Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
OSCE participating States   Partners for Co-operation
Secretariat		Vienna, Austria
Membership		56 participating States 12 Partners for Co-operation
Leaders
-	Secretary General	Lamberto Zannier
-	Chairperson-in-Office	Eamon Gilmore
-	Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights	Janez Lenarčič
-	Representative on Freedom of the Media	Dunja Mijatović
-	High Commissioner on National Minorities	Knut Vollebæk
Establishment
-	as the CSCE1	July 1973
-	Helsinki Accords	30 July – 1 August 1975
-	Paris Charter	21 November 1990
-	renamed as the OSCE	1 January 1995
Area
-	Total	50,119,801 km2  19,351,363 sq mi
Population
-	2010 estimate	1,229,503,230 (2nd)
-	Density	24.53/km2  63.5/sq mi
Website www.osce.org
1	Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe

The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is the world's largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control and the promotion of human rights, freedom of the press and fair elections. It has 550 headquarters staff and about 2300 field staff.^[1]

The OSCE is an ad hoc organization under the United Nations Charter (Chap. VIII), and is concerned with early warning, conflict prevention, crisis management and post-conflict rehabilitation. Its 56 participating states are located in Europe, the former Soviet Union and North America and cover most of the northern hemisphere. It was created during the Cold War era as an East-West forum.

Structure and institutions[link]

Political direction to the Organization is given by heads of state or government during summits. Summits are not regular or scheduled but held as needed. The last summit took place in Astana (Kazakhstan), the 1st and 2 December 2010. The high-level decision-making body of the Organization is the Ministerial Council, which meets at the end of every year. At ambassadorial level the Permanent Council convenes weekly in Vienna and serves as the regular negotiating and decision-making body. The post of Chairperson-in-Office is held by the minister for foreign affairs of the participating State which holds the chairmanship. The chairperson of the Permanent Council is the ambassador to Austria of the participating State which holds the chairmanship. From 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2009 the Chairperson-in-Office is Greece's Minister for Foreign Affairs, George Papandreou. Bakoyannis succeeded Finnish Minister for Foreign Affairs Alexander Stubb.

In addition to the Ministerial Council and Permanent Council, the Forum for Security Co-operation is also an OSCE decision-making body. It deals predominantly with matters of military co-operation, such as modalities for inspections according to the Vienna Document of 1999.

The OSCE's Secretariat is located in Vienna, Austria. The current Secretary General is Lamberto Zannier of Italy, who took over from Marc Perrin de Brichambaut of France.^[2] The Organization also has offices in Copenhagen, Geneva, The Hague, Prague and Warsaw.

A meeting of the OSCE Permanent Council in the Hofburg in Vienna, Austria

The OSCE employs close to 440 persons in its various institutions. In the field, the Organization has about 750 international and 2,370 national staff.

The Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe passes resolutions on matters such as political and security affairs, economic and environmental issues, and democracy and human rights. Representing the collective voice of OSCE parliamentarians, these resolutions and recommendations are meant to ensure that all participating States live up to their OSCE commitments. The OSCE PA also engages in parliamentary diplomacy, and has an extensive election observation program.

The oldest OSCE institution is the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), established in 1991 following a decision made at the 1990 Summit of Paris. It is based in Warsaw, Poland, and is active throughout the OSCE area in the fields of election observation, democratic development, human rights, tolerance and non-discrimination, rule of law, and Roma and Sinti issues. The ODIHR has observed over 150 elections and referendums since 1995, sending some 35,000 observers. It has operated outside its own area twice, sending a team that offered technical support to the 9 October 2004 presidential elections in Afghanistan, an OSCE Partner for Co-operation, and an election support team to assist with parliamentary and provincial council elections on 18 September 2005. ODIHR is headed by Janez Lenarčič.

