Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol (S-HTTP) is a little-used alternative to the HTTPS URI scheme for encrypting web communications carried over HTTP. S-HTTP is defined in RFC 2660. It was developed by Eric Rescorla and Allan M. Schiffman.^[1]

Web browsers typically use HTTP to communicate with web servers, sending and receiving information without encrypting it. For sensitive transactions, such as Internet e-commerce or online access to financial accounts, the browser and server must encrypt this information. HTTPS and S-HTTP were both defined in the mid-1990s to address this need. Netscape and Microsoft supported HTTPS rather than S-HTTP, leading to HTTPS becoming the de facto standard mechanism for securing web communications.

Differences from HTTPS[link]

S-HTTP encrypts only the served page data and submitted data like POST fields, leaving the initiation of the protocol unchanged. Because of this, S-HTTP could be used concurrently with HTTP (unsecured) on the same port, as the unencrypted header would determine whether the rest of the transmission is encrypted.

In contrast, HTTPS wraps the entire communication within SSL, so the encryption starts before any protocol data is sent. This creates a "chicken and egg" issue with determining which DNS name was intended for the request, which means that implementations without the host_name_indication extension require a separate IP per DNS name, and all implementations require a separate port (usually 443 vs. HTTP's standard 80)^[2] for unambiguous use of encryption (treated in most browsers as a separate URI protocol, https://).

In S-HTTP, the desired URL is not transmitted in the cleartext headers, but left blank; another set of headers is present inside the encrypted payload. In HTTPS, all headers are inside the encrypted payload, and the HTTPS server application does not generally have the opportunity to gracefully recover from TLS fatal errors (including 'client certificate is untrusted' and 'client certificate is expired').^[3]

See also[link]

• HTTP/1.1 Upgrade header

References[link]

External links[link]

• CommerceNet: About S-HTTP
• javvin.com About S-HTTP

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems.^[1] HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web.

Hypertext is a multi-linear set of objects, building a network by using logical links (the so called hyperlinks) between the nodes (e.g. text or words). HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext.

The standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments (RFCs), most notably RFC 2616 (June 1999), which defines HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use.

Technical overview[link]

HTTP functions as a request-response protocol in the client-server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client and an application running on a computer hosting a web site may be the server. The client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, returns a response message to the client. The response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body.

A web browser is an example of a user agent (UA). Other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers (web crawlers), voice browsers, mobile apps and other software that accesses, consumes or displays web content.

HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers. High-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to reduce network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, by relaying messages with external servers.

HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet Protocol Suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol,^[2] and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) predominates for this purpose. However HTTP can use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), for example in Simple Service Discovery Protocol (SSDP).

HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs)—or, more specifically, Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)—using the http or https URI schemes. URIs and hyperlinks in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) documents form webs of inter-linked hypertext documents. On the Internet the World Wide Web was established in 1990 by English computer scientist and innovator Tim Berners-Lee.

HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP (HTTP/1.0). In HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets et cetera after the page has been delivered. HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead.

History[link]

Tim Berners-Lee

The term HyperText was coined by Ted Nelson who in turn was inspired by Vannevar Bush's microfilm-based "memex". Tim Berners-Lee first proposed the "WorldWideWeb" project — now known as the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee and his team are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the associated technology for a web server and a text-based web browser. The first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server.^[3] The response from the server was always an HTML page.^[4]

The first documented version of HTTP was HTTP V0.9 (1991). Dave Raggett led the HTTP Working Group (HTTP WG) in 1995 and wanted to expand the protocol with extended operations, extended negotiation, richer meta-information, tied with a security protocol which became more efficient by adding additional methods and header fields.^[5][6] RFC 1945 officially introduced and recognized HTTP V1.0 in 1996.

The HTTP WG planned to publish new standards in December 1995^[7] and the support for pre-standard HTTP/1.1 based on the then developing RFC 2068 (called HTTP-NG) was rapidly adopted by the major browser developers in early 1996. By March 1996, pre-standard HTTP/1.1 was supported in Arena,^[8] Netscape 2.0,^[8] Netscape Navigator Gold 2.01,^[8] Mosaic 2.7,^{[citation needed]} Lynx 2.5^{[citation needed]}, and in Internet Explorer 2.0^{[citation needed]}. End-user adoption of the new browsers was rapid. In March 1996, one web hosting company reported that over 40% of browsers in use on the Internet were HTTP 1.1 compliant.^{[citation needed]} That same web hosting company reported that by June 1996, 65% of all browsers accessing their servers were HTTP/1.1 compliant.^[9] The HTTP/1.1 standard as defined in RFC 2068 was officially released in January 1997. Improvements and updates to the HTTP/1.1 standard were released under RFC 2616 in June 1999.

