

• Self-governance, autonomy and independence (city-state)
• Agora: the social hub and financial marketplace, on and a round a centrally located large open space
• Acropolis: the citadel, inside which a temple had replaced the erstwhile Mycenaean anáktoron (palace) or mégaron (hall)
• Greek urban planning and architecture, public, religious, and private (see Hippodamian plan)
• Temples, altars and sacred precincts: one or more are dedicated to the poliouchos, the patron deity of the city; each polis kept its own particular festivals and customs (Political religion, as opposed to the individualized religion of the later antiquity). Priests and priestesses, although often drawn from certain families by tradition, did not form a separate collegiality or class: they were ordinary citizens who, on certain occasions, were called to perform certain functions.
• Gymnasia
• Theatres
• Walls: used for protection from invaders
• Coins: minted by the city, and bearing its symbols
• Colonies being founded by the oikistes of the metropolis
• Political life: it revolved around the sovereign Ekklesia (the assembly of all adult male citizens for deliberation and voting), the standing boule and other civic or judicial councils, the archons and other officials or magistrates elected either by vote or by lot, clubs, etc., and sometimes punctuated by stasis (civil strife between parties, factions or socioeconomic classes, e.g. aristocrats, oligarchs, democrats, tyrants, the wealthy, the poor, large or small landowners, etc.).There were practising the direct democracy.
• Publication of state functions: laws, decrees and major fiscal accounts were published, and criminal and civil trials were also held in public
• Synoecism, conurbation: Absorption of nearby villages and countryside, and the incorporation of their tribes into the substructure of the polis. Many of a polis' citizens would have lived in the suburbs or countryside. The Greeks did not regard the polis as a territorial grouping so much as a religious and political association: while the polis would control territory and colonies beyond the city itself, the polis would not simply consist of a geographical area. Most cities were composed of several tribes or phylai, which were in turn composed of phratries (common-ancestry lineages), and finally génea (extended families)
• Social classes and citizenship: Dwellers in the polis were generally divided into four types of inhabitants, with status typically determined by birth:
  • Citizens with full legal and political rights, i.e. adult free men born legitimately of citizen parents. They had the right to vote, be elected into office, bear arms, and the obligation to serve when at war.
  • Citizens without formal political rights, but full legal rights: the citizens' female relatives and underage children, whose political rights and interests were represented, and property held in trust, by their adult male relatives.
  • Citizens of other poleis who chose to reside elsewhere (the metics, μέτοικοι, métoikoi, literally "transdwellers"): though free-born and possessing full rights in their place of origin, had full legal rights but no political rights in their place of residence. Metics could not vote, could not be elected to office, could not bear arms and could not serve in war. They otherwise had full personal and property rights, albeit subject to taxation.
  • Slaves: chattel in full possession of their owner, and with no privileges other what their owner would grant (or revoke) at will.

Hellenistic and Roman[link]

During the Hellenistic period, which marks the decline of the classical polis, the following cities remained independent: Sparta until 195 BC after the War against Nabis. Achaean League is the last example of original Greek city-state federations (dissolved after the Battle of Corinth (146 BC)) . The Cretan city-states continue to be independent (except Itanus and Arsinoe, which lay under Ptolemaic influence) until the conquest of Crete in 69 BC by Rome. The cities of Magna Graecia, with the notable examples of Syracuse and Tarentum, were conquered by Rome in late 3rd century BC. There are also some cities with recurring independence like Samos, Priene, Miletus^[2] and Athens. A remarkable example of a city-state which flourished during this era is Rhodes through its merchant navy,^[3] until 43 BC and the Roman conquest.

The Hellenistic colonies and cities of the era, retain some basic characteristics of a polis, except: the status of independence (city-state) and the political life. There is a self-governance (like the new Macedonian title politarch) but under a ruler and king. The political life of the classical era is now transformed to an individualized religious and philosophical view of life (see Hellenistic philosophy and religion) The demographic decline forced the cities to abolish the status of metic and bestow citizenship; In 228 BC Miletus enfranchised over 1000 Cretans. (Milet, I, 3, 33-8.) Dyme sold its citizenship for one talent, payable in two instalments. The foreign residents in a city are now called paroikoi. In an age, when most of the establishments in Asia are kingdoms, an interesting example of a Hellenistic cities federation is the Chrysaorian League in Caria.

During the Roman era, some cities were granted the status of a polis, free city,^[4] self-governed under the Roman Empire. The last institution commemorating the old Greek poleis was the Panhellenion established by Hadrian.

