Horror films are a film genre seeking to elicit a negative emotional reaction from viewers by playing on the audience's most primal fears. They often feature scenes that startle the viewer through the means of macabre and the supernatural, thus they may overlap with the fantasy and supernatural genre. Horrors frequently overlap with the thriller genre.[1]
Horror films often deal with the viewer's nightmares, hidden worst fears, revulsions and terror of the unknown. Plots written within the horror genre often involve the intrusion of an evil force, event, or personage, commonly of supernatural origin, into the everyday world. Themes or elements often prevalent in typical horror films include ghosts, torture, gore, werewolves, ancient curses, satanism, demons, vicious animals, vampires, cannibals, haunted houses, zombies, sadism and serial killers. Conversely, stories of the supernatural are not necessarily always a horror movie as well.[2]
The first depictions of supernatural events appear in several of the silent shorts created by the film pioneer Georges Méliès in the late 1890s, the best known being Le Manoir du diable (aka, The Haunted Castle, 1896) which is sometimes credited as being the first horror film.[3] Another of his horror projects was 1898's La Caverne maudite (aka, The Cave of the Unholy One, literally "the accursed cave").[3] Japan made early forays into the horror genre with Bake Jizo and Shinin no Sosei, both made in 1898.[4] In 1910, Edison Studios produced the first film version of Frankenstein, which was thought lost for many years.[5]
In the early 20th century, the first monster appeared in a horror film, Quasimodo, the hunchback of Notre-Dame who had appeared in Victor Hugo's novel, Notre-Dame de Paris (1831). Films featuring Quasimodo included Alice Guy's Esmeralda (1906), The Hunchback (1909), The Love of a Hunchback (1910) and Notre-Dame de Paris (1911).[6]
German Expressionist film makers, during the Weimar Republic era and slightly earlier, would significantly influence later films, not only those in the horror genre. Paul Wegener's The Golem (1920) and Robert Wiene's The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (also 1920) had a particular impact. The first vampire-themed movie was made during this time: F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu (1922), an unauthorized adaptation of Bram Stoker's Dracula.[7]
Hollywood dramas used horror themes, including versions of The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923) and The Monster (1925) both starring Lon Chaney, the first American horror movie star. Other films of the 1920s include Dr. Jekyll And Mr Hyde (1920), The Phantom Carriage (Sweden, 1920), The Lost World (1925), The Phantom Of The Opera (1925), Waxworks (Germany 1924), and Tod Browning's (lost) London After Midnight (1927) with Chaney.
During the early period of talking pictures, the American Movie studio Universal Pictures began a successful Gothic horror film series. Tod Browning's Dracula (1931), with Bela Lugosi, was quickly followed by James Whale's Frankenstein (also 1931). Some of these blended science fiction films with Gothic horror, such as The Invisible Man (1933) and, mirroring the earlier German films, featured a mad scientist. These films, while designed to thrill, also incorporated more serious elements. Frankenstein was the first in a series which lasted for many years, although Karloff only featured as the monster in Bride of Frankenstein (1935), again directed by Whale, and Son of Frankenstein (1939). The Mummy (1932) introduced Egyptology as a theme for the genre. Make-up artist Jack Pierce was responsible for the iconic image of the monster, and others in the series. Universal's horror cycle continued into the 1940s, these included The Wolf Man (1941), not the first werewolf film, but certainly the most influential, as well as a number of films uniting several of their monsters.
Other studios followed Universal's lead. Tod Browning made the once controversial Freaks (1932) for MGM, based on "Spurs", a short story by Ted Robbins, about a band of circus freaks. The studio disowned the completed film after cutting about 30 minutes; it was unreleased in the United Kingdom for thirty years.[8] Rouben Mamoulian's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (Paramount, 1931), remembered for its use of color filters to create Jekyll's transformation before the camera,[9] Michael Curtiz's Mystery of the Wax Museum (Warner Brothers, 1933), and Island of Lost Souls (Paramount, 1932) were all important horror films.
