Hermes wearing a chlamys

For the scallop genus, see Chlamys (genus). The beetle genus described as Chlamys is now Neochlamisus.

The chlamys (Ancient Greek: χλαμύς, gen.: χλαμύδος; also known as the ephaptis [ἐφαπτίς]) was an ancient Greek piece of clothing, a type of cloak.

The chlamys was made from a seamless rectangle of woolen material about the size of a blanket, usually bordered. It was normally pinned with a fibula at the right shoulder. Originally it was wrapped around the waist like a loincloth, but by the end of the 5th century BC it was worn over the elbows. It could be worn over another item of clothing, but was often the sole item of clothing for young soldiers and messengers, at least in Greek art. As such, the chlamys is the characteristic garment of Hermes (Roman Mercury), the messenger god usually depicted as a young man.

The chlamys was typical Greek military attire from the 5th to the 3rd century BCE. As worn by soldiers, it could be wrapped around the arm and used as a light shield in combat.

The chlamys continued into the Byzantine period, when it was often much larger and worn sideways. It was held on with a clasp at the shoulder, and nearly reached the ground at front and back.

Gallery[link]

• 

  A chlamys-wearing torso, possibly of Alexander

• 

  Ptolemy III as Hermes wearing the chlamys

• 

  Chlamys-wearing youth (Roman, 2nd century AD)

• 

  Model wearing a 19th-century re-creation

Sources[link]

• Sekunda, Nicholas (2000). Greek Hoplite 480–323 BC. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-867-4
• Ridgway, S. Brunilde (1990). Hellenistic Sculpture: The Styles of ca. 331–200 B.C. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-16710-0

See also[link]

• Clothing in ancient Greece
• Ephestris

Maxim Gorky
Portrait of Gorky, c. 1906
Born	Alexei Maximovich Peshkov 28 March [O.S. March 16] 1868 Nizhny Novgorod, Russian Empire
Died	18 June 1936(1936-06-18) (aged 68) Gorki Leninskiye, Moscow Oblast, Russian SFSR, USSR
Pen name	Maxim Gorky
Occupation	Writer, dramatist, political activist
Nationality	Russian, Soviet
Period	Modernism
Genres	Novel, drama
Literary movement	Socialist Realism
Influenced Hamid Olimjon
Signature

Alexei Maximovich Peshkov (Russian: Алексе́й Макси́мович Пешко́в;^[1] 28 March [O.S. 16 March] 1868 – 18 June 1936), primarily known as Maxim Gorky (Russian: Макси́м Го́рький), was a Russian and Soviet author, a founder of the Socialist Realism literary method and a political activist.^[2]

Life[link]

Early years[link]

Gorky was born in Nizhny Novgorod and became an orphan at the age of nine. In 1880, at the age of twelve, he ran away from home in an effort to find his grandmother. Gorky was brought up by his grandmother.^[2] Her death deeply affected him, and after an attempt at suicide in December 1887, he travelled on foot across the Russian Empire for five years, changing jobs and accumulating impressions used later in his writing.^[2]

As a journalist working for provincial newspapers, he wrote under the pseudonym Иегудиил Хламида (Jehudiel Khlamida). The name is suggestive of "cloak-and-dagger" by the similarity to the Greek chlamys, "cloak").^[3] He began using the pseudonym Gorky (literally "bitter") in 1892, while working in Tiflis for the newspaper Кавказ (The Caucasus).^[4] The name reflected his simmering anger about life in Russia and a determination to speak the bitter truth. Gorky's first book Очерки и рассказы (Essays and Stories) in 1898 enjoyed a sensational success and his career as a writer began. Gorky wrote incessantly, viewing literature less as an aesthetic practice (though he worked hard on style and form) than as a moral and political act that could change the world. He described the lives of people in the lowest strata and on the margins of society, revealing their hardships, humiliations, and brutalization, but also their inward spark of humanity.^[2]

Political and literary development[link]

Anton Chekhov and Gorky. 1900, Yalta

Gorky’s reputation as a unique literary voice from the bottom strata of society and as a fervent advocate of Russia's social, political, and cultural transformation grew. By 1899, he was openly associating with the emerging Marxist social-democratic movement which helped make him a celebrity among both the intelligentsia and the growing numbers of "conscious" workers. At the heart of all his work was a belief in the inherent worth and potential of the human person (личность, 'lichnost'). In his writing, he counterposed individuals, aware of their natural dignity, and inspired by energy and will, with people who succumb to the degrading conditions of life around them. Both his writings and his letters reveal a "restless man" (a frequent self-description) struggling to resolve contradictory feelings of faith and skepticism, love of life and disgust at the vulgarity and pettiness of the human world.