The Office of the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media, established in December 1997, acts as a watchdog to provide early warning on violations of freedom of expression in OSCE participating States. The Representative also assists participating States by advocating and promoting full compliance with OSCE norms, principles and commitments regarding freedom of expression and free media. As of 2011, the current Representative is expert in media law from Bosnia and Herzegovina Dunja Mijatovic.^[3]

Chairmanship[link]

OSCE Permanent Council site at Hofburg, Vienna.

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

The responsibilities of the Chairperson-in-Office (CiO) include

• co-ordination of the work of OSCE institutions;
• representing the Organization;
• supervising activities related to conflict prevention, crisis management and post-conflict rehabilitation.

The Chairmanship rotates annually, and the post of the Chairperson-in-Office is held by the foreign minister of the participating State which holds the Chairmanship. The CiO is assisted by the previous and incoming Chairperson-in-Office; the three of them together constitute the Troika. The origin of the institution lies with the Charter of Paris for a New Europe (1990), the Helsinki Document 1992 formally institutionalized this function.

The 2012 Troika consists of the current CiO, Tánaiste and Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade of Ireland, Eamon Gilmore; the former CiO, Lithuanian Foreign Minister Audronius Ažubalis; and the incoming CiO, Ukrainian Foreign Minister Kostyantyn Hryshchenko.

United Nations[link]

The OSCE considers itself a regional organization in the sense of Chapter VIII of the United Nations Charter^[4] and is an observer in the United Nations General Assembly.^[5] The Chairperson-in-Office gives routine briefings to the United Nations Security Council.^[6]

Politico-military dimension (first dimension)[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

The OSCE takes a comprehensive approach to the politico-military dimension of security, which includes a number of commitments by participating States and mechanisms for conflict prevention and resolution. The Organization also seeks to enhance military security by promoting greater openness, transparency and co-operation.

Arms control[link]

The end of the Cold War resulted in a huge amount of surplus weapons becoming available in what is known as the international grey market for weapons. The OSCE helps to stop the - often illegal - spread of such weapons and offers assistance with their destruction.

Border management[link]

The actions taken by the OSCE in border monitoring range from conflict prevention to post-conflict management, capacity building and institutional support.

Combating terrorism[link]

With its expertise in conflict prevention, crisis management and early warning, the OSCE contributes to worldwide efforts in combating terrorism.

Conflict prevention[link]

The OSCE works to prevent conflicts from arising and to facilitate lasting comprehensive political settlements for existing conflicts. It also helps with the process of rehabilitation in post-conflict areas.

Military reform[link]

The OSCE's Forum for Security Co-operation provides a framework for political dialogue on military reform, while practical activities are conducted by field operations, as well as the Conflict Prevention Centre.

Policing[link]

OSCE police operations are an integral part of the Organization's efforts in conflict prevention and post-conflict rehabilitation.

Implementation[link]

The OSCE was a rather small organization until selection by the international community to provide electoral organization to post war Bosnia and Herzegovina in early 1996. Ambassador Frowick was the first OSCE representative to initiate national election in September 1996, human rights issues and rule of law specifically designed to provide a foundation for judicial organization within Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The OSCE had regional offices and field offices, to include the office in Brcko in northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina which remained in limbo until the Brcko Arbitration Agreement could be decided, finalized and implemented.

Brcko become a "special district" and remains so today.

The OSCE essentially took the place of the United Nations in Bosnia and Herzegovina in part because the Bosnian leadership felt deep contempt for the UN efforts to stop the war which began in 1991 and ended in 1995. During the time the United Nations were attempting a political solution, thousands of UN troops were posted in and around Bosnia and Herzegovina with special emphasis on Sarajevo. Between the inclusive dates of 1991 through 1995, over 200,000 Bosnians were killed and over one million displaced and another million as refugees.

The OSCE continues to have a presence and a number of initiatives to bring a sustained peace to the region.

Economic and environmental dimension (second dimension)[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Activities in the economic and environmental dimension include the monitoring of developments related to economic and environmental security in OSCE participating States, with the aim of alerting them to any threat of conflict; assisting States in the creation of economic and environmental policies, legislation and institutions to promote security in the OSCE region.