With the progression of the genre actors were beginning to build entire careers in such films, most especially Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi. Karloff appeared in three of producer Val Lewton's atmospheric B-pictures for RKO Pictures in the mid-1940s, including The Body Snatcher (1945), which also featured Lugosi. The titles of these films were often imposed on Lewton by the studio, but Cat People (1942), I Walked with a Zombie (1943) rise above this limitation.
With advances in technology, the tone of horror films shifted from the Gothic towards contemporary concerns. Two sub-genres began to emerge: the horror-of-armageddon film and the horror-of-the-demonic film.[10]
A stream of usually low-budget productions featured humanity overcoming threats from "outside": alien invasions and deadly mutations to people, plants, and insects. In the case of some horror films from Japan, such as Godzilla (1954) and its sequels, mutation from the effects of nuclear radiation.
The Hollywood directors and producers sometimes found ample opportunity for audience exploitation, with gimmicks such as 3-D and "Percepto" (producer William Castle's pseudo-electric-shock technique used for The Tingler, 1959). Some horror films during this period, such as The Thing from Another World (1951) and Don Siegel's Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956), managed to channel the paranoia of the Cold War into atmospheric creepiness, .
Filmmakers continued to merge elements of science fiction and horror over the following decades. Considered a "pulp masterpiece"[11] of the era was The Incredible Shrinking Man (1957), from Richard Matheson's existentialist novel. While more of a science-fiction story, the film conveyed the fears of living in the Atomic Age and the terror of social alienation.
During the later 1950s, Great Britain emerged as a producer of horror films. Peeping Tom (1960), directed by Michael Powell, concerns a serial killer who combines his profession as a photographer with the moments before murdering his victims. The Hammer company focused on the genre for the first time, enjoying huge international success from films involving classic horror characters which were shown in color for the first time. Often starring Peter Cushing and Christopher Lee, and drawing on Universal's precedent, these films include The Curse of Frankenstein (1957), and Dracula (1958), both followed by many sequels, with director Terence Fisher being responsible for many of the best films. Other British companies contributed to a boom in horror film production in the UK during the 1960s and 1970s, including Tigon-British and Amicus, the latter best known for their anthology films such as Dr. Terror's House of Horrors (1965).
British born director Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960), was the first "slasher" movie,[12] while in the same director's The Birds (1963) menace stems from nature gone mad. In France, Eyes Without a Face (1960) continued the mad scientist theme, while in Italy director Mario Bava began his own series of horror films.
American International Pictures (AIP) made a series of Edgar Allan Poe–themed films directed by Roger Corman and starring Vincent Price, which ended with The Masque of the Red Death and The Tomb of Ligeia (both 1964). Some contend that these productions paved the way for more explicit violence in both horror and mainstream films.[citation needed] In collaboration with AIP, Tigon produced Michael Reeves' Witchfinder General (aka The Conqueror Worm, 1968). The tale of a witch hunter in the English Civil War, based on the historical Matthew Hopkins (Vincent Price), was more sadistic than supernatural.
Ghosts and monsters still remained a frequent feature of horror, but many films used the supernatural premise to express the horror of the demonic. The Innocents (Jack Clayton, 1961) based on the Henry James novel The Turn of the Screw and The Haunting (Robert Wise, 1963) are two such horror-of-the-demonic films from the early 1960s, both made in the UK by American studios. In Rosemary's Baby (Roman Polanski, 1968), set in New York, the devil is made flesh. Meanwhile, ghosts were a dominant theme in Japanese horror, or 'J-horror', in such films as Kwaidan, Onibaba (both 1964) and Kuroneko (1968).
Zombies in Romero's influential
Night of the Living Dead.
An influential American horror film of this period was George A. Romero's Night of the Living Dead (1968). Produced and directed by Romero, on a budget of $114,000, it grossed $12 million at the box office in the United States and $30 million internationally. This horror-of-Armageddon film about zombies blends psychological insights with gore, it moved the genre even further away from the gothic horror trends of earlier eras and brought horror into everyday life.[13]
Low-budget gore-shock films from the likes of Herschell Gordon Lewis also appeared. Examples include Blood Feast (1963), a devil-cult story, and Two Thousand Maniacs! (1964), a ghost town inhabited by psychotic cannibals), which featured splattering blood and body dismemberment.