He publicly opposed the Tsarist regime and was arrested many times. Gorky befriended many revolutionaries and became Lenin's personal friend after they met in 1902. He exposed governmental control of the press (see Matvei Golovinski affair). In 1902, Gorky was elected an honorary Academician of Literature, but Tsar Nicholas II ordered this annulled. In protest, Anton Chekhov and Vladimir Korolenko left the Academy.^[5]

Leo Tolstoy with Gorky in Yasnaya Polyana, 1900

From 1900 to 1905, Gorky’s writings became more optimistic. He became more involved in the opposition movement, for which he was again briefly imprisoned in 1901. In 1904, having severed his relationship with the Moscow Art Theatre in the wake of conflict with Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Gorky returned to Nizhny Novgorod to establish a theatre of his own.^[6] Both Constantin Stanislavski and Savva Morozov provided financial support for the venture.^[7] Stanislavski saw in Gorky's theatre an opportunity to develop the network of provincial theatres that he hoped would reform the art of the stage in Russia, of which he had dreamed since the 1890s.^[7] He sent some pupils from the Art Theatre School—as well as Ioasaf Tikhomirov, who ran the school—to work there.^[7] By the autumn, however, after the censor had banned every play that the theatre proposed to stage, Gorky abandoned the project.^[7] Now a financially successful author, editor, and playwright, Gorky gave financial support to the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP), as well as supporting liberal appeals to the government for civil rights and social reform. The brutal shooting of workers marching to the Tsar with a petition for reform on 9 January 1905 (known as the "Bloody Sunday"), which set in motion the Revolution of 1905, seems to have pushed Gorky more decisively toward radical solutions. He now became closely associated with Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov's's Bolshevik wing of the party, with Bogdanov taking repsonsibility for the transfer of funds from Gorky to Vpered^[8].It is not clear whether he ever formally joined and his relations with Lenin and the Bolsheviks would always be rocky. His most influential writings in these years were a series of political plays, most famously The Lower Depths (1902). In 1906, the Bolsheviks sent him on a fund-raising trip to the United States, where in the Adirondack Mountains Gorky wrote his famous novel of revolutionary conversion and struggle, Мать (Mat’, The Mother). His experiences there—which included a scandal over his traveling with his lover rather than his wife—deepened his contempt for the "bourgeois soul" but also his admiration for the boldness of the American spirit. While briefly imprisoned in Peter and Paul Fortress during the abortive 1905 Russian Revolution, Gorky wrote the play Children of the Sun, nominally set during an 1862 cholera epidemic, but universally understood to relate to present-day events.

Capri years[link]

In 1909–1911 Gorky lived at villa Behring (burgundy)

From 1906 to 1913, Gorky lived on the island of Capri, partly for health reasons and partly to escape the increasingly repressive atmosphere in Russia.^[2] He continued to support the work of Russian social-democracy, especially the Bolsheviks and invited Anatoly Lunacharsky to stay with him on Capri. The two men had worked together on Literaturny Raspad which appeared in 1908. It was during this period that Gorky, along with Lunacharsky, Bogdanov and Vladimir Bazarov developed the idea of an Encyclopedia of Russian History as a socialist version of Diderot's Encyclopedia. Most controversially, he articulated, along with a few other maverick Bolsheviks, a philosophy he called "God-Building",^[2] which sought to recapture the power of myth for the revolution and to create a religious atheism that placed collective humanity where God had been and was imbued with passion, wonderment, moral certainty, and the promise of deliverance from evil, suffering, and even death. Though 'God-Building' was suppressed by Lenin, Gorky retained his belief that "culture"—the moral and spiritual awareness of the value and potential of the human self—would be more critical to the revolution’s success than political or economic arrangements.