Derived words[link]

Look up polis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Derivatives of polis are common in many modern European languages. This is indicative of the influence of the polis-centred Hellenic world view. Derivative words in English include policy, polity, police and politics. In Greek, words deriving from polis include politēs and politismos, whose exact equivalents in Latin, Romance and other European languages, respectively civis (citizen), civilisatio (civilization) etc. are similarly derived.

A number of words end in the word "-polis". Most refer to a special kind of city and/or state. Some examples are:

• Astropolis — star-scaled city/industry area; complex space station; a European star-related festival.
• Cosmopolis — a large urban centre with a population of many different cultural backgrounds; a novel written by Don DeLillo.
• Ecumenopolis — a city that covers an entire planet, usually seen in science fiction
• Megalopolis, built by merging several cities and their suburbs.
• Metropolis can refer to the mother city of a colony, the see of a metropolitan archbishop or a Metropolitan area — a major urban population centre.
• Necropolis 'city of the dead' — a graveyard.
• Technopolis — city with high-tech industry; room full of computers; the Internet.

Other refer to part of a city or a group of cities, such as:

• Acropolis, 'high city' — upper part of a polis, often citadel and/or site of major temple(s).
• Decapolis, a group of ten cities
• Dodecapolis, a group of twelve cities
• Pentapolis, a group of five cities
• Tripolis, a group of three cities, retained in the names of a Tripoli in Libya, in Greece and a namesake in Lebanon

Names[link]

Polis, Cyprus[link]

Located on the north-west coast of Cyprus is the town of Polis, or Polis Chrysochous (Greek: Πόλις Χρυσοχούς), situated within the Paphos District and on the edge of the Akamas peninsula. During the Cypro-Classical period, Polis became one of the most important ancient Cypriot city-kingdoms on the island, with important commercial relations with the eastern Aegean Islands, Attica and Corinth. The town is also well known due to its mythological history, including the site of the "Baths of Aphrodite".

Other cities[link]

The names of several other towns and cities in Europe and the Middle East have contained the suffix "-polis" since antiquity; or currently feature modernized spellings, such as "-pol". Notable examples include:

• Acropolis ("high city"), Athens, Greece (this is the most well-known example of acropolis; in fact an acropolis area was part of almost every ancient Greek polis and it was more like a function-part of an ancient polis (like e.g. agora, walls, etc.) than a locally named area)
• Adrianopolis or Adrianople ("Hadrian's city"), present-day Edirne, Turkey
• Alexandroupolis ("Alexander's city"), Greece
• Alexandropol ("Alexandra's city"), currently Gyumri, Armenia
• Antipolis ("the city across"), the former name for Antibes, France
• Constantinopolis or Constantinople ("Constantine's city"), the former name for Istanbul, Turkey
• Heliopolis ("Sun city"), Egypt
• Heracleopolis ("Hercules' city"), Egypt
• Hermopolis ("Hermes' city"), several cities in Egypt and on Siros Island
• Hierakonpolis ("Hawk city"), Egypt
• Hieropolis ("Sacred city"), several cities in the Hellenistic world, in particular Hierapolis in south-western Turkey
• Megalopolis ("Great city"), Greece
• Mariupol ("Marios' City"), Ukraine (Greek: Μαριούπολης, Marioupolis)
• Neapolis ("New city"), several including the modern cities of Nablus and Naples (Italian: Napoli), and the adjective Neapolitan
• Nicopolis ("Victory city"), Emmaus in Israel
• Lithopolis ("Stone city"), Latin name for Kamnik, Slovenia
• Persepolis ("city of the Persians"), Iran
• Sevastopol ("Venerable city"), Crimea, Ukraine
• Seuthopolis ("Seuthes' city"), Bulgaria
• Simferopol ("city of common good"), Crimea, Ukraine
• Sozopol ("Salvaged city"), Bulgaria
• Stavropol ("city of the cross"), Russia
• Tiraspol ("Tiras' city"), Moldova

The names of other cities were also given the suffix "-polis" after antiquity, either referring to ancient names or simply unrelated:

• Anápolis, Goiás, Brazil
• Annapolis, Maryland, United States of America
• Biopolis, Singapore
• Cambysopolis, Turkey
• Christianopel, Sweden
• Copperopolis, California, United States of America
• Coraopolis, Pennsylvania, United States of America
• Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
• Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
• Kannapolis, North Carolina, United States of America
• Lithopolis, Ohio, United States of America
• Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
• Opolis, Kansas, United States of America
• Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
• Quirinópolis, Goiás,Brazil
• Sebastopol, California, United States of America
• Sophia-Antipolis, France
• Teutopolis, Illinois, United States of America
• Uniopolis, Ohio, United States of America
• Thermopolis, Wyoming, United States of America
• Borrazópolis, Parana, Brazil

Some cities have also been given nicknames ending with the suffix "-polis", usually referring to their characteristics:

• Swansea, United Kingdom, once dubbed Copperopolis due to its vast production of the metal.
• Manchester. United Kingdom, nicknamed Cottonopolis during the 19th century due to its status as a major industrial centre for cotton spinning.

See also[link]

• Synoecism

Notes[link]

Further reading[link]

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
• Hansen, Mogens Herman. Polis: An Introduction to the Ancient Greek City-State. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-920849-2; paperback, ISBN 0-19-920850-6).
• Mogens Herman Hansen (ed), The Ancient Greek City-State. Symposium on the occasion of the 250th anniversary of The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, July, 1-4 1992. [Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 1], Copenhagen 1993 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filosofiske Meddelelser 67)
• Mogens Herman Hansen (ed), Sources for The Ancient Greek City-State. Symposium August, 24-27 1994. Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 2, Copenhagen 1995 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk- filosofiske Meddelelser 72)
• Mogens Herman Hansen (ed), Introduction to an Inventory of Poleis. Symosium August, 23-26 1995. Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 3, Copenhagen 1996 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk- filosofiske Meddelelser 74)
• Mogens Herman Hansen, The Polis as an Urban Centre and as a Political Community. Symposium August, 29-31 1996. Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 4, Copenhagen 1997 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk- filosofiske Meddelelser 75)
• Mogens Herman Hansen (ed), Polis and City-State. An Ancient Concept and its Modern Equivalent. Symposium, January 9, 1998. Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 5, Copenhagen 1998 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filosofiske Meddelelser 76)
• Mogens Herman Hansen (ed), The imaginary polis. Symposium, January 7–10, 2004. Acts of the Copenhagen Polis Centre vol. 7, Copenhagen 2005 (Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Historisk-filosofiske Meddelelser 91)
• Mogens Herman Hansen & Kurt Raaflaub (edd), Studies in the Ancient Greek Polis. Papers from the Copenhagen Polis Centre 2, Stuttgart: Steiner 1995 (Historia Einzelschriften 95)
• Mogens Herman Hansen & Kurt Raaflaub (edd), More Studies in the Ancient Greek Polis. Papers from the Copenhagen Polis Centre 3, Stuttgart: Steiner 1996 (Historia Einzelschriften 108)
• The Copenhagen Polis Center
• Berent M. Greece: The Stateless Polis (11-4 centuries B.C.). In Grinin L. E. et al. (eds.) The Early State, Its Alternatives and Analogues (pp. 364–387). Volgograd, Uchitel, 2004 The early State, Its Alternatives and Analogues
• Vliet, E. van der Polis. The Problem of Statehood. Social Evolution & History 4(2), September 2005 (pp. 120–150) Polis. The Problem of Statehood

Binali Yıldırım (born 1955, Refahiye, Erzincan Province) is the current Minister of Transport of Turkey and a MP for Istanbul of the ruling Justice and Development Party.

He was educated the Istanbul Technical University's School of Maritime. After graduation, Yıldırım served as the director general of the Istanbul Fast Ferries Company (İDO) when the current Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was mayor of Istanbul.

He entered politics and became a co-founder of the Justice and Development Party in August 2001.

During his term of transport minister, Turkey met with high-speed rail lines. Under his leadership, Turkey constructed high-speed rail between Ankara-Eskişehir and Ankara-Konya. Also Eskisehir-Istanbul line is under construction to connect Istanbul and Ankara.

The project collapsed after the tragic derailment of a train in Pamukova, Sakarya Province on July 22, 2004 during one of the first journeys between Istanbul and Eskişehir. Calls for Yıldırım's resignation followed this incident, however he ignored the calls.^[1]

His repeated appointment to the ministry was declared by Prime minister Erdoğan on July 6, 2011 with other members of the new cabinet.^[2]

Binali Yıldırım is married with three children.