The end of the Production Code of America in 1964, the financial successes of the low-budget gore films of the ensuing years, and the critical and popular success of Rosemary's Baby, led to the release of more films with occult themes in the 1970s. The Exorcist (1973), the first of these movies, was a significant commercial success, and was followed by scores of horror films in which the Devil represented the supernatural evil, often by impregnating women or possessing children.The 1973 Blaxploitation action-horror Live and Let Die the first ever Spy film about Voodoo and Black magic,This action-horror film was directed by Guy Hamilton ,The genre also included gory horror movies with sexual overtones, made as "A-movies" (as opposed to "B movies").[14]
"Evil children" and reincarnation became popular subjects. Robert Wise's film Audrey Rose (1977) for example, deals with a man who claims that his daughter is the reincarnation of another dead person. Alice, Sweet Alice (1977), is another Catholic-themed horror slasher about a little girl's murder and her sister being the prime suspect. Another popular Satanic horror movie was The Omen (1976), where a man realizes that his five-year-old adopted son is the Antichrist. Invincible to human intervention, Satan became the villain in many horror films with a postmodern style and a dystopian worldview.
Another example is The Sentinel (1977 film), in which a fashion model discovers that her new brownstone residence may actually be a portal to Hell. The movie includes seasoned actors such as Ava Gardner, Burgess Meredith and Eli Wallach and such future stars as Christopher Walken and Jeff Goldblum.
The ideas of the 1960s began to influence horror films, as the youth involved in the counterculture began exploring the medium. Wes Craven's The Hills Have Eyes (1977) and Tobe Hooper's The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974)[15] recalled the Vietnam war; George A. Romero satirized the consumer society in his zombie sequel, Dawn of the Dead (1978); Canadian director David Cronenberg featured the "mad scientist" movie sub-genre by exploring contemporary fears about technology and society, and reinventing "body horror", starting with Shivers (1975).[16]
Also in the 1970s, horror author Stephen King debuted on the film scene as many of his books were adapted for the screen, beginning with Brian De Palma's adaptation of King's first published novel, Carrie (1976), which was nominated for Academy Awards. Next, was his third published novel, The Shining (1980), which was a sleeper at the box office, with mixed reviews, but eventually began to be considered a classic. Carrie became the 9th highest-grossing film of 1976. King himself did not like The Shining, because it was barely faithful to the 1977 best-seller novel.
John Carpenter created Halloween (1978). Sean Cunningham made Friday the 13th (1980). Wes Craven directed A Nightmare On Elm Street (1984). This sub-genre would be mined by dozens of increasingly violent movies throughout the subsequent decades, and Halloween became a successful independent film. Other notable '70s slasher films include Bob Clark's Black Christmas (1974), which was released before Halloween, and was another start of the sub-genre.
In 1975, Steven Spielberg began his ascension to fame with Jaws (1975). The film kicked off a wave of killer animal stories such as Orca (1977), and Up from the Depths. Jaws is often credited as being one of the first films to use traditionally B movie elements such as horror and mild gore in a big-budget Hollywood film.
Alien (1979) combined the naturalistic acting and graphic violence of the 1970s with the monster movie plots of earlier decades, and used science fiction. The film was extremely successful in terms of both box-office and critical reception, being called "Jaws in space", and a landmark film for the science fiction genre.
On similar note, John Carpenter's The Thing (1982) was also a mix of horror and sci fi, however unlike Alien it was neither a box-office nor critical hit. However, nearly 20 years after its release it was praised for using ahead-of-its-time special effects and paranoia.
The 1980s saw a wave of gory "B-Movie" horror films – although most of them were panned by critics, many became cult classics and later saw success with critics. A significant example is Sam Raimi's Evil Dead movies, which were low-budget gorefests but had a very original plotline that was praised by critics later on. Other horror film examples include cult vampire classic Fright Night (1985) and The Lost Boys (1987).