Return from exile[link]

An amnesty granted for the 300th anniversary of the Romanov Dynasty allowed Gorky to return to Russia in 1913, where he continued his social criticism, mentored other writers from the common people, and wrote a series of important cultural memoirs, including the first part of his autobiography.^[2] On returning to Russia, he wrote that his main impression was that "everyone is so crushed and devoid of God's image." The only solution, he repeatedly declared, was "culture".

During World War I, his apartment in Petrograd was turned into a Bolshevik staff room, and his politics remained close to the Bolsheviks throughout the revolutionary period of 1917. These relations became strained, however, after his newspaper Novaya Zhizn (Новая Жизнь, "New Life") fell prey to Bolshevik censorship during the ensuing civil war, around which time Gorky published a collection of essays critical of the Bolsheviks called Untimely Thoughts in 1918. (It would not be re-published in Russia until after the collapse of the Soviet Union.) The essays call Lenin a tyrant for his senseless arrests and repression of free discourse, and an anarchist for his conspiratorial tactics; Gorky compares Lenin to both the Tsar and Nechayev.^{[citation needed]}

In 1921, he hired a secretary, Moura Budberg, who later became his unofficial wife. In August 1921, Nikolay Gumilev, his friend and fellow writer was arrested by the Petrograd Cheka for his monarchist views. Gorky hurried to Moscow, obtained an order to release Gumilyov from Lenin personally, but upon his return to Petrograd he found out that Gumilev had already been shot. In October, Gorky returned to Italy on health grounds: he had tuberculosis.

Return to Russia: last years[link]

Gorky with Joseph Stalin near the Kremlin in 1931

On his definitive return to the Soviet Union in 1932, Maxim Gorky received the Ryabushinsky Mansion, designed in 1900 by Fyodor Schechtel for the Ryabushinsky family. The mansion today houses a museum about Gorky.

According to Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Gorky's return to the Soviet Union was motivated by material needs. In Sorrento, Gorky found himself without money and without fame. He visited the USSR several times after 1929, and in 1932 Joseph Stalin personally invited him to return for good, an offer he accepted. In June 1929, Gorky visited Solovki (cleaned up for this occasion) and wrote a positive article about that Gulag, which had already gained ill fame in the West. Later he stated that everything he had written was under the control of censors.^{[citation needed]} What he actually saw and thought when visiting the camp has been a highly discussed topic.^{[citation needed]}

Gorky's return from Fascist Italy was a major propaganda victory for the Soviets. He was decorated with the Order of Lenin and given a mansion (formerly belonging to the millionaire Ryabushinsky, now the Gorky Museum) in Moscow and a dacha in the suburbs. One of the central Moscow streets, Tverskaya, was renamed in his honor, as was the city of his birth. The largest fixed-wing aircraft in the world in the mid-1930s, the Tupolev ANT-20 (photo) was named Maxim Gorky in his honor.

On 11 October 1931 Gorky read his fairy tale "A Girl and Death" to his visitors Joseph Stalin, Kliment Voroshilov and Vyacheslav Molotov, an event that was later depicted by Viktor Govorov in his painting. On that same day Stalin left his autograph on the last page of this work by Gorky: "Эта штука сильнее чем "Фауст" Гёте (любовь побеждает смерть)"^[9]( "This piece is stronger than Goethe's Faust (love defeats death)". In 1933, parting with Moura Budberg, Gorky edited an infamous book about the White Sea-Baltic Canal, presented as an example of "successful rehabilitation of the former enemies of proletariat". With the increase of Stalinist repression and especially after the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, Gorky was placed under unannounced house arrest in his house near Moscow.

The sudden death of Gorky's son Maxim Peshkov in May 1934 was followed by the death of Maxim Gorky himself in June 1936. Speculation has long surrounded the circumstances of his death. Stalin and Molotov were among those who carried Gorky's coffin during the funeral. During the Bukharin trials in 1938, one of the charges was that Gorky was killed by Yagoda's NKVD agents.^[10]

In Soviet times, before and after his death, the complexities in Gorky's life and outlook were reduced to an iconic image (echoed in heroic pictures and statues dotting the countryside): Gorky as a great Soviet writer who emerged from the common people, a loyal friend of the Bolsheviks, and the founder of the increasingly canonical "socialist realism".