Economic activities[link]

Among the economic activities of the OSCE feature activities related to migration management, transport and energy security. Most activities are implemented in co-operation with partner organizations.

Environmental activities[link]

The OSCE has developed a range of activities in the environmental sphere aimed at addressing ecologic threats to security in its participating States. Among the activities feature projects in the area of hazardous waste, water management and access to information under the Aarhus Convention.

Human dimension (third dimension)[link]

The commitments made by OSCE participating States in the human dimension aim to ensure full respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; to abide by the rule of law; to promote the principles of democracy by building, strengthening and protecting democratic institutions; and to promote tolerance throughout the OSCE region.

Combating trafficking in human beings[link]

Since 2003 the OSCE^[7] has had an established mechanism for combating trafficking in human beings, as defined by Article 3 of the Palermo Protocol,^[8] which is aimed at raising public awareness of the problem and building the political will within participating states to tackle it effectively.

The OSCE actions against trafficking in human beings are coordinated by the Office of the Special Representative and Co-ordinator for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings.^[9] Maria Grazia Giammarinaro,^[10] a judge in the Criminal Court of Rome, took Office as the Special Representative in March 2010. From 2006 to 2009 this Office was held by Eva Biaudet, a former Finnish Minister of Health and Social Services. Ms Biaudet currently serves as Finnish Ombudsman for Minorities. Her predecessor was former Austrian Minister Dr Helga Conrad, who served as the first OSCE Special Representative for Combating Trafficking in Human Beings.

The activities around Combating Trafficking in Human Beings in the OSCE Region^[11] of the Office of the Special Representative include

• Co-operation with governments, helping them to accept and act on their responsibilities for curbing trafficking in human beings;
• Providing governments with decision and policy-making aids and offering guidance on anti-trafficking management, with the aim of arriving at solutions tailored to the needs of the individual countries and in line with international standards;
• Assisting governments to develop the national anti-trafficking structures required for efficient internal and transnational co-operation;
• Raising awareness to draw attention to the complexity of the problem and to the need for comprehensive solutions;
• Considering all dimensions of human trafficking, namely trafficking for sexual exploitation, trafficking for forced and bonded labour, including domestic servitude, trafficking into forced marriages, trafficking in organs and trafficking in children;
• Ensuring the effective interaction of all agents and stake holders involved in the fight against human trafficking, ranging from governmental authorities, law enforcement officials to NGOs, and - last but not least - international organizations, as the agencies providing support thorough expertise and know-how;
• Guaranteeing the highest possible visibility of the OSCE’s fight against human trafficking to focus attention on the issue.

Democratization[link]

The OSCE claims to promote democracy and assist the participating States in building democratic institutions. In practice, however, few states have more power in decision-making than others^{[citation needed]} (see Criticisms).

Education[link]

Education programmes are an integral part of the Organization's efforts in conflict prevention and post-conflict rehabilitation.

Elections[link]

As part of its democratization activities, the OSCE carries out election assistance projects in the run-up to, during, and following elections. However, the effectiveness of such assistance is arguable- Kazakhstan, for example, despite being the current chair of the OSCE, is considered by many to be one of the least democratic countries in the world. Moreover, the recent democratic advances made in other Central Asian republics, notably Kyrgystan, have led to rumours of Soviet-style disruption of the Kyrgyz democratic process by, in particular, Kazakhstan and Russia. This may be in large part due to fears over the long-term stability of these countries' own quasi-dictatorships.

Gender equality[link]

The equality of men and women is an integral part of sustainable democracy. The OSCE aims to provide equal opportunities for men and women and to integrate gender equality in policies and practices.

Human rights[link]

The OSCE's human rights activities focus on such priorities as freedom of movement and religion, preventing torture and trafficking in persons.