References[link]

v t e Cabinet of Prime Minister Abdullah Gül (2002–2003) Cabinet Deputy Prime Ministers Mehmet Ali Şahin • Abdüllatif Şener • Ertuğrul Yalçınbayır Minister of State Mehmet Aydın • Beşir Atalay • Ali Babacan • Kürşad Tüzmen Minister of Justice Cemil Çiçek Minister of National Defense Mehmet Vecdi Gönül Minister of the Interior Abdülkadir Aksu Minister of Foreign Affairs Yaşar Yakış Minister of Finance Kemal Unakıtan Minister of National Education Erkan Mumcu Minister of Public Works and Settlement Zeki Ergezen Minister of Health Recep Akdağ Minister of Transport and Communication Binali Yıldırım Minister of Agriculture Sami Güçlü Minister of Labour and Social Security Murat Başesgioğlu Minister of Industry and Commerce Ali Coşkun Minister of Energy and Natural Resources Mehmet Hilmi Güler Minister of Culture Hüseyin Çelik Minister of Tourism Güldal Akşit Minister of Environment İmdat Sütlüoğlu Minister of Forestry Osman Pepe

v t e First cabinet of Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (2003–2007) Cabinet Deputy Prime Ministers Abdullah Gül (2003–2007) Mehmet Ali Şahin (2003–2007) Abdüllatif Şener (2003–2007) Minister of State Ali Babacan (2003–2007) Güldal Akşit (2003-2005) • Nimet Çubukçu (2005–2007) Mehmet Aydın (2003–2007) Kürşad Tüzmen (2003–2007) Beşir Atalay (2003–2007) Minister of Justice Cemil Çiçek (2003–2007) • Fahri Kasırga (2007) Minister of National Defense Mehmet Vecdi Gönül (2003–2007) Minister of the Interior Abdülkadir Aksu (2003–2007) • Osman Güneş (2007) Minister of Foreign Affairs Abdullah Gül (2003–2007) Minister of Finance Kemal Unakıtan (2003–2007) Minister of National Education Hüseyin Çelik (2003–2007) Minister of Public Works and Settlement Zeki Ergezen (2003-2007) • Faruk Nafız Özak (2005–2007) Minister of Health Recep Akdağ (2003–2007) Minister of Transport and Communication Binali Yıldırım (2003–2007) • İsmet Yılmaz (2007) Minister of Agriculture Sami Güçlü (2003–2005) • Mehmet Mehdi Eker (2005–2007) Minister of Labour and Social Security Murat Başesgioğlu (2003–2007) Minister of Industry and Commerce Ali Coşkun (2003–2007) Minister of Energy and Natural Resources Mehmet Hilmi Güler (2003–2007) Minister of Culture and Tourism Erkan Mumcu (2003–2005) • Atilla Koç (2005–2007) Minister of Environment and Forestry Osman Pepe (2003–2007)

v t e Second cabinet of Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (2007–2011) Cabinet Deputy Prime Ministers Cemil Çiçek (2007–2011) Hayati Yazıcı (2007–2009) • Bülent Arınç (2009–2011) Nazım Ekren (2007–2009) • Ali Babacan (2009–2011) Minister of State Mehmet Aydın (2007–2011) Kürşad Tüzmen (2007-2009) • Mehmet Zafer Çağlayan (2009–2011) Nimet Çubukçu (2007–2009) • Selma Aliye Kavaf (2009–2011) Cevdet Yılmaz (2009–2011) Mustafa Sait Yazıcıoğlu (2007–2009) • Faruk Çelik (2009–2011) Murat Başesgioğlu (2007–2009) • Faruk Nafız Özak (2009–2011) Egemen Bağış (2009–2011) Hayati Yazıcı (2009–2011) Minister of Justice Mehmet Ali Şahin (2007–2009) • Sadullah Ergin (2009–2011) Minister of National Defense Mehmet Vecdi Gönül (2007–2011) Minister of the Interior Beşir Atalay (2007–2011) Minister of Foreign Affairs Ali Babacan (2007–2009) • Ahmet Davutoğlu (since 2009–2011) Minister of Finance Kemal Unakıtan (2007–2009) • Mehmet Şimşek (2009–2011) Minister of National Education Hüseyin Çelik (2007–2009) • Nimet Çubukçu (2009–2011) Minister of Public Works and Settlement Faruk Nafız Özak (2007-2009) • Mustafa Demir (2009–2011) Minister of Health Recep Akdağ (2007–2011) Minister of Transport and Communication Binali Yıldırım (2007–2011) Minister of Agriculture Mehmet Mehdi Eker (2007–2011) Minister of Labour and Social Security Faruk Çelik (2007–2009) • Ömer Dinçer (2009–2011) Minister of Industry and Commerce Mehmet Zafer Çağlayan (2007–2009) • Nihat Ergün (2009–2011) Minister of Energy and Natural Resources Mehmet Hilmi Güler (2007–2009) • Taner Yıldız (2009–2011) Minister of Culture and Tourism Ertuğrul Günay (2007–2011) Minister of Environment and Forestry Veysel Eroğlu (2007–2011)