Depictions and adaptations[link]

The Gorky Trilogy is a series of three feature films: The Childhood of Maxim Gorky, My Apprenticeship, and My Universities, directed by Mark Donskoi, filmed in the Soviet Union, released 1938–1940. The trilogy was adapted from Gorky's autobiography.

The German modernist Bertolt Brecht based his epic play The Mother (1932) on Gorky's novel of the same name. Gorky's novel was also adapted for an opera by Valery Zhelobinsky in 1938. In 1912, the Italian composer Giacomo Orefice based his opera Radda on the character of Radda from Makar Chudra.

Gallery[link]

• Masoleum-gorky kaganovich molotov voroshilov stalin kalinin.jpg

  Gorky, Kaganovich, Molotov, Voroshilov, Stalin and Kalinin at the podium of Lenin's mausoleum.

• 

  Portrait of Gorky by Ilya Repin. Oil on canvas, 1899

• 

  Maxim Gorky (left) and Stepan Skitalets playing a gusli, 1900

• 

  Gorky with Feodor Chaliapin

• 

  c1900

• 

  c. 1900

• Painting of maxim gorki.jpg
• 

  Gorky (bottom left), with fellow members of the Moscow literary group Sreda; From top left: Skitalets, Chaliapin, and Chirikov; from bottom left: Gorky, Andreyev, Bunin, and Teleshov. 1902

• 

  Portrait by Akseli Gallen-Kallela, Helsinki, winter 1905–1906.

• 

  Portrait by Valentin Serov, 1905

• 

  7 February 1910

• 
• 

  Portrait by N.A. Andreev, 1921

• 

  Genrikh Yagoda and Gorky (left)

• Statue of Maksim Gorki, Art Muzeon Sculpture Park, Moscow.JPG

  Statue of Gorki in Art Muzeon Sculpture Park, Moscow

• 

  Commemorative coin, released in the USSR on his 120th anniv. features his portrait and a stormy petrel over a stormy sea

• 

  Maxim Gorky, Konstantin Piatnitsky and Stepan Skitalets, 1902

• 

  Gorky in the Penates by Ilya Repin, 1905

• 

  Portrait by Mikhail Nesterov, 1901

• 

  Portrait by Boris Grigoriev

• 1949 Viktor Govorov - Gorky reads to Stalin.jpeg

  Viktor Govorov, Gorky reads to Stalin, 1949

Selected works[link]

• Makar Chudra (Макар Чудра), short story, 1892
• Goremyka Pavel, novel, 1894 (published in English as Orphan Paul^[11])
• Chelkash (Челкаш), novelette, 1895
• Malva, short story, 1897
• Sketches and Stories, stories, (three volumes) 1898–1899
• Creatures That Once Were Men, stories in English translation (1905)
  • This contained an introduction by G. K. Chesterton^[12]
• Twenty-six Men and a Girl, short story, 1899
• Foma Gordeyev/The Man Who Was Afraid (Фома Гордеев), novel, 1899
• Three of Them (Трое), novel, 1900
• The Song of the Stormy Petrel (Песня о Буревестнике), poem, 1901
• Song of a Falcon (Песня о Соколе),short story, 1902
• The Mother (Мать), novel, 1907
• The Life of a Useless Man, novel, 1907
• A Confession (Исповедь), novel, 1908
• Okurov City (Городок Окуров), novel, 1908
• The Life of Matvei Kozhemyakin (Жизнь Матвея Кожемякина), novel, 1910
• Tales of Italy, stories, 1911–1913
• My Childhood (Детство), Autobiography Part I, 1913–1914
• In the World (В людях), Autobiography Part II, 1916
• Chaliapin, articles in Letopis, 1917^[13]
• Untimely Thoughts, articles, 1918
• My Recollections of Tolstoy, 1919
• My Universities (Мои университеты), Autobiography Part III, 1923
• Through Russia, stories, 1923
• The Artamonov Business (Дело Артамоновых), novel, 1927
• Life of Klim Samgin (Жизнь Клима Самгина), unfinished novel series:
  • The Bystander, novel, 1927
  • The Magnet, novel, 1928
  • Other Fires, novel, 1930
  • The Specter, novel, 1936
• Reminiscences of Tolstoy, Chekhov, and Andreyev, 1920–1928
• V.I. Lenin (В.И. Ленин), reminiscence, 1924–1931
• The I.V. Stalin White Sea – Baltic Sea Canal, 1934 (editor-in-chief)