National and international NGOs[link]

OSCE could grant Consultative Status to NGOs and INGOs in the form of "Researcher-in-residence programme" (run by the Prague Office of the OSCE Secretariat): accredited representatives of national and international NGOs are granted access to all records and to numerous topical compilations related to OSCE field activities.

Media freedom[link]

The OSCE observes relevant media developments in its participating States with a view to addressing and providing early warning on violations of freedom of expression.

Minority rights[link]

Ethnic conflict is one of the main sources of large-scale violence in Europe today. The OSCE's approach is to identify and to seek early resolution of ethnic tensions, and to set standards for the rights of persons belonging to minority groups.

Criticism[link]

Following an unprecedented period of activity in the 1990s and early 2000s (decade), the OSCE has in the past few years faced accusations from the CIS states (primarily Russia) of being a tool for the Western states to advance their own interests. For instance, the events in Ukraine in 2004 (the "Orange Revolution") led to allegations by Russia of OSCE involvement on behalf of the pro-Western Viktor Yushchenko. At the 2007 Munich Conference on Security Policy, Vladimir Putin made this position very clear:

“They [unnamed Western States] are trying to transform the OSCE into a vulgar instrument designed to promote the foreign policy interests of one or a group of countries. And this task is also being accomplished by the OSCE's bureaucratic apparatus, which is absolutely not connected with the state founders in any way. Decision-making procedures and the involvement of so-called non-governmental organizations are tailored for this task. These organizations are formally independent but they are purposefully financed and therefore under control." ^{[12][13][14][15][16]}

Also, following the Belorussian Presidential election of 2001, the OSCE denounced the election, claiming it to be neither 'free nor fair'; however, the OSCE had actually refused to observe the vote, and still made the aforementioned claim, despite Gerard Stoudmann of the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) of the OSCE acknowledging that there was "no evidence of manipulation or fraud of the results".

Russia and its allies are advancing the concept of a comprehensive OSCE reform, which would make the Secretariat, institutions and field presences more centralized and accountable to collective consensus-based bodies and focus the work of the Organization on topical security issues (human trafficking, terrorism, non-proliferation, arms control, etc.), at the expense of the "Human Dimension", or human rights issues. The move to reduce the autonomy of the theoretically independent OSCE institutions, such as ODIHR, would effectively grant a Russian veto over any OSCE activity. Western participating States are opposing this process, which they see as an attempt to prevent the OSCE from carrying out its democratization agenda in post-Soviet countries.

Following the 2008 U.S. presidential election, OSCE's ODIHR was accused of double standards by Russia's lawmaker Slutsky. The point was made that while numerous violations of the voting process were registered, its criticism came only from within the U.S. (media, human rights organizations, McCain's election staff), while the OSCE known for its bashing criticism of elections on the post-Soviet space remained silent.^[17][18]

History[link]

Helmut Schmidt, Erich Honecker, Gerald Ford and Bruno Kreisky at Helsinki in 1975 at CSCE summit

The Organization has its roots in the 1973 Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE). Talks had been mooted about a European security grouping since the 1950s but the Cold War prevented any substantial progress until the talks at Dipoli in Helsinki began in November 1972. These talks were held at the suggestion of the Soviet Union which wished to use the talks to maintain its control over the communist countries in Eastern Europe. Western Europe, however, saw these talks as a way to reduce the tension in the region, furthering economic cooperation and obtaining humanitarian improvements for the populations of the Communist bloc.

The recommendations of the talks, "The Blue Book", gave the practical foundations for a three-stage conference, the Helsinki process. The CSCE opened in Helsinki on July 3, 1973 with 35 states sending representatives. Stage I only took five days to agree to follow the Blue Book. Stage II was the main working phase and was conducted in Geneva from September 18, 1973 until July 21, 1975. The result of Stage II was the Helsinki Final Act which was signed by the 35 participating States during Stage III, which took place in Finlandia Hall from July 30 to August 1, 1975. It was opened by Holy See’s diplomat Cardinal Agostino Casaroli, who was chairman of the conference.