v t e Third cabinet of Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (2011–present) Deputy Prime Ministers Bülent Arınç Ali Babacan Beşir Atalay Bekir Bozdağ Minister of Justice Sadullah Ergin Minister of Family and Social Politics Fatma Şahin Minister of European Community Affairs Egemen Bağış Minister of Science, Industry and Technology Nihat Ergün Minister of Labour and Social Security Faruk Çelik Minister of Environment and Urban Development Erdoğan Bayraktar Minister of Foreign Affairs Ahmet Davutoğlu Minister of Economy Zafer Çağlayan Minister of Energy and Natural Resources Taner Yıldız Minister of Youth and Sports Suat Kılıç Minister of Food, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Mehmet Mehdi Eker Minister of Customs and Commerce Hayati Yazıcı Minister of the Interior İdris Naim Şahin Minister of Development Cevdet Yılmaz Minister of Culture Ertuğrul Günay Minister of Finance Mehmet Şimşek Minister of National Education Ömer Dinçer Minister of National Defence İsmet Yılmaz Minister of Forestry and Water Affairs Veysel Eroğlu

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Binali Yıldırım

This article about a Turkish politician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Yang Amat Berhormat Dato' Sri Mohammad Najib Abdul Razak DK (Pahang) MP
6th Prime Minister of Malaysia
Incumbent
Assumed office 3 April 2009
Monarch	Mizan Zainal Abidin Abdul Halim
Deputy	Muhyiddin Yassin
Preceded by	Abdullah Ahmad Badawi
Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia
In office 7 January 2004 – 3 April 2009
Prime Minister	Abdullah Ahmad Badawi
Preceded by	Abdullah Ahmad Badawi
Succeeded by	Muhyiddin Yassin
Personal details
Born	(1953-07-23) 23 July 1953 (age 58) Kuala Lipis, Malaya (now Malaysia)
Political party	United Malays National Organisation
Spouse(s)	Puteri Zainah Eskandar (1976–1987) Rosmah Mansor (1987–present)
Children	Mohd Nizar Puteri Norlisa Mohd Nazifuddin Nooryana Najwa Norashman Razak
Alma mater	University of Nottingham
Religion	Sunni Islam
Website	Official website

Dato' Sri Haji Mohammad Najib bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak (born 23 July 1953) is a Malaysian politician who has been the sixth Prime Minister of Malaysia since 2009.^[1] He previously held the post of Deputy Prime Minister from 7 January 2004 until he succeeded Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi as Prime Minister on 3 April 2009. Najib is President of the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO). He is the son of Malaysia's second prime minister, Tun Abdul Razak^[2] and the nephew of Malaysia's third prime minister, Tun Hussein Onn. Najib is also the Minister of Finance.

Najib succeeded Abdullah at a time after his ruling coalition, the Barisan Nasional, lost its long held two-thirds majority in parliament to the opposition led by former Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim in the 2008 parliamentary election. Since then Najib has tried to build a moderate image for himself and the UMNO through the 1Malaysia campaign.

Early life[link]

Born 23 July 1953, in Kuala Lipis, Pahang, Najib is the eldest of Prime Minister Abdul Razak's six sons, and the nephew of Hussein Onn, Malaysia’s third Prime Minister. His younger brother, Dato' Seri Mohd Nazir Abdul Razak,^[3] runs the country's second-largest lender, Bumiputra-Commerce Holdings Bhd.^[4] Najib is also one of the Four Noblemen of the Pahang Darul Makmur (Royal Court) by virtue of his inherited title as the Orang Kaya Indera Shahbandar. He received his primary and secondary education at St. John's Institution, Kuala Lumpur. He later attended Malvern College ^[5] in Worcestershire, England, and subsequently went to the University of Nottingham, where he received a bachelor's degree in industrial economics in 1974. Najib Razak returned to Malaysia in 1974 and entered the business world, serving briefly in Bank Negara (Central Bank) and later with Petronas (Malaysia's national oil company) as a public affairs manager.^[6]

In 1976 Najib married Tengku Puteri Zainah Tengku Eskandar ('Kui Yie') with whom he has three children: Mohd Nizar Najib (born 1978), Mohd Nazifuddin Najib and Puteri Norlisa Najib. In 1987 he divorced Ku Yie and married Datin Seri Rosmah Mansor with whom he has two children: Mohd Norashman Najib and Nooryana Najwa Najib. This is Rosmah's second marriage as well. She has two children from her previous marriage to Farid Ismeth Emir who was a former TV news presenter and currently a general manager in a trading company.