Drama[link]

• The Philistines/The Smug Citizens/The Petty Bourgeois (Мещане), 1901
• The Lower Depths (На дне), 1902
• Summerfolk (Дачники), 1904
• Children of the Sun (Дети солнца), 1905
• Barbarians, 1905
• Enemies, 1906
• The Last Ones, 1908
• The Reception'/Vstrecha, 1910
• Queer People/Eccentrics, 1910
• Vassa Zheleznova, 1910
• The Zykovs, 1913
• Counterfeit Money, 1913
• The Old Man/The Judge/Starik, 1915, revised 1922, 1924
• Workaholic Slovotekov, 1920
• Somov and Others, 1930
• Yegor Bulychov and Others/Egor Bulychev, 1932
• Dostigayev and Others, 1933

Sources[link]

• Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43437-8.
• Benedetti, Jean. 1999. Stanislavski: His Life and Art. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-52520-1.
• Worrall, Nick. 1996. The Moscow Art Theatre. Theatre Production Studies ser. London and NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-05598-9.
• Figes, Orlando. 1998. "A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891–1924" Penguin, NY and London. ISBN 978-0-14-024364-2

Further reading[link]

• The Murder of Maxim Gorky. A Secret Execution by Arkady Vaksberg. Enigma Books: New York, 2007. ISBN 978-1-929631-62-9

See also[link]

• Gorky Park in Moscow
• Znanie Publishers
• Maxim Gorky Literature Institute
• Sloboda Tuzla football club from Bosnia and Herzegovina, originally called FK Gorki in honour of Maxim Gorky.
• Tupolev ANT-20 Maxim Gorky Soviet Transport/Propaganda airplanes named after Maxim Gorky.

Notes[link]

External links[link]

Find more about Maxim Gorky on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

• Works by Maxim Gorky at Project Gutenberg
• "Anton Chekhov: Fragments of Recollections" by Maxim Gorky
• Some works of Maxim Gorky in the original Russian
• Works by Maxim Gorky (public domain in Canada)
• "Prince of Russian Literature" (Sri Lanka)

v t e Works by Maxim Gorky Novels Orphan Paul (1894) Foma Gordeyev (1899) Three of Them (1900) Mother (1907) The Life of a Useless Man (1907) A Confession (1908) The Artamonov Business (1927) Short fiction "Makar Chudra" (1892) "Chelkash" (1895) "Twenty-six Men and a Girl" (1899) Through Russia (1923) Plays The Philistines (1901) The Lower Depths (1902) Summerfolk (1904) Children of the Sun (1905) Poetry "The Song of the Stormy Petrel" (1901)

Michael II
Emperor of the Byzantine Empire
Michael II and his son Theophilos, founders of the Amorian dynasty.
Reign	December 25, 820 – October 2, 829
Born	770
Birthplace	Amorium
Died	October 2, 829 (aged 59)
Predecessor	Leo V the Armenian
Successor	Theophilos
Consort	Thekla Euphrosyne
Offspring	Theophilos
Dynasty	Phrygian Dynasty

Michael II (Greek: Μιχαήλ Β', Mikhaēl II), surnamed the Amorian (ὁ ἐξ Ἀμορίου) or the Stammerer (ὁ Τραυλός or ὁ Ψελλός), reigned as Byzantine Emperor from December 820 to his death on 2 October 829, and the first ruler of the Phrygian or Amorian dynasty.

Born in Amorium, Michael began his career as a soldier, rising to high ranks due to the favour of his old colleague, Leo V the Armenian (r. 813–820). Nevertheless, Michael masterminded a conspiracy which overthrew and murdered Leo in Christmas 820. Immediately Michael faced the long revolt of Thomas the Slav, which almost cost him his throne and which was not completely suppressed until spring 824. The later years of Michael's reign were marked by two major military disasters with long-term effects, the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Sicily, and the fall of Crete to the Saracens. Domestically, Michael supported and strengthened the resumption of official iconoclasm, which had begun under Leo V.