The concepts of improving relations and implementing the Act were developed over a series of follow-up meeting, with major gatherings in Belgrade (October 4, 1977 - March 8, 1978), Madrid (November 11, 1980 - September 9, 1983), and Vienna (November 4, 1986 - January 19, 1989).

A unique aspect of the OSCE is the non-binding status of its provisions. Rather than being a formal treaty, the OSCE Final Act represents a political commitment by all signatories to build security and cooperation in Europe on the basis of its provisions. This allows the OSCE to remain a flexible process for the evolution of improved cooperation which avoids disputes and/or sanctions over implementation. By agreeing these commitments, signatories for the first time accepted that treatment of citizens within their borders was also a matter of legitimate international concern. This open process of the OSCE is often given credit for helping build democracy in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, thus leading to the end of the Cold War.

The collapse of the Soviet Union required a change of role for the CSCE. The Charter of Paris for a New Europe which was signed on November 21, 1990 marked the beginning of this change. With the changes capped by the re-naming of the CSCE to the OSCE on January 1, 1995, accordingly to the results of the conference held in Budapest, in 1994. The OSCE now had a formal Secretariat, Senior Council, Parliamentary Assembly, Conflict Prevention Centre, and Office for Free Elections (later becoming the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights).

In December 1996, the "Lisbon Declaration on a Common and Comprehensive Security Model for Europe for the Twenty-First Century" affirmed the universal and indivisible nature of security on the European continent.

In Istanbul on November 19, 1999, the OSCE ended a two-day summit by calling for a political settlement in Chechnya and adopting a Charter for European Security. According to then Minister of Foreign Affairs Igor Ivanov, this summit marked a turning point in Russian perception of the OSCE, from an organization that expressed Europe's collective will, to an organization that serves as a Western tool for "forced democratization."^[19]

After a group of thirteen Democratic United States senators^[who?] petitioned Secretary of State Colin Powell to have foreign election monitors oversee the 2004 presidential election, the State Department acquiesced, and President George W. Bush invited the OSCE to do so.^[20][21]

Summits of heads of State and Government[link]

Summit	Date	Place	Country	Decisions
I	July 30-August 1, 1975	Helsinki	Finland	Closing of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). Signing of the Final Act (Helsinki Act).
II	November 19–21, 1990	Paris	France	(Second CSCE Summit). Signing of the Charter of Paris for a New Europe (Paris Charter), the Vienna Confidence and Security Building Measures (CSBM) Document and the CFE Treaty.
III	July 9–10, 1992	Helsinki	Finland	Final Document: The Challenges of Change. Creation of the High Commissioner on National Minorities, the Forum for Security Co-operation and the Economic Forum. Suspension of the F. R. of Yugoslavia from membership.
IV	December 5–6, 1994	Budapest	Hungary	Final Document: Towards a Genuine Partnership in a New Era. Approval of a multi-national peace-keeping force to Nagorno-Karabakh. Endorsement of the Code of Conduct on politico-military aspects of security.
V	December 2–3, 1996	Lisbon	Portugal	(First OSCE Summit). Lisbon Declaration on a Common and Comprehensive Security Model for Europe for the Twenty-First Century. Adoption of a Framework for Arms Control.
VI	November 18–19, 1999	Istanbul	Turkey	Signing of the Istanbul Document and the Charter for European Security.
VII	December 1–2, 2010	Astana	Kazakhstan	Adoption of the Astana Commemorative Declaration, which reconfirms the Organization's comprehensive approach to security based on trust and transparency.