In the first half of the 1990s, the genre continued many of the themes from the 1980s. The slasher films A Nightmare on Elm Street, Friday the 13th, Halloween and Child's Play, all saw sequels in the 1990s, most of which met with varied amounts of success at the box office, but all were panned by fans and critics, with the exception of Wes Craven's New Nightmare (1994) and the hugely successful Silence of the Lambs (1991).
New Nightmare, with In the Mouth of Madness (1995), The Dark Half (1993), and Candyman (1992), were part of a mini-movement of self-reflexive or metafictional horror films. Each film touched upon the relationship between fictional horror and real-world horror. Candyman, for example, examined the link between an invented urban legend and the realistic horror of the racism that produced its villain. In the Mouth of Madness took a more literal approach, as its protagonist actually hopped from the real world into a novel created by the madman he was hired to track down. This reflective style became more overt and ironic with the arrival of Scream (1996).
In Interview with the Vampire (1994), the "Theatre de Vampires" (and the film itself, to some degree) invoked the Grand Guignol style, perhaps to further remove the undead performers from humanity, morality and class. The horror movie soon continued its search for new and effective frights. In 1985's novel The Vampire Lestat by author Anne Rice (who penned Interview...'s screenplay and the 1976 novel of the same name) suggests that its antihero Lestat inspired and nurtured the Grand Guignol style and theatre.
Two main problems pushed horror backward during this period: firstly, the horror genre wore itself out with the proliferation of nonstop slasher and gore films in the eighties. Secondly, the adolescent audience which feasted on the blood and morbidity of the previous decade grew up, and the replacement audience for films of an imaginative nature were being captured instead by the explosion of science-fiction and fantasy, courtesy of the special effects possibilities with computer-generated imagery.[17]
To re-connect with its audience, horror became more self-mockingly ironic and outright parodic, especially in the latter half of the 1990s. Peter Jackson's Braindead (1992) (known as Dead Alive in the USA) took the splatter film to ridiculous excesses for comic effect. Wes Craven's Scream (written by Kevin Williamson) movies, starting in 1996, featured teenagers who were fully aware of, and often made reference to, the history of horror movies, and mixed ironic humour with the shocks. Along with I Know What You Did Last Summer (written by Kevin Williamson as well) and Urban Legend, they re-ignited the dormant slasher film genre.
The start of the 2000s saw a quiet period for the genre. The release of an extended version of The Exorcist in September 2000 was successful despite the film having been available on home video for years. Franchise films such as Freddy vs. Jason also made a stand in theaters. Final Destination (2000) marked a successful revival of teen-centered horror and spawned five sequels. The Jeepers Creepers series was also successful. Films such as Orphan, Wrong Turn, Cabin Fever, House of 1000 Corpses, and the previous mentions helped bring the genre back to Restricted ratings in theaters.
Some pronounced trends have marked horror films. A French horror film Brotherhood of the Wolf (2001) became the second-highest-grossing French-language film in the United States in the last two decades. The success of foreign language foreign films continued with the Swedish films Marianne (2011) and Let the Right One In (2008), which was later the subject of a Hollywood remake, Let Me In (2010). Another trend is the emergence of psychology to scare audiences, rather than gore. The Others (2001) proved to be a successful example of psychological horror film. A minimalist approach which was equal parts Val Lewton's theory of "less is more" (usually employing the low-budget techniques utilized on The Blair Witch Project, 1999) has been evident,[citation needed] particularly in the emergence of Asian horror movies which have been remade into successful Americanized versions, such as The Ring (2002), and The Grudge (2004). In March 2008, China banned the movies from its market.[18]
There has been a major return to the zombie genre in horror movies made after 2000.[19][citation needed] The Resident Evil video game franchise was adapted into a film released in March 2002. Three sequels have followed. The British film 28 Days Later (2002) featured an update on the genre with The Return of the Living Dead (1985) style of aggressive zombie. The film later spawned a sequel: 28 Weeks Later. An updated remake of Dawn of the Dead (2004) soon appeared as well as the zombie comedy Shaun of the Dead (2004). This resurgence led George A. Romero to return to his Living Dead series with Land of the Dead (2005), Diary of the Dead (2007) and Survival of the Dead (2010).[20]
A larger trend is a return to the extreme, graphic violence that characterized much of the type of low-budget, exploitation horror from the post-Vietnam years. Films such as Audition (1999), Wrong Turn (2003), and the Australian film Wolf Creek (2005), took their cues from The Last House on the Left (1972),[citation needed] The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974),[citation needed] and The Hills Have Eyes (1977). An extension of this trend was the emergence of a type of horror with emphasis on depictions of torture, suffering and violent deaths, (variously referred to as "horror porn", "torture porn", Splatterporn, and even "gore-nography") with films such as The Collector, The Tortured, Saw, and Hostel, and their respective sequels, frequently singled out as examples of emergence of this sub-genre.[21] The Saw film series holds the Guinness World Record of the highest-grossing horror franchise in history.[22] Finally with the arrival of Paranormal Activity (2009), which was well received by critics and an excellent reception at the box office, minimal thought started by The Blair Witch Project was reaffirmed and is expected to be continued successfully in other low-budget productions.[original research?]