Early life[link]

Michael was born in 770 in Amorium in Phrygia, into a family of professional peasant-soldiers who received for their military service land from government. His family belonged to the Judeo-Christian sect of the Athinganoi, whose members were Cappadocians who adopted Jewish rituals. The Athinganoi were numerous in Anatolia and together with the Greeks and Armenians formed the backbone of the Byzantine army of that era.

Michael first rose to prominence as a close aide (spatharios) to the general Bardanes Tourkos, alongside his future antagonists Leo the Armenian and Thomas the Slav. He married Bardanes' daughter Thekla, while Leo married another daughter. Michael and Leo abandoned Bardanes shortly after he rebelled against Emperor Nikephoros I in 803, and were rewarded with higher military commands: Michael was named the Emperor's Count of the Tent. Michael was instrumental in Leo's overthrow of Michael I Rangabe in 813, after Rangabe’s continuing military defeats against the Bulgarians. Under Leo V, Michael was appointed to command the elite tagma of the Excubitors.

He became disgruntled with Leo V however when the Emperor divorced Michael's sister-in-law. On Christmas Eve 820, Leo V accused him of conspiracy, jailed him and sentenced him to death but postponed the execution until after Christmas. Michael sent messages to his co-conspirators threatening to reveal their identity, whereupon his partisans freed him and murdered Leo V during the Christmas mass in the palace chapel of St. Stephen.

Reign[link]

Michael was immediately proclaimed Emperor, still wearing the chains from the prison on his legs. Later the same day, he was crowned by Patriarch Theodotos I of Constantinople. In his internal policy, Michael II supported iconoclasm, but tacitly encouraged reconciliation with the iconodules, whom he generally stopped persecuting and allowed to return from exile. These included the former Patriarch Nikephoros and Theodore of Stoudios, who failed, however, to influence the emperor to abandon iconoclasm. One of the few victims of the Emperor's policy was the future patriarch Methodios I.

Michael's accession whetted the appetite of his former comrade-in-arms Thomas the Slav, who set himself up as rival emperor in Anatolia and successfully transferred his forces into Thrace, effectively besieging the capital in December 821. Although Thomas did not obtain the support of some of the Anatolian themes, he secured the support of the naval theme and their ships, allowing him to tighten his grip on Constantinople. In his quest for support, Thomas presented himself as the champion of the poor, reduced taxation, and concluded an alliance with Al-Ma'mun of the Abbasid Caliphate, having himself crowned Emperor by the Patriarch of Antioch Job.

Michael II gained the support of Omurtag of Bulgaria who came to his aid. Michael II forced Thomas to lift his siege of Constantinople in the spring of 823. Michael besieged Thomas in Arkadiopolis (Lüleburgaz)and forced his surrender in October. Michael inherited a seriously weakened military, and was unable to prevent the conquest of Crete by 10,000 Arabs (who had 40 ships)^[1] in 824, or to recover the island with an expedition in 826. In 827 the Arabs also invaded Sicily, taking advantage of local infighting, and besieged Syracuse.

After the death of Thekla, in c. 823, Michael II married Euphrosyne, a daughter of Constantine VI and Maria of Amnia. This marriage was probably intended to strengthen Michael's position as Emperor, but it incurred the opposition of the clergy, as Euphrosyne had previously become a nun. Michael II died on October 2, 829.

Because of his Judeo-Christian origin and iconoclasm, Michael II was not popular among Orthodox clergy, who depicted him as an ignorant and poorly educated peasant, but Michael II was a competent statesman and administrator. He brought stability to most of the Byzantine Empire for the first time in many generations and began restoration of the Byzantine military. The system of government and military built by Michael II enabled the Empire under his grandson Michael III to gain the Byzantines the ascendency in their struggles with the Abbasid Caliphate and to withstand all the vicissitudes of Byzantine palace life; Michael II's direct descendants, the Amorian dynasty followed by the so-called Macedonian dynasty, ruled the Empire for more than two centuries, inaugurating the Byzantine Renaissance of the ninth and tenth centuries.

Footnotes[link]

References[link]

• The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991.
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.