Ministerial Council Meetings (ordinary)[link]

Council	Date	Place	Country	Decisions
1st	June 19–20, 1991	Berlin	Germany	Admission of Albania
2nd	January 30–31, 1992	Prague	Czechoslovakia	Admission of ten former Soviet republics.
3rd	December 14–15, 1992	Stockholm	Sweden	Creation of the post of Secretary General and appointment of Max van der Stoel as first High Commissioner on National Minorities.
4th	November 30-December 1, 1993	Rome	Italy	Establishment of the Mission to Tajikistan.
5th	December 7–8, 1995	Budapest	Hungary	Establishment of the Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina to carry out the tasks assigned to the OSCE in the Dayton Peace Agreements.
6th	December 18–19, 1997	Copenhagen	Denmark	Creation of the Co-ordinator of OSCE Economic and Environmental Activities and the Representative on Freedom of the Media.
7th	December 2–3, 1998	Oslo	Norway
8th	November 27–28, 2000	Vienna	Austria	Vienna Declaration on the OSCE's activities in South-Eastern Europe. Re-admission of the F. R. of Yugoslavia.
9th	December 3–4, 2001	Bucharest	Romania	Bucharest Declaration. Bucharest Plan of Action for Combating Terrorism. Creation of the Strategic Police Matters Unit and a Senior Police Adviser in the OSCE Secretariat.
10th	December 6–7, 2002	Porto	Portugal	Porto Declaration: Responding to Change. OSCE Charter on Preventing and Combating Terrorism
11th	December 1–2, 2003	Maastricht	Netherlands	Strategy to Address Threats to Security and Stability in the Twenty-First Century. Strategy Document for the Economic and Environmental Dimension.
12th	December 6–7, 2004	Sofia	Bulgaria
13th	December 5–6, 2005	Ljubljana	Slovenia	Statement on the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism. Approval of the Border Security and Management Concept.
14th	December 4–5, 2006	Brussels	Belgium	Brussels Declaration on Criminal Justice Systems. Ministerial Statement on Supporting and Promoting the International Legal Framework against Terrorism.
15th	November 29–30, 2007	Madrid	Spain	Madrid Declaration on Environment and Security. Ministerial Statement on Supporting the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy.
16th	December 4–5, 2008	Helsinki	Finland
17th	December 1–2, 2009	Athens	Greece	Ministerial Declarations on Non-Proliferation and on the OSCE Corfu Process.
	July 16–17, 2010	Almaty	Kazakhstan	Informal meeting discussions on Corfu Process progress, the situation in Kyrgyzstan and the OSCE summit.
18th	December 6–7, 2011	Vilnius	Lithuania	Decisions on responses to conflicts and transnational threats: to enhance capabilities in early warning, early action, dialogue facilitation and mediation support, and post-conflict rehabilitation. Decisions to enhance engagement with OSCE Partners for Co-operation, Afghanistan in particular.

Chairmanship history[link]

Chairmanship of the OSCE is held by a member state on a calendar-year basis, with the minister for foreign affairs of that state performing the function of Chairperson-in-Office. The table below shows the holders since 1991.^[22]

Year	Country	Chairperson-in-Office
1991	Germany	Hans-Dietrich Genscher (from June)
1992	Czechoslovakia	Jiří Dienstbier (until 2 July); Jozef Moravčík (from 3 July)
1993	Sweden	Margaretha af Ugglas
1994	Italy	Beniamino Andreatta (until 11 May); Antonio Martino (from 12 May)
1995	Hungary	László Kovács
1996	Switzerland	Flavio Cotti
1997	Denmark	Niels Helveg Petersen
1998	Poland	Bronislaw Geremek
1999	Norway	Knut Vollebaek
2000	Austria	Wolfgang Schüssel (until 4 February); Benita Ferrero-Waldner (from 5 February)
2001	Romania	Mircea Geoană
2002	Portugal	Jaime Gama (until 6 April); Antonio Martins da Cruz (from 7 April)
2003	Netherlands	Jaap de Hoop Scheffer (until 3 December); Bernard Bot (from 4 December)
2004	Bulgaria	Solomon Passy
2005	Slovenia	Dimitrij Rupel
2006	Belgium	Karel De Gucht
2007	Spain	Miguel Ángel Moratinos
2008	Finland	Ilkka Kanerva (