Remakes of earlier horror movies became routine in the 2000s. In addition to 2004's remake of Dawn of the Dead, as well as 2003's remake of both Herschell Gordon Lewis' cult classic 2001 Maniacs and the remake of Tobe Hooper's classic The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, there was also the 2007 Rob Zombie written and directed remake of John Carpenter's Halloween.[23] The film focused more on Michael's backstory than the original did, devoting the first half of the film to Michael's childhood. It was critically panned by most,[24][25] but was a success in its theatrical run, spurring its own sequel. This film helped to start a "reimagining" riot in horror flim makers. Among the many remakes, or "reimaginings" of other popular horror films and franchises are films such as Friday the 13th (2009),[26] A Nightmare on Elm Street (2010),[27] Children of the Corn (2009).[28], Prom Night (2008), My Bloody Valentine (2009), and The Wolfman (2010).
In 2010, around 70 horror films were released worldwide. List of horror films of 2010
In 2011, around 40 horror films were released worldwide. List of horror films of 2011
For the current year, only four films have been released so far:
- Body horror – In which the horror is principally derived from the graphic destruction or degeneration of the body. Other types of body horror include unnatural movements, or the anatomically incorrect placement of limbs to create 'monsters' out of human body parts. David Cronenberg is one of the notable directors of the genre. Some body horror films include Altered States, The Invasion, The Fly, Rosemary's Baby, Eraserhead, The Thing, Re-Animator, The Human Centipede (First Sequence), Cabin Fever, Virus and Teeth.
- Comedy horror – Combines the elements of comedy and horror fiction. The comedy horror genre almost always inevitably crosses over with the black comedy genre. The short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" by Washington Irving is cited as "the first great comedy-horror story".[29] Examples include An American Werewolf in London, The Rocky Horror Picture Show, Gremlins, Bad Taste, Beetlejuice, Arachnophobia, Scary Movie, Eight Legged Freaks, Shaun of the Dead, Evil Dead II, and Slither.
- Gothic horror – Gothic horror is a type of story that contains elements of goth and horror. At times it may have romance that unfolds in the setting of a horror tale, usually suspenseful. Some of the earliest horror movies were of this sub-genre. Examples include universal horror films such as The Phantom of the Opera, Dracula, Frankenstein and The Mummy. Modern gothic horrors include Sleepy Hollow, Interview with the Vampire, Underworld, The Wolfman, From Hell, Dorian Gray, Let Me In and The Woman in Black.
- Monster movie – A horror film which features a creature (usually oversized and/or fictional) as the antagonist. Noteworthy examples include Frankenstein, King Kong, Jaws, Piranha, Jurassic Park, Anaconda, Godzilla and Cloverfield.