HTTP session[link]

An HTTP session is a sequence of network request-response transactions. An HTTP client initiates a request by establishing a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection to a particular port on a server (typically port 80; see List of TCP and UDP port numbers). An HTTP server listening on that port waits for a client's request message. Upon receiving the request, the server sends back a status line, such as "HTTP/1.1 200 OK", and a message of its own. The body of this message is typically the requested resource, although an error message or other information may also be returned.^[1]

Request methods[link]

An HTTP request made using telnet. The request, response headers and response body are highlighted.

HTTP defines nine methods (sometimes referred to as "verbs") indicating the desired action to be performed on the identified resource. What this resource represents, whether pre-existing data or data that is generated dynamically, depends on the implementation of the server. Often, the resource corresponds to a file or the output of an executable residing on the server.

HEAD

Asks for the response identical to the one that would correspond to a GET request, but without the response body. This is useful for retrieving meta-information written in response headers, without having to transport the entire content.

GET

Requests a representation of the specified resource. Requests using GET should only retrieve data and should have no other effect. (This is also true of some other HTTP methods.)^[1] The W3C has published guidance principles on this distinction, saying, "Web application design should be informed by the above principles, but also by the relevant limitations."^[10] See safe methods below.

POST

Submits data to be processed (e.g., from an HTML form) to the identified resource. The data is included in the body of the request. This may result in the creation of a new resource or the updates of existing resources or both.

PUT

Uploads a representation of the specified resource.

DELETE

Deletes the specified resource.

TRACE

Echoes back the received request, so that a client can see what (if any) changes or additions have been made by intermediate servers.

OPTIONS

Returns the HTTP methods that the server supports for specified URL. This can be used to check the functionality of a web server by requesting '*' instead of a specific resource.

CONNECT

Converts the request connection to a transparent TCP/IP tunnel, usually to facilitate SSL-encrypted communication (HTTPS) through an unencrypted HTTP proxy.^[11]

PATCH

Is used to apply partial modifications to a resource.^[12]

HTTP servers are required to implement at least the GET and HEAD methods^[13] and, whenever possible, also the OPTIONS method.^{[citation needed]}

Safe methods[link]

Some methods (for example, HEAD, GET, OPTIONS and TRACE) are defined as safe, which means they are intended only for information retrieval and should not change the state of the server. In other words, they should not have side effects, beyond relatively harmless effects such as logging, caching, the serving of banner advertisements or incrementing a web counter. Making arbitrary GET requests without regard to the context of the application's state should therefore be considered safe.

By contrast, methods such as POST, PUT and DELETE are intended for actions that may cause side effects either on the server, or external side effects such as financial transactions or transmission of email. Such methods are therefore not usually used by conforming web robots or web crawlers; some that do not conform tend to make requests without regard to context or consequences.

Despite the prescribed safety of GET requests, in practice their handling by the server is not technically limited in any way. Therefore, careless or deliberate programming can cause non-trivial changes on the server. This is discouraged, because it can cause problems for Web caching, search engines and other automated agents, which can make unintended changes on the server.

Idempotent methods and web applications[link]

Methods PUT and DELETE are defined to be idempotent, meaning that multiple identical requests should have the same effect as a single request (Note that idempotence refers to the state of the system after the request has completed, so while the action the server takes (e.g. deleting a record) or the response code it returns may be different on subsequent requests, the system state will be the same every time.) Methods GET, HEAD, OPTIONS and TRACE, being prescribed as safe, should also be idempotent, as HTTP is a stateless protocol.^[1]

In contrast, the POST method is not necessarily idempotent, and therefore sending an identical POST request multiple times may further affect state or cause further side effects (such as financial transactions). In some cases this may be desirable, but in other cases this could be due to an accident, such as when a user does not realize that their action will result in sending another request, or they did not receive adequate feedback that their first request was successful. While web browsers may show alert dialog boxes to warn users in some cases where reloading a page may re-submit a POST request, it is generally up to the web application to handle cases where a POST request should not be submitted more than once.

Note that whether a method is idempotent is not enforced by the protocol or web server. It is perfectly possible to write a web application in which (for example) a database insert or other non-idempotent action is triggered by a GET or other request. Ignoring this recommendation, however, may result in undesirable consequences, if a user agent assumes that repeating the same request is safe when it isn't.

