This article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject. Please help improve the article with a good introductory style. (June 2011)

Turtle (Terse RDF Triple Language) is a serialization format for Resource Description Framework (RDF) graphs. A subset of Tim Berners-Lee and Dan Connolly's Notation3 (N3) language, it was defined by Dave Beckett, and is a superset of the minimal N-Triples format. Unlike full N3, Turtle doesn't go beyond RDF's graph model. SPARQL uses a similar N3 subset to Turtle for its graph patterns, but using N3's brace syntax for delimiting subgraphs.

Turtle was accepted as a first working draft by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) RDF Working Group on 9 August 2011.^[1]

Turtle is popular among Semantic Web developers as a human-friendly alternative to RDF/XML. A significant proportion of RDF toolkits include Turtle parsing and serializing capability. Some examples are Redland, Sesame, Jena and RDFLib.

Example[link]

@prefix rdf: <http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#> .
@prefix dc: <http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/> .
@prefix ex: <http://example.org/stuff/1.0/> .

<http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-syntax-grammar>
  dc:title "RDF/XML Syntax Specification (Revised)" ;
  ex:editor [
    ex:fullname "Dave Beckett";
    ex:homePage <http://purl.org/net/dajobe/>
  ] .

(Turtle examples are also valid Notation3).

The MIME type of Turtle is text/turtle. The character encoding of Turtle content is always UTF-8.^[2]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Turtle Specification

Turtles Temporal range: Late Triassic – Recent, 215–0 Ma PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N
Florida box turtle Terrapene carolina
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Reptilia
Superorder:	Chelonia Macartney, 1802
Order:	Testudines Linnaeus, 1758 [1]
Suborders
Cryptodira Pleurodira †Proganochelydia and see text
Diversity
14 extant families with ca. 300 species
blue: sea turtles, black: land turtles

A sea turtle at Henry Doorly Zoo, Omaha NE

Turtles are reptiles of the order Testudines (the crown group of the superorder Chelonia), characterised by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs that acts as a shield.^[2] "Turtle" may either refer to the Testudines as a whole, or to particular Testudines which make up a form taxon that is not monophyletic.

The order Testudines includes both extant (living) and extinct species. The earliest known turtles date from 215 million years ago,^[3] making turtles one of the oldest reptile groups and a more ancient group than lizards, snakes and crocodiles. Of the many species alive today, some are highly endangered.^[4]

Like other reptiles, turtles are ectotherms—their internal temperature varies according to the ambient environment, commonly called cold-blooded. However, leatherback sea turtles have noticeably higher body temperature than surrounding water because of their high metabolic rate.

Like other amniotes (reptiles, dinosaurs, birds, and mammals), they breathe air and do not lay eggs underwater, although many species live in or around water. The largest turtles are aquatic.

Anatomy and morphology[link]

Chelonia mydas in Kona, Hawaii

The largest living chelonian is the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), which reaches a shell length of 200 centimetres (6.6 ft) and can reach a weight of over 900 kilograms (2,000 lb). Freshwater turtles are generally smaller, but with the largest species, the Asian softshell turtle Pelochelys cantorii, a few individuals have been reported up to 200 centimetres (6.6 ft). This dwarfs even the better-known alligator snapping turtle, the largest chelonian in North America, which attains a shell length of up to 80 centimetres (2.6 ft) and weighs as much as 113.4 kilograms (250 lb).^[5] Giant tortoises of the genera Geochelone, Meiolania, and others were relatively widely distributed around the world into prehistoric times, and are known to have existed in North and South America, Australia, and Africa. They became extinct at the same time as the appearance of man, and it is assumed humans hunted them for food. The only surviving giant tortoises are on the Seychelles and Galápagos Islands, and can grow to over 130 centimetres (51 in) in length, and weigh about 300 kilograms (660 lb).^[6]

The largest ever chelonian was Archelon ischyros, a Late Cretaceous sea turtle known to have been up to 4.6 metres (15 ft) long.^[7]

The smallest turtle is the speckled padloper tortoise of South Africa. It measures no more than 8 centimetres (3.1 in) in length and weighs about 140 grams (4.9 oz). Two other species of small turtles are the American mud turtles and musk turtles that live in an area that ranges from Canada to South America. The shell length of many species in this group is less than 13 centimetres (5.1 in) in length.

A red-eared slider turtle with eyes closer to the end of the head, keeping only the nostrils and the eyes above the water surface

African spurred tortoise in the zoo of Sharm el-Sheikh

African spurred tortoise at a zoo in the Czech Republic

Neck folding[link]

Turtles are divided into two groups, according to how they evolved a solution to the problem of withdrawing their necks into their shells (something the ancestral Proganochelys could not do): the Cryptodira, which can draw their necks in while contracting it under their spine; and the Pleurodira, which contract their necks to the side.