- Natural horror – A sub-genre of horror films "featuring nature running amok in the form of mutated beasts, carnivorous insects, and normally harmless animals or plants turned into cold-blooded killers."[30] This genre may sometimes overlap with the science fiction and action/adventure genre. Examples include The Birds, Black Sheep, Jaws, Mimic, Deep Rising, Them!, The Swarm, Pet Sematary, Lake Placid, Primeval, Anaconda, Snakes on a Plane, The Cave, Piranha 3D and The Ruins.
- Psychological horror – Relies on characters' fears, guilt, beliefs, eerie sound effects, relevant music, emotional instability and at times, the supernatural and ghosts, to build tension and further the plot. Examples include The Uninvited, Dark Water, Gothika, The Ring, The Grudge, The Exorcist, Session 9, Silent Hill, The Others, The Mothman Prophecies, The Blair Witch Project, 1408, The Shining, Stir of Echoes, The Innocents and The Sixth Sense.
- Science Fiction horror – Often revolves around subjects that include but are not limited to killer aliens, mad scientists, and/or experiments gone wrong. Examples include Alien,Pandorum, The Fly, Event Horizon, Apollo 18, Pitch Black and It Came from Outer Space.
- Slasher film – A type of horror film typically involving a psychopathic killer stalking and killing a sequence of victims in a graphically violent manner, often with a cutting tool such as a knife or axe. Slasher films may at times overlap with the crime, mystery and thriller genre. Examples of this genre include Black Christmas, Halloween, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, Scream, I Know What You Did Last Summer,"The 2007 South Korean Supernatural Thriller Someone Behind You, Friday the 13th, Child's Play and A Nightmare on Elm Street.
- Splatter film – These films deliberately focus on graphic portrayals of gore and graphic violence. Through the use of special effects and excessive blood and guts, they tend to display an overt interest in the vulnerability of the human body and the theatricality of its mutilation. Not all splatter films are slashers, and not all splatter films are horrors. Examples include Cannibal Holocaust, Piranha 3D, Blood Feast, Demons, Saw, Guinea Pig series, Hostel, Cannibal Ferox, Martyrs, Hobo with a Shotgun , Inside, Antichrist, and The Collector.
- Zombie film – Zombie films feature creatures who are usually portrayed as either reanimated corpses or mindless human beings. Distinct sub-genres have evolved, such as the "zombie comedy" or the "zombie apocalypse". Examples include Resident Evil, Dawn of the Dead, Day of the Dead, The Evil Dead[31], I Am Legend, Land of the Dead, Night of the Living Dead, Quarantine and The Return of the Living Dead.
Horror films’ evolution throughout the years has given society a new approach to resourcefully utilize their benefits. The horror film style has changed over time, but in 1996 Scream set off a “chain of copycats,” leading to a new variety of teenage, horror movies.[32] This new approach to horror films began to gradually earn more and more income as seen in the progress of Scream movies; the first movie earned six million and the third movie earned one-hundred and one million.[32] The importance that horror films have gained in the public and producers’ eyes is one obvious effect on our society.