Security[link]

Implementing methods such as TRACE, TRACK and DEBUG is considered potentially insecure by some security professionals, because they can be used by attackers to gather information or bypass security controls during attacks. Security software tools such as Tenable Nessus and Microsoft URLScan report on the presence of these methods as being security issues.

Status codes[link]

In HTTP/1.0 and since, the first line of the HTTP response is called the status line and includes a numeric status code (such as "404") and a textual reason phrase (such as "Not Found"). The way the user agent handles the response primarily depends on the code and secondarily on the response headers. Custom status codes can be used since, if the user agent encounters a code it does not recognize, it can use the first digit of the code to determine the general class of the response.^[14]

Also, the standard reason phrases are only recommendations and can be replaced with "local equivalents" at the web developer's discretion. If the status code indicated a problem, the user agent might display the reason phrase to the user to provide further information about the nature of the problem. The standard also allows the user agent to attempt to interpret the reason phrase, though this might be unwise since the standard explicitly specifies that status codes are machine-readable and reason phrases are human-readable.

Persistent connections[link]

In HTTP/0.9 and 1.0, the connection is closed after a single request/response pair. In HTTP/1.1 a keep-alive-mechanism was introduced, where a connection could be reused for more than one request. Such persistent connections reduce request latency perceptibly, because the client does not need to re-negotiate the TCP connection after the first request has been sent. Another positive side effect is that in general the connection becomes faster with time due to TCP's slow-start-mechanism.

Version 1.1 of the protocol also made bandwidth optimization improvements to HTTP/1.0. For example, HTTP/1.1 introduced chunked transfer encoding to allow content on persistent connections to be streamed rather than buffered. HTTP pipelining further reduces lag time, allowing clients to send multiple requests before waiting for each response. Another improvement to the protocol was byte serving, where a server transmits just the portion of a resource explicitly requested by a client.

HTTP session state[link]

HTTP is a stateless protocol. A stateless protocol does not require the server to retain information or status about each user for the duration of multiple requests. For example, when a web server is required to customize the content of a web page for a user, the web application may have to track the user's progress from page to page. A common solution is the use of HTTP cookies. Other methods include server side sessions, hidden variables (when the current page contains a form), and URL-rewriting using URI-encoded parameters, e.g., /index.php?session_id=some_unique_session_code.

Secure HTTP[link]

There are three methods of establishing a secure HTTP connection: HTTP Secure, Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol and the HTTP/1.1 Upgrade header. Browser support for the latter two is, however, nearly non-existent,^{[citation needed]} so HTTP Secure is the dominant method of establishing a secure HTTP connection.

Request message[link]

The request message consists of the following:

• A request line, for example GET /images/logo.png HTTP/1.1, which requests a resource called /images/logo.png from the server.
• Headers, such as Accept-Language: en
• An empty line.
• An optional message body.

The request line and headers must all end with <CR><LF> (that is, a carriage return followed by a line feed). The empty line must consist of only <CR><LF> and no other whitespace.^[15] Although <CR><LF> is required <LF> alone is also accepted by most servers.^{[citation needed]} In the HTTP/1.1 protocol, all headers except Host are optional.

A request line containing only the path name is accepted by servers to maintain compatibility with HTTP clients before the HTTP/1.0 specification in RFC 1945.^[16]

Response message[link]

The response message consists of the following:

• A Status-Line (for example HTTP/1.1 200 OK, which indicates that the client's request succeeded)
• Headers, such as Content-Type: text/html
• An empty line
• An optional message body

The Status-Line and headers must all end with <CR><LF> (a carriage return followed by a line feed). The empty line must consist of only <CR><LF> and no other whitespace.^[17]

Example session[link]

Below is a sample conversation between an HTTP client and an HTTP server running on www.example.com, port 80.

Client request[link]

 GET /index.html HTTP/1.1␍␊
 Host: www.example.com␍␊
 ␍␊

A client request (consisting in this case of the request line and only one header) is followed by a blank line, so that the request ends with a double newline, each in the form of a carriage return followed by a line feed. The "Host" header distinguishes between various DNS names sharing a single IP address, allowing name-based virtual hosting. While optional in HTTP/1.0, it is mandatory in HTTP/1.1.