Political career[link]

Ministerial portfolios[link]

Najib has held a variety of ministerial portfolios (the first at the age of 32), culminating in the post of Minister of Defence before being chosen as the Deputy Prime Minister by Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi in 2004. Najib was first assigned into the Cabinet of Malaysia at the age of 25 when he was appointed Deputy Minister of Energy, Telecommunications and Post in 1978, becoming the youngest deputy minister in the country.^[7] Najib would go on to assume myriad posts in the cabinet, including the Deputy Minister of Education, the Deputy Minister of Finance, the Minister of Culture, Youth and Sports (and its split successor, the Minister of Youth and Sports), the Minister of Education, the Minister of Defense, and the Minister of Finance beginning 17 September 2008.^[8]

In addition to positions held in the federal government, Najib served as the Menteri Besar (Chief Minister) of Pahang between 1982 and 1986, becoming the youngest Menteri Besar in the state to enter office when he was sworn in at the age of 29.^[9] Najib was also appointed chairman of the Livestock Development Institute (Lembaga Kemajuan Penternakan, Majuternak). During the 1986 general elections, Najib was returned as the Member of Parliament for Pekan, and was appointed as Minister of Culture, Youth and Sports. He immediately focused on improving Malaysian sports and introduced the National Sports Policy in 1988. In 1989 Malaysia achieved its best-ever performance at the South East Asia (SEA) Games, which were held that year in Kuala Lumpur.^[10]

Minister of Defence[link]

In 1991, Najib was appointed Minister of Defence. Under his direction, Malaysian troops were deployed to assist the UN peacekeeping forces in Bosnia in 1993.^[11] Malaysian forces were greeted warmly by Bosnians as well as Serbs and Croats.^[12] Malaysia also assisted peacekeeping operations in Somalia in 1993, losing one soldier in an effort to aid U.S. soldiers during the Battle of Mogadishu. Najib later criticized the UN’s Somalia operation as putting too much emphasis on military action.^[13] Since then Malaysia has stated a preference for participating in Chapter 6 “peace enforcement” missions, rather than Chapter 7 “peacekeeping” missions.^[14] After four years at the Ministry of Defense, Najib assumed control of the Education Ministry in 1995. He returned to the Ministry of Defense in 2000.

During his second tenure as Minister of Defense Najib coordinated Malaysia’s relief efforts following the Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004, and provided support to Indonesia in arresting those responsible for the 2004 Bali bombings.^[15] Najib also oversaw the deployment of Malaysian troops as a part of a UN peacekeeping force in 2006, when Malaysia volunteered to help stabilize Lebanon following the 2006 Lebanon War.^[16]

As Defense Minister, Najib instituted compulsory military service in December 2003, stating that it would encourage interaction and friendship between youth of different ethnic groups and religions.^[17] During its first five years of operation, over 339,000 Malaysian youth participated in the PLKN (the Bahasa Malaysian acronym for "Malaysian National Service"),^[18] which is intended to promote tolerance, team work, and community engagement. The programme, however, has faced challenges. Safety issues in the program have been reported and several people died during or shortly after their terms of service during the program's first few years.^[19] In response, Najib strengthened the PLKN's health screening requirements and reinforced the government’s commitment to punish negligent PLKN officials.^[20]

Minister of Education[link]

In 1995, Najib left the Defense Ministry for the first time when he was appointed Minister of Education. His challenge was to respond to Malaysia's newly proclaimed aspiration to become a fully developed nation by the year 2020. During his five-year tenure, Najib restructured the Ministry, created an independent corporate structure for public universities, and encouraged collaboration with foreign universities and institutions.^[21] The 1996 Private Higher Education Institutions Act, allowed foreign universities to establish degree-conferring schools in Malaysia, providing greater educational opportunities for Malaysians and positioning Malaysia as a regional learning hub.^[22] Najib also upgraded teaching certificates to the status of diplomas, so that teachers in that category would receive a higher monthly starting salary.^[23]