Horror films’ income expansion is only the first sign of the influences of horror flicks. The role of women and how women see themselves in the movie industry has been altered by the horror genre. In early times, horror films such as My Bloody Valentine (1981), Halloween (1978), and Friday the 13th (1980) pertained mostly to a male audience in order to “feed the fantasies of young men."[33] Their main focus was to express the fear of women and show them as monsters; however, this ideal is no longer prevalent in horror films.[34] Women have become not only the main audience and fans of horror films but also the main protagonists of contemporary horror films.[34] The horror industry is producing more and more movies with the main protagonist being a female and having to evolve into a stronger person in order to overcome some obstacle. This main theme has drawn a larger audience of women movie-goers to the theaters in modern times than ever historically recorded.[35] Movie makers also go as far as to integrate women relatable topics such as pregnancy, motherhood, lesbian relationships, and babysitting jobs into their films in order to gain even more female oriented audiences.[33]
Horror is just one genre of movies, yet the influences that it presents to the international community are large. Firstly they tend to be a vessel for showing eras of audiences issues across the globe visually and in the most effective manner. Jeanne Hall, a film theorist, agrees with the use of horror films in easing the process of understanding issues by making use of their optical elements.[36] The use of horror films to help audiences understand international prior historical events occurs, for example, to show the horridness of the Vietnam war, the Holocaust and the worldwide AIDS epidemic.[37] However, horror movies do not always present positive endings. In fact, in many occurrences the manipulation of horror presents cultural definitions that are not accurate, yet set an example to which a person relates to that specific cultural from then on in their life.[38] The visual interpretations of a films can be lost in the translation of their elements from one culture to another like in the adaptation of the Japanese film Ringu into the American film The Ring.[39] The cultural components from Japan were slowly “siphoned away” to make the film more relatable to an American audience.[39] This deterioration that can occur in an international remake happens by over-presenting negative cultural assumptions that, as time passes, sets a common ideal about that particular culture in each individual.[38] Holm's discussion of the Ringu remakes presents this idea by stating, “It is, instead, to note that the Ring films make use of an untheorized notion of Japan... that seek to directly represent the country.”[39]
- ^ "Horror Films – Part I". Filmsite.org. http://www.filmsite.org/horrorfilms.html. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ Steve Bennett. "Definition Horror Fiction Genre". Find me an author. http://www.findmeanauthor.com/definition_horror_fiction_genre.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ a b "The True Origin of the Horror Film". Pages.emerson.edu. http://pages.emerson.edu/organizations/fas/latent_image/issues/1990-05/horror.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ Seek Japan. "Seek Japan: J-Horror: An Alternative Guide". Seekjapan.jp. http://www.seekjapan.jp/article-1/765/J-Horror:+An+Alternative+Guide. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ "Edison's Frankenstein". Filmbuffonline.com. 15 March 1910. http://www.filmbuffonline.com/Features/EdisonsFrankenstein1.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939) – Moria – The Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Review[dead link]
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ Derek Malcolm, "Tod Browning: Freaks", The Guardian, 15 April 1999; A Century of Films, London: IB Tauris, 2000, p.66-67.
- ^ David J. Skal, The Monster Show: a Cultural History of Horror, New York: Faber, p.142.
- ^ Charles Derry, Dark Dreams: A Psychological History of the Modern Horror Film; A S Barnes & Co, 1977.
- ^ Geoff Andrew, "The Incredible Shrinking Man", in John Pym (ed.) Time Out Film Guide 2009, London: Penguin, 2008, p.506.
- ^ Stephen Robb, "How Psycho changed cinema", BBC News, 1 April 2010.
- ^ "National Film Registry: 1989–2007". Loc.gov. http://www.loc.gov/film/titles.html. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ www.exploitationfilms.com
- ^ § Merritt, Naomi, "Cannibalistic Capitalism and other American Delicacies: A Bataillean Taste of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre", Film-Philosophy, Vol 14, No 1, 2010, http://www.film-philosophy.com/index.php/f-p/article/view/190
- ^ "like your films with a little more aaargggh!!!??? acmi presents the horror for Halloween". Acmi.net.au. 17 September 2004. http://www.acmi.net.au/1F6B9E88D95C48FCA5239678F1BBC8C6.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ "Horror Films in the 1980s". Mediaknowall.com. http://www.mediaknowall.com/Horror/eighties.html. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ China Bans Horror Movies – Shanghai Daily, March 2008.
- ^ Russell, 192.
- ^ George A. Romero's Survival of The Dead: More Horror News, 6 May 2010.
- ^ Box Office for Horror Movies Is Weak: Verging on Horrible: RAK Times, 11 June 2007.
- ^ Kit, Zorianna (22 July 2010). "'Saw' movie franchise to get Guinness World Record". Reuters. MSNBC. http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/38372199/ns/today-entertainment/. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
- ^ I Spit on Your Horror Movie Remakes – MSNBC 2005 opinion piece on horror remakes
- ^ Halloween – Rotten Tomatoes. Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 7 September 2007.
- ^ Halloween (2007): Reviews. Metacritic. Retrieved 7 September 2007.
- ^ "Friday the 13th: The Remake". http://www.fridaythe13thfilms.com/films/newfriday.html. Retrieved 26 May 2008.