Server response[link]

 HTTP/1.1 200 OK
 Date: Mon, 23 May 2005 22:38:34 GMT
 Server: Apache/1.3.3.7 (Unix) (Red-Hat/Linux)
 Last-Modified: Wed, 08 Jan 2003 23:11:55 GMT
 Etag: "3f80f-1b6-3e1cb03b"
 Accept-Ranges:  none
 Content-Length: 438
 Connection: close
 Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8

The ETag (entity tag) header is used to determine if a cached version of the requested resource is identical to the current version of the resource on the server. Content-Type specifies the Internet media type of the data conveyed by the HTTP message, while Content-Length indicates its length in bytes. The HTTP/1.1 webserver publishes its ability to respond to requests for certain byte ranges of the document by setting the header Accept-Ranges: bytes. This is useful, if the client needs to have only certain portions^[18] of a resource sent by the server, which is called byte serving. When Connection: close is sent in a header, it means that the web server will close the TCP connection immediately after the transfer of this response.

Most of the header lines are optional. When Content-Length is missing the length is determined in other ways. Chunked transfer encoding uses a chunk size of 0 to mark the end of the content. Identity encoding without Content-Length reads content until the socket is closed.

A Content-Encoding like gzip can be used to compress the transmitted data.

See also[link]

HTTP replacements or enhancements[link]

• Representational State Transfer (REST)
• SPDY - A HTTP enhancement proposed by Google
• Waka (protocol) - A HTTP replacement proposed by Roy Fielding
• HTTP-MPLEX - A backwards compatible enhancement to HTTP to improve page and web object retrieval time in congested networks proposed by Robert Mattson
• HTTP 2.0 - currently being worked on by the IETF's Hypertext Transfer Protocol Bis (httpbis) working group.^[19]
• Constrained Application Protocol - A semantically similar protocol to HTTP but used UDP or UDP-like messages targeted for devices with limited processing capability. Re-uses HTTP and other internet concepts like Internet media type and web linking (http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5988).

Further Information[link]

• Basic access authentication
• Content negotiation
• HTTP compression
• Hxxp

Related topics and technologies[link]

• Curl-loader - HTTP/S loading/testing open-source SW
• Digest access authentication
• List of file transfer protocols
• List of HTTP headers
• List of HTTP status codes
• Web cache
• WebDAV

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• HTTP 0.9 - As Implemented in 1991

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: HTTP

• "Change History for HTTP". W3.org. http://www.w3.org/Protocols/History.html. Retrieved 2010-08-01.  A detailed technical history of HTTP.
• "Design Issues for HTTP". W3.org. http://www.w3.org/Protocols/DesignIssues.html. Retrieved 2010-08-01.  Design Issues by Berners-Lee when he was designing the protocol.
• "Classic HTTP Documents". W3.org. 1998-05-14. http://www.w3.org/Protocols/Classic.html. Retrieved 2010-08-01.  list of other classic documents recounting the early protocol history

A list of notable file transfer protocols:

List of file transfer protocols[link]

[edit] Primarily used with TCP/IP

• 9P
• Apple Filing Protocol (AFP)
• BitTorrent
• FTAM
• FTP
  • FTP over SSL (FTPS)
• HFTP
• HULFT^[1]
• HTTP
  • HTTPS
  • WebDAV
• rcp
• rsync
• Simple Asynchronous File Transfer (SAFT), bound to TCP port 487^[2]
• Secure copy (SCP)
• SSH file transfer protocol (SFTP)
• Simple File Transfer Protocol

[edit] Primarily used with UDP

• Fast and Secure Protocol (FASP)
• File Service Protocol
• Multicast File Transfer Protocol
• Multipurpose Transaction Protocol
• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) -- designed for simplicity rather than speed
• Tsunami UDP Protocol
• UDP-based Data Transfer Protocol (UDT)
• UFTP – UDP Based FTP with Multicast

[edit] Primarily used with direct modem connections

• ASCII dump
• BiModem
• CModem
• CompuServe B (aka B protocol or CIS-B)
• JMODEM
• HS/Link

• Kermit and variants:
  • Kermit
  • SuperKermit

• LeechModem
• Lynx (protocol)
• MEGAlink (protocol)
• NMODEM
• Punter family

• SEAlink
• SMODEM
• SuperK
• TELINK
• Tmodem

• UUCP and variants:
  • UUCP
  • UUCP-g

• XMODEM and variants:
  • MODEM7 (Batch XMODEM)
  • XMODEM, XMODEM-1K, XMODEM-G
  • WXMODEM

• YMODEM and variants:
  • YMODEM, YMODEM-1K, YMODEM-G

• ZMax
• ZMODEM

See also[link]

• File transfer
• Protocol (computing)
• Communications protocol
• Bulletin board system
• List of network protocols

References[link]

External links[link]

• Evolution and Selection of File Transfer Protocols by Chuck Forsberg