Head[link]

Most turtles that spend most of their lives on land have their eyes looking down at objects in front of them. Some aquatic turtles, such as snapping turtles and soft-shelled turtles, have eyes closer to the top of the head. These species of turtles can hide from predators in shallow water, where they lie entirely submerged except for their eyes and nostrils. Sea turtles possess glands near their eyes that produce salty tears that rid their body of excess salt taken in from the water they drink.

Turtles are thought to have exceptional night vision due to the unusually large number of rod cells in their retinas. Turtles have color vision with a wealth of cone subtypes with sensitivities ranging from the near ultraviolet (UV A) to red. Some land turtles have very poor pursuit movement abilities, which are normally reserved for predators that hunt quick moving prey, but carnivorous turtles are able to move their heads quickly to snap.

Turtles have a rigid beak. Turtles use their jaws to cut and chew food. Instead of teeth, the upper and lower jaws of the turtle are covered by horny ridges. Carnivorous turtles usually have knife-sharp ridges for slicing through their prey. Herbivorous turtles have serrated-edged ridges that help them cut through tough plants. Turtles use their tongues to swallow food, but they cannot, unlike most reptiles, stick out their tongues to catch food.

Shell[link]

The upper shell of the turtle is called the carapace. The lower shell that encases the belly is called the plastron. The carapace and plastron are joined together on the turtle's sides by bony structures called bridges. The inner layer of a turtle's shell is made up of about 60 bones that include portions of the backbone and the ribs, meaning the turtle cannot crawl out of its shell. In most turtles, the outer layer of the shell is covered by horny scales called scutes that are part of its outer skin, or epidermis. Scutes are made up of a fibrous protein called keratin that also makes up the scales of other reptiles. These scutes overlap the seams between the shell bones and add strength to the shell. Some turtles do not have horny scutes. For example, the leatherback sea turtle and the soft-shelled turtles have shells covered with leathery skin instead.

The rigid shell means turtles cannot breathe as other reptiles do, by changing the volume of their chest cavity via expansion and contraction of the ribs. Instead, turtles breathe in two ways. First, they employ buccal pumping, pulling air into their mouth, then pushing it into the lungs via oscillations of the floor of the throat. Secondly, by contracting the abdominal muscles that cover the posterior opening of the shell, the internal volume of the shell increases, drawing air into the lungs, allowing these muscles to function in much the same way as the mammalian diaphragm.

The shape of the shell gives helpful clues to how a turtle lives. Most tortoises have a large, dome-shaped shell that makes it difficult for predators to crush the shell between their jaws. One of the few exceptions is the African pancake tortoise, which has a flat, flexible shell that allows it to hide in rock crevices. Most aquatic turtles have flat, streamlined shells which aid in swimming and diving. American snapping turtles and musk turtles have small, cross-shaped plastrons that give them more efficient leg movement for walking along the bottom of ponds and streams.

The color of a turtle's shell may vary. Shells are commonly colored brown, black, or olive green. In some species, shells may have red, orange, yellow, or grey markings and these markings are often spots, lines, or irregular blotches. One of the most colorful turtles is the eastern painted turtle which includes a yellow plastron and a black or olive shell with red markings around the rim.

Tortoises, being land-based, have rather heavy shells. In contrast, aquatic and soft-shelled turtles have lighter shells that help them avoid sinking in water and swim faster with more agility. These lighter shells have large spaces called fontanelles between the shell bones. The shells of leatherback sea turtles are extremely light because they lack scutes and contain many fontanelles.

Skin and molting[link]

Snapping turtle tail, Blue Hills Reservation, Massachusetts

As mentioned above, the outer layer of the shell is part of the skin; each scute (or plate) on the shell corresponds to a single modified scale. The remainder of the skin is composed of skin with much smaller scales, similar to the skin of other reptiles. Turtles do not molt their skins all at once, as snakes do, but continuously, in small pieces. When kept in aquaria, small sheets of dead skin can be seen in the water (often appearing to be a thin piece of plastic) having been sloughed off when the animal deliberately rubs itself against a piece of wood or stone. Tortoises also shed skin, but a lot of dead skin is allowed to accumulate into thick knobs and plates that provide protection to parts of the body outside the shell.

By counting the rings formed by the stack of smaller, older scutes on top of the larger, newer ones, it is possible to estimate the age of a turtle, if one knows how many scutes are produced in a year.^[8] This method is not very accurate, partly because growth rate is not constant, but also because some of the scutes eventually fall away from the shell.

Limbs[link]

Terrestrial tortoises have short, sturdy feet. Tortoises are famous for moving slowly, in part because of their heavy, cumbersome shell, which restricts stride length.

The amphibious turtles normally have limbs similar to those of tortoises, except the feet are webbed and often have long claws. These turtles swim using all four feet in a way similar to the dog paddle, with the feet on the left and right side of the body alternately providing thrust. Large turtles tend to swim less than smaller ones, and the very big species, such as alligator snapping turtles, hardly swim at all, preferring to simply walk along the bottom of the river or lake. As well as webbed feet, turtles have very long claws, used to help them clamber onto riverbanks and floating logs, upon which they like to bask. Male turtles tend to have particularly long claws, and these appear to be used to stimulate the female while mating. While most turtles have webbed feet, some, such as the pig-nosed turtle, have true flippers, with the digits being fused into paddles and the claws being relatively small. These species swim in the same way as sea turtles (see below).

Sea turtles are almost entirely aquatic and have flippers instead of feet. Sea turtles fly through the water, using the up-and-down motion of the front flippers to generate thrust; the back feet are not used for propulsion, but may be used as rudders for steering. Compared with freshwater turtles, sea turtles have very limited mobility on land, and apart from the dash from the nest to the sea as hatchlings, male sea turtles normally never leave the sea. Females must come back onto land to lay eggs. They move very slowly and laboriously, dragging themselves forwards with their flippers.

Ecology and life history[link]

Sea turtle swimming

Although many turtles spend large amounts of their lives underwater, all turtles and tortoises breathe air, and must surface at regular intervals to refill their lungs. They can also spend much of their lives on dry land. Aquatic respiration in Australian freshwater turtles is currently being studied. Some species have large cloacal cavities that are lined with many finger-like projections. These projections, called papillae, have a rich blood supply, and increase the surface area of the cloaca. The turtles can take up dissolved oxygen from the water using these papillae, in much the same way that fish use gills to respire.

Turtles lay eggs, like other reptiles, which are slightly soft and leathery. The eggs of the largest species are spherical, while the eggs of the rest are elongated. Their albumen is white and contains a different protein from bird eggs, such that it will not coagulate when cooked. Turtle eggs prepared to eat consist mainly of yolk. In some species, temperature determines whether an egg develops into a male or a female: a higher temperature causes a female, a lower temperature causes a male. Large numbers of eggs are deposited in holes dug into mud or sand. They are then covered and left to incubate by themselves. When the turtles hatch, they squirm their way to the surface and head toward the water. There are no known species in which the mother cares for the young.

Sea turtles lay their eggs on dry, sandy beaches. Immature sea turtles are not cared for by the adults. Turtles can take many years to reach breeding age, and in many cases breed every few years rather than annually.

Researchers have recently discovered a turtle’s organs do not gradually break down or become less efficient over time, unlike most other animals. It was found that the liver, lungs, and kidneys of a centenarian turtle are virtually indistinguishable from those of its immature counterpart. This has inspired genetic researchers to begin examining the turtle genome for longevity genes.^[9]

Systematics and evolution[link]

Odontochelys is the oldest known turtle genus

The first proto-turtles are believed to have existed in the late Triassic Period of the Mesozoic era, about 220 million years ago, and their shell, which has remained a remarkably stable body plan, is thought to have evolved from bony extensions of their backbones and broad ribs that expanded and grew together to form a complete shell that offered protection at every stage of its evolution, even when the bony component of the shell was not complete. This is supported by fossils of the freshwater Odontochelys semitestacea or "half-shelled turtle with teeth", from the late Triassic, which have been found near Guangling^{[disambiguation needed ]} in southwest China. Odontochelys displays a complete bony plastron and an incomplete carapace, similar to an early stage of turtle embryonic development.^[10] Prior to this discovery, the earliest-known fossil turtles were terrestrial and had a complete shell, offering no clue to the evolution of this remarkable anatomical feature. By the late Jurassic, turtles had radiated widely, and their fossil history becomes easier to read.

"Chelonia" (Testudines) from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur, 1904.

Their exact ancestry has been disputed. It was believed they are the only surviving branch of the ancient evolutionary grade Anapsida, which includes groups such as procolophonids, millerettids, protorothyrids, and pareiasaurs. All anapsid skulls lack a temporal opening, while all other extant amniotes have temporal openings (although in mammals the hole has become the zygomatic arch). The millerettids, protorothyrids, and pareiasaurs became extinct in the late Permian period, and the procolophonoids during the Triassic.^[11]

However, it was later suggested the anapsid-like turtle skull may be due to reversion rather than to anapsid descent. More recent morphological phylogenetic studies with this in mind placed turtles firmly within diapsids, slightly closer to Squamata than to Archosauria.^[12] All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids; some place turtles within Archosauria,^[13] or, more commonly, as a sister group to extant archosaurs.^{[14][15][16][17]} Reanalysis of prior phylogenies suggests they classified turtles as anapsids both because they assumed this classification (most of them studying what sort of anapsid turtles are) and because they did not sample fossil and extant taxa broadly enough for constructing the cladogram. Testudines were suggested to have diverged from other diapsids between 200 and 279 million years ago, though the debate is far from settled.^[12][14][18]

The earliest known fully shelled turtle is the late-Triassic Proganochelys. The genus species already had many advanced turtle traits, and thus probably had many millions of years of preceding turtle evolution and species in its ancestry. It did lack the ability to pull its head into its shell (and it had a long neck), and had a long, spiked tail ending in a club, a body form similar to that of ankylosaurs, resulting from convergent evolution.

Turtles are divided into two extant suborders, the Cryptodira and the Pleurodira. The Cryptodira is the larger of the two groups and includes all the marine turtles, the terrestrial tortoises, and many of the freshwater turtles. The Pleurodira are sometimes known as the side-necked turtles, a reference to the way they withdraw their heads into their shells. This smaller group consists primarily of various freshwater turtles.

A chart of the two extant Testudine suborders, extinct groups that existed within these two suborders are shown as well.

Turtle genera with basal or uncertain phylogenetic position[link]

• Genus †Australochelys (Chelonia incertae sedis)
• Genus †Murrhardtia (Chelonia incertae sedis)
• Genus †Palaeochersis (Chelonia incertae sedis)
• Genus †Chinlechelys (Proganochelydia or basal Testudines)
• Genus †Chelycarapookus (Testudines incertae sedis)
• Genus †Chitracephalus (Testudines incertae sedis)
• Genus †Neusticemys (Testudines incertae sedis)
• Genus †Scutemys (Testudines incertae sedis)

Suborder †Proganochelydia[link]

• Genus †Odontochelys (tentatively placed here)
• Genus †Proganochelys

Fossil of Proganochelys quenstedti, it is one of the oldest true turtles presently known. Unlike modern Testudines, Proganochelys was not able to hide its head under the shell.

Suborder Cryptodira[link]

The African helmeted turtle (Pelomedusa subrufa) is a pleurodire.
Pleurodires hide their head sideways.

Basal genera

• Genus †Kayentachelys
• Genus †Indochelys

Infraorder †Paracryptodira

• Basal and incertae sedis
  • Family †Kallokibotiidae
  • Family †Mongolochelyidae
  • Family †Pleurosternidae
  • Family †Solemydidae
• Superfamily †Baenoidea
  • Family †Baenidae
  • Family †Macrobaenidae
  • Family †Neurankylidae

Infraorder Eucryptodira

• Basal and incertae sedis
  • †"Sinemys" wuerhoensis
  • Genus †Chubutemys (Meiolaniidae?)
  • Genus †Hangaiemys (Macrobaenidae?)
  • Genus †Judithemys
  • Genus †Osteopygis
  • Genus †Planetochelys
  • Family Chelydridae (snapping turtles)
  • Family †Eurysternidae
  • Family †Macrobaenidae
  • Family †Meiolaniidae (horned turtles)
  • Family †Plesiochelyidae
  • Family †Sinemydidae
  • Family †Xinjiangchelyidae
• Superfamily Chelonioidea (sea turtles)
  • Family †Protostegidae
  • Family †Thalassemydidae
  • Family †Toxochelyidae
    

    

    The Western Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni hermanni) is a cryptodire.
    Cryptodires hide their head inwards.
  • Family Cheloniidae (green sea turtles and relatives)
  • Family Dermochelyidae (leatherback sea turtles)
• Superfamily Testudinoidea
  • Family †Haichemydidae
  • Family †Lindholmemydidae
  • Family †Sinochelyidae
  • Family Platysternidae (big-headed turtle)
  • Family Emydidae (pond^{[disambiguation needed ]}, box and water turtles)
  • Family Geoemydidae (Asian river turtles, Asian leaf turtles, Asian box turtles and roofed turtles)
  • Family Testudinidae (true tortoises)
• Superfamily Trionychoidea
  • Family †Adocidae
  • Family Carettochelyidae (pignose turtles)
  • Family Dermatemydidae (river turtles)
  • Family Kinosternidae (mud turtles)
  • Family Trionychidae (softshell turtles)

Suborder Pleurodira[link]

• Basal and incertae sedis
  • Family †Araripemydidae
  • Family †Proterochersidae
  • Family Chelidae (Austro-American sideneck turtles)
• Superfamily Pelomedusoidea
  • Family †Bothremydidae
  • Family Pelomedusidae (African sideneck turtles)
  • Family Podocnemididae (Madagascan big-headed and American sideneck river turtles)

Turtle, tortoise, or terrapin[link]

Although the word turtle is widely used to describe all members of the order Testudines, it is also common to see certain members described as terrapins, tortoises or sea turtles, as well. Precisely how these alternative names are used, if at all, depends on the type of English being used.

• British English normally describes these reptiles as turtles if they live in the sea; terrapins if they live in fresh or brackish water; or tortoises if they live on land. However, there are exceptions to this where American or Australian common names are in wide use, as with the Fly River turtle.
• American English tends to use the word turtle as a general term for all species. "Tortoise" is used for most land-dwelling species, including the family Testudinidae and box tortoises. Oceanic species are usually referred to as sea turtles. The name "terrapin" is typically reserved only for the brackish water diamondback terrapin, Malaclemys terrapin; the word terrapin being derived from the Algonquian word for this animal.^[19]
• Australian English uses turtle for both the marine and freshwater species, but tortoise for the terrestrial species.^[19]

To avoid confusion, the word "chelonian" is popular among veterinarians, scientists, and conservationists working with these animals as a catch-all name for any member of the superorder Chelonia, which includes all turtles, tortoises and terrapins living and extinct, as well as their immediate ancestors. It is based on the Ancient Greek word χελώνη, chelōnē; Modern Greek χελώνα, chelōna; meaning turtle/tortoise.^{[citation needed]}

Some languages do not have this problem, as all of these are referred to by the same name. For example, in Spanish, the word "tortuga" is used for turtles, tortoises and terrapins, though the type they belong to is usually specified and added to the name, as "marina" for sea turtles, "de río", for freshwater species and "terrestre" for tortoises.

Distribution[link]

Seven species of marine turtles are found worldwide. Of these, five have been recorded in Europe.^[20]

Fossil record[link]

Neonate sized turtle fossils have been documented in the scientific literature.^[21]

Paleontologists from North Carolina State University (NCSU) have found the fossilized remains of the world's largest turtle, in a coal mine in Colombia. The specimen named as Carbonemys Cofrinii is around 60-million-year-old and nearly 8 feet long.^[22]

Genomics[link]

Turtles possess diverse chromosome numbers (2N = 28-66) and a myriad of chromosomal rearrangements have occurred during evolution.^[23]

As pets[link]

Red eared slider basking on a floating platform under a sun lamp

Turtles, particularly small terrestrial and freshwater turtles, are commonly kept as pets. Among the most popular are Russian tortoises, spur-thighed tortoises, and red-eared sliders.^[24]

In the United States, due to the ease of contracting salmonellosis through casual contact with turtles, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) established a regulation in 1975 to discontinue the sale of turtles under 4 inches.^[25] It is illegal in every state in the U.S. for anyone to sell any turtles under 4 inches (10 cm) long. Many stores and flea markets still sell small turtles due to a loophole in the FDA regulation which allows turtles under 4 inches to be sold for educational purposes.^[26][27]

Some states have other laws and regulations regarding possession of red-eared sliders as pets because they are looked upon as invasive species or pests where they are not native, but have been introduced through the pet trade. As of July 1, 2007, it is illegal in Florida to sell any wild type red-eared slider. Unusual color varieties such as albino and pastel red-eared sliders, which are derived from captive breeding, are still allowed for sale.^[28]

As food, traditional medicine, and cosmetics[link]

The window of a restaurant serving guilinggao, decorated with a 龜 ("turtle") character.

The flesh of turtles, calipash or calipee, was, and still is, considered a delicacy in a number of cultures.^[4] Turtle soup has been a prized dish in Anglo-American cuisine,^[29] and still remains so in some parts of Asia.^[which?] Gopher tortoise stew was popular with some groups in Florida.^[30]

Turtles remain a part of the traditional diet on the island of Grand Cayman, so much so that when wild stocks became depleted, a turtle farm was established specifically to raise sea turtles for their meat. The farm also releases specimens to the wild as part of an effort to repopulate the Caribbean Sea.^[31]

Fat from turtles is also used in the Caribbean and in Mexico as a main ingredient in cosmetics, marketed under its Spanish name crema de tortuga.^[32]

Turtle plastrons among other plants and animals parts are used in traditional Chinese medicines. (Other items in the image are dried lingzhi, snake, luo han guo, and ginseng).

Turtle plastrons (the part of the shell that covers a tortoise from the bottom) are widely used in traditional Chinese medicine; according to statistics, Taiwan imports hundreds of tons of plastrons every year.^[33] A popular medicinal preparation based on powdered turtle plastron (and a variety of herbs) is the guilinggao jelly;^[34][35] these days, though, it is typically made with only herbal ingredients.

Conservation status[link]

In February 2011, the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group published a report about the top 25 species of turtles most likely to become extinct, with a further 40 species at very high risk of becoming extinct. This list excludes sea turtles, however both the leatherback and the Kemp's ridley would make the top 25 list. The report is due to be updated in four years time allowing to follow the evolution of the list. Between 48 to 54% of all 328 of their species considered threatened, turtles and tortoises are at a much higher risk of extinction than many other vertebrates. Of the 263 species of freshwater and terrestrial turtles, 117 species are considered Threatened, 73 are either Endangered or Critically Endangered and 1 is Extinct. Of the 58 species belonging to the Testudinidae family, 33 species are Threatened, 18 are either Endangered or Critically Endangered, 1 is Extinct in the wild and 7 species are Extinct. 71% of all tortoise species are either gone or almost gone. Asian species are the most endangered, closely followed by the five endemic species from Madagascar. Turtles face many threats, including habitat destruction, harvesting for consumption and pet trade. The high extinction risk for Asian species is primarily due to the long-term unsustainable exploitation of turtles and tortoises for consumption and traditional Chinese medicine, and to a lesser extent for the international pet trade.^[36]

Efforts have been made by Chinese entrepreneurs to satisfy increasing demand for turtle meat as gourmet food and traditional medicine with farmed turtles, instead of wild-caught ones; according to a study published in 2007, over a thousand turtle farms operated in China.^[37][38] Turtle farms in Oklahoma and Louisiana raise turtles for export to China as well.^[38]

Turtles on tree branch over a lake in New Jersey.

Nonetheless, wild turtles continue to be caught and sent to market in large number (as well as to turtle farms, to be used as breeding stock^[37]), resulting in a situation described by conservationists as "the Asian turtle crisis".^[39] In the words of the biologist George Amato, "the amount and the volume of captured turtles... vacuumed up entire species from areas in Southeast Asia", even as biologists still did not know how many distinct turtle species live in the region.^[40] About 75% of Asia's 90 tortoise and freshwater turtle species are estimated to have become threatened.^[38]

Harvesting wild turtles is legal in a number of states in the USA.^[38] In one of these states, Florida, just a single seafood company in Fort Lauderdale was reported in 2008 as buying about 5,000 pounds of softshell turtles a week. The harvesters (hunters) are paid about $2 a pound; some manage to catch as many as 30–40 turtles (500 pounds) on a good day. Some of the catch gets to the local restaurants, while most of it is exported to Asia. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission estimated in 2008 that around 3,000 pounds of softshell turtles were exported each week via Tampa International Airport.^[41]

Nonetheless, the great majority of turtles exported from the USA are farm raised. According to one estimate by the World Chelonian Trust, about 97% of 31.8 million animals harvested in the U.S. over a three-year period (November 4, 2002 – November 26, 2005) were exported.^[38][42] It has been estimated (presumably, over the same 2002–2005 period) that about 47% of the US turtle exports go to People's Republic of China (predominantly to Hong Kong), another 20% to Taiwan, and 11% to Mexico. ^{[43] [44]}

In culture[link]

On coins[link]

• 

  Greek drachma of Aegina. Obverse: Land Chelone / Reverse: ΑΙΓ(INA) and dolphin. The oldest Aegina Chelone coins depicted sea turtles and were minted ca. 700–550 BC.

• 

  1984 Maldive coin

• 

  Coin of Ukraine

• 

  Coin of the Russian Federation

In heraldry[link]

• 

  Coat of Arms of the Cayman Islands

• 

  British Indian Ocean Territory

• 

  Seychelles

• 

  Galápagos Islands

• 

  Seirijai, Lithuania

• 

  Hönow, Germany

• 

  Hoppegarten, Germany

• 

  Gruenheide, Germany

• 

  Crottendorf, Germany

• 

  701st Airlift Squadron

See also[link]

	Book: Turtles
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

Turtles portal

• Adwaita—a giant turtle that was reportedly 250 years old when it died in 2006
• Araripemys arturi
• Turtle racing
• Cultural depictions of turtles and tortoises

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Iskandar, DT (2000). Turtles and Crocodiles of Insular Southeast Asia and New Guinea. Bandung: Palmedia – ITB. 
• Pritchard, Peter Charles Howard (1979). Encyclopedia of turtles. Neptune, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. ISBN 0-87666-918-6. 

External links[link]

The Wikibook Animal Care has a page on the topic of Turtle

Find more about Turtle on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

Wikispecies has information related to: Testudines

• UC Berkeley Museum of Paleontology
• Chelonian studbook Collection and display of the weights/sizes of captive turtles
• Biogeography and Phylogeny of the Chelonia (taxonomy, maps)
• The word 'turtle' in different languages
• New Scientist article (including video) on how the turtle evolved its shell

v t e Order Testudines (turtles) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Reptilia Subclass: Anapsida Order: Testudines Suborder Superfamily Family Subfamily Genus Cryptodira      Chelydridae   Chelydra Macrochelys Chelonioidea Cheloniidae   Caretta Chelonia Eretmochelys Lepidochelys Natator Dermochelyidae   Dermochelys Kinosternoidea Dermatemydidae   Dermatemys Kinosternidae Kinosterninae Kinosternon Sternotherus Staurotypinae Claudius Staurotypus Testudinoidea Emydidae Deirochelyinae Chrysemys Deirochelys Graptemys Malaclemys Pseudemys Trachemys Emydinae Clemmys Emys Glyptemys Terrapene Geoemydidae   Batagur Cuora Cyclemys Geoclemys Geoemyda Hardella Heosemys Leucocephalon Malayemys Mauremys Melanochelys Morenia Notochelys Orlitia Pangshura Rhinoclemmys Sacalia Siebenrockiella Vijayachelys  Platysternidae   Platysternon Testudinidae   Aldabrachelys Astrochelys Chelonoidis Chersina Cylindraspis Geochelone Gopherus Homopus Indotestudo Kinixys Malacochersus Manouria Psammobates Pyxis Stigmochelys Testudo Trionychia Carettochelyidae   Carettochelys Trionychidae Cyclanorbinae Cyclanorbis Cycloderma Lissemys Trionychinae Amyda Apalone Chitra Dogania Nilssonia Palea Pelochelys Pelodiscus Rafetus Trionyx Pleurodira   Chelidae   Acanthochelys Chelodina Chelus Elseya Elusor Emydura Hydromedusa Mesoclemmys Myuchelys Phrynops Platemys Pseudemydura Rheodytes Rhinemys Pelomedusidae   Pelomedusa Pelusios Podocnemididae   Erymnochelys Peltocephalus Podocnemis Phylogenetic arrangement based on turtles of the world 2011 update: annotated checklist. Extinct turtles not included. See also List of Testudines families Portal

Syntactic redirects here, but also means "pertaining to syntaxis".

For other meanings see syntax (disambiguation). Distinguish from sin tax.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)

In linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek σύνταξις "arrangement" from σύν syn, "together", and τάξις táxis, "an ordering") is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages."^[1]

In addition to referring to the overarching discipline, the term syntax is also used to refer directly to the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual language, as in "the syntax of Modern Irish."^{[citation needed]} Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules.^{[citation needed]} Many professionals in this discipline attempt to find general rules that apply to all natural languages.^{[citation needed]} The term syntax is also used to refer to the rules governing the behavior of mathematical systems, such as formal languages used in logic.^{[citation needed]}

Early history[link]

Works on grammar were written long before modern syntax came about; the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini is often cited as an example of a premodern work that approaches the sophistication of a modern syntactic theory.^[2] In the West, the school of thought that came to be known as "traditional grammar" began with the work of Dionysius Thrax.

For centuries, work in syntax was dominated by a framework known as grammaire générale, first expounded in 1660 by Antoine Arnauld in a book of the same title. This system took as its basic premise the assumption that language is a direct reflection of thought processes and therefore there is a single, most natural way to express a thought. That way, coincidentally, was exactly the way it was expressed in French.

However, in the 19th century, with the development of historical-comparative linguistics, linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language, and to question fundamental assumptions about the relationship between language and logic. It became apparent that there was no such thing as the most natural way to express a thought, and therefore logic could no longer be relied upon as a basis for studying the structure of language.

The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that of logic (indeed, large parts of the Port-Royal Logic were copied or adapted from the Grammaire générale^[3]). Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analyzed in terms of "Subject – Copula – Predicate". Initially, this view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp.

The central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century, which could reasonably be called the "century of syntactic theory" as far as linguistics is concerned. For a detailed and critical survey of the history of syntax in the last two centuries, see the monumental work by Graffi (2001).

Modern theories[link]

There are a number of theoretical approaches to the discipline of syntax. One school of thought, founded in the works of Derek Bickerton,^[4] sees syntax as a branch of biology, since it conceives of syntax as the study of linguistic knowledge as embodied in the human mind. Other linguists (e.g. Gerald Gazdar) take a more Platonistic view, since they regard syntax to be the study of an abstract formal system.^[5] Yet others (e.g. Joseph Greenberg) consider grammar a taxonomical device to reach broad generalizations across languages. Andrey Korsakov's school of thought suggests philosophic understanding of morphological and syntactic phenomena. At foundations of their linguistic ideas, lies classical philosophy which treats reality as consisting of things, their qualities and relationships. From here the followers of Korsakov's school assert the subdivision of words by the parts of speech.^[6] Syntactic problems also get their enlightenment in the terms of philosophic processes.^[7] Some more approaches to the discipline are listed below.

Generative grammar[link]

The hypothesis of generative grammar is that language is a structure of the human mind. The goal of generative grammar is to make a complete model of this inner language (known as i-language). This model could be used to describe all human language and to predict the grammaticality of any given utterance (that is, to predict whether the utterance would sound correct to native speakers of the language). This approach to language was pioneered by Noam Chomsky. Most generative theories (although not all of them) assume that syntax is based upon the constituent structure of sentences. Generative grammars are among the theories that focus primarily on the form of a sentence, rather than its communicative function.

Among the many generative theories of linguistics, the Chomskyan theories are:

• Transformational Grammar (TG) (Original theory of generative syntax laid out by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures in 1957)^[8]
• Government and binding theory (GB) (revised theory in the tradition of TG developed mainly by Chomsky in the 1970s and 1980s)^[9]
• Minimalist program (MP) (a reworking of the theory out of the GB framework published by Chomsky in 1995)^[10]

Other theories that find their origin in the generative paradigm are:

• Generative semantics (now largely out of date)
• Relational grammar (RG) (now largely out of date)
• Arc Pair grammar
• Generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG; now largely out of date)
• Head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG)
• Lexical-functional grammar (LFG)
• Nanosyntax

Categorial grammar[link]

Categorial grammar is an approach that attributes the syntactic structure not to rules of grammar, but to the properties of the syntactic categories themselves. For example, rather than asserting that sentences are constructed by a rule that combines a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP) (e.g. the phrase structure rule S → NP VP), in categorial grammar, such principles are embedded in the category of the head word itself. So the syntactic category for an intransitive verb is a complex formula representing the fact that the verb acts as a functor which requires an NP as an input and produces a sentence level structure as an output. This complex category is notated as (NP\S) instead of V. NP\S is read as " a category that searches to the left (indicated by \) for a NP (the element on the left) and outputs a sentence (the element on the right)". The category of transitive verb is defined as an element that requires two NPs (its subject and its direct object) to form a sentence. This is notated as (NP/(NP\S)) which means "a category that searches to the right (indicated by /) for an NP (the object), and generates a function (equivalent to the VP) which is (NP\S), which in turn represents a function that searches to the left for an NP and produces a sentence).

Tree-adjoining grammar is a categorial grammar that adds in partial tree structures to the categories.

Dependency grammar[link]

Dependency grammar is a different type of approach in which structure is determined by the dependency relation, as opposed to the constituency relation of phrase structure grammars. Dependencies are directed links between words. The grammatical relations between a word (a head) and its dependents are important. For example, syntactic structure is described in terms of whether a particular noun is the subject or agent of the verb, rather than describing the relations in terms of the phrases of phrase structure grammars.

Some prominent dependency-based theories of syntax:

• Algebraic syntax
• Word grammar
• Operator Grammar
• Meaning-Text Theory
• Functional Generative Description

Lucien Tesnière (1893-1954) is widely seen as the father of modern dependency-based theories of syntax and grammar. He argued vehemently against the binary division of the clause into subject and predicate that is associated with the grammars of his day (and which is at the core of all phrase structure grammars), and in the place of this division, he positioned the verb as the root of all clause structure.^[11]

Stochastic/probabilistic grammars/network theories[link]

Theoretical approaches to syntax that are based upon probability theory are known as stochastic grammars. One common implementation of such an approach makes use of a neural network or connectionism. Some theories based within this approach are:

• Optimality theory
• Stochastic context-free grammar

Functionalist grammars[link]

Functionalist theories, although focused upon form, are driven by explanation based upon the function of a sentence (i.e. its communicative function). Some typical functionalist theories include:

• Functional discourse grammar (Dik)
• Prague Linguistic Circle
• Systemic functional grammar
• Cognitive grammar
• Construction grammar (CxG)
• Role and reference grammar (RRG)
• Emergent grammar

See also[link]

Syntactic terms[link]

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Brown, Keith; Jim Miller (eds.) (1996). Concise Encyclopedia of Syntactic Theories. New York: Elsevier Science. ISBN 0-08-042711-1. 
• Carnie, Andrew (2006). Syntax: A Generative Introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-3384-8. 
• Freidin, Robert; Howard Lasnik (eds.) (2006). Syntax. Critical Concepts in Linguistics. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24672-5. 
• Graffi, Giorgio (2001). 200 Years of Syntax. A Critical Survey. Studies in the History of the Language Sciences 98. Amsterdam: Benjamins. ISBN 90-272-4587-8. 
• Mieszko Talasiewicz (2009). Philosophy of Syntax - Foundational Topics. Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-3287-4.  An interdisciplinary essay on the interplay between logic and linguistics on syntactic theories.
• Lallier, Celeste; Mr. Smith (eds.) (2011). AP Language Comprehension. California: Lakeside High School. ISBN 0-08-042711-1. 
• Tesnière, Lucien 1959. Éleménts de syntaxe structurale. Paris: Klincksieck.

Further reading[link]

• Martin Everaert, Henk Van Riemsdijk, Rob Goedemans and Bart Hollebrandse, ed. (2006). The Blackwell companion to syntax. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1485-1.  5 Volumes; 77 case studies of syntactic phenomena.
• Brian Roark; Richard William Sproat (2007). Computational approaches to morphology and syntax. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927477-2.  part II: Computational approaches to syntax.
• Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2008). I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953420-3. http://linguistics.concordia.ca/i-language/. 
• Edith A. Moravcsik (2006). An introduction to syntax: fundamentals of syntactic analysis. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-8945-6.  Attempts to be a theory-neutral introduction. The companion Edith A. Moravcsik (2006). An introduction to syntactic theory. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-8943-2.  surveys the major theories. Jointly reviewed in The Canadian Journal of Linguistics 54(1), March 2009, pp. 172-175

External links[link]

• The syntax of natural language: An online introduction using the Trees program -- Beatrice Santorini & Anthony Kroch, University of Pennsylvania, 2007