- ^ "Nightmare on Elm Street Sets Release Date". Shock Till You Drop. 5 March 2009. http://www.shocktillyoudrop.com/news/topnews.php?id=9787. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
- ^ Aviles, Omar. "Corn remake cast". JoBlo.com. http://www.joblo.com/index.php?id=23056. Retrieved 11 April 2009.
- ^ Hallenbeck 2009, p. 3
- ^ "Natural Horror Top rated Most Viewed – AllMovie". Allrovi.com. http://www.allrovi.com/movies/subgenre/natural-horror-d584. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
- ^ Roberts, Lee. "Zombie Movie History". Best-Horror-Movies. http://www.best-horror-movies.com/zombie-movie-history.html. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ a b Stack, Tim. [<http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=21&sid=f974de41-a7e4-4577-88d9-fbc1438149fa@sessionmgr14&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcCZzaXRlPWVob3N0LWxpdmU= ""Oh, The Horror.""]. Entertainment Weekly. <http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=21&sid=f974de41-a7e4-4577-88d9-fbc1438149fa@sessionmgr14&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcCZzaXRlPWVob3N0LWxpdmU=. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
- ^ a b Nowell, Richard. [<http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=DA-SORT&inPS=true&prodId=GPS&userGroupName=mtlib_1_1123&tabID=T002&searchId=R2&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchType=BasicSearchForm¤tPosition=4&contentSet=GALE%7CA277106285&&docId=GALE ""There's More Than One Way to Lose Your Heart": the American film industry, early teen slasher films, and female youth.""]. Cinema Journal. <http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=DA-SORT&inPS=true&prodId=GPS&userGroupName=mtlib_1_1123&tabID=T002&searchId=R2&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchType=BasicSearchForm¤tPosition=4&contentSet=GALE%7CA277106285&&docId=GALE. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
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- ^ Spines, Christine. [<http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=17&sid=1014e8a0-a56b-4bbc-8b5c-3a0847fc547c@sessionmgr15&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcCZzaXRlPWVob3N0LWxpdmU= ""Horror Films...And the Women Who Love Them!.""]. Entertainment Weekly. <http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=17&sid=1014e8a0-a56b-4bbc-8b5c-3a0847fc547c@sessionmgr15&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcCZzaXRlPWVob3N0LWxpdmU=. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
- ^ Lizardi, Ryan. "Hegemony and Misogyny in the Contemporary Slasher Remake". Journal of Popular Film and Television. http://content.ebscohost.com/pdf23_24/pdf/2010/JFT/01Sep10/53843762.pdf?T=P&P=AN&K=53843762&S=R&D=f3h&EbscoContent=dGJyMNHX8kSep7I4v%2BbwOLCmr0qeqK9Srq%2B4SLeWxWXS&ContentCustomer=dGJyMPGutk%2BuqLZLuePfgeyx44Dt6fIA.
- ^ Heller-Nicholas, Alexandra. "History and Horror". Screen Education.
- ^ a b Carta, Silvio. [<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08949468.2011.604592 "Orientalism in the Documentary Representation of Culture"]. Visual Anthropology. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08949468.2011.604592. Retrieved 4-20-12.
- ^ a b c Holm, Nicholas. [<http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=6199f988-400d-451e-95b6-65582204a120@sessionmgr4&vid=13&hid=14&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcCZzaXRlPWVob3N0LWxpdmU= "Ex(or)cising the Spirit of Japan: Ringu, The Ring, and the Persistence of Japan"]. Journal of Popular Film and Television. <http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=6199f988-400d-451e-95b6-65582204a120@sessionmgr4&vid=13&hid=14&bdata=JmxvZ2luLmFzcCZzaXRlPWVob3N0LWxpdmU=. Retrieved 4-20-12.
- Dixon, Wheeler Winston. A History of Horror. (Rutgers University Press; 2010), ISBN 978-0-8135-4796-1.
- Steffen Hantke, ed. American Horror Film: The Genre at the Turn of the Millennium (University Press of Mississippi; 2010), 253 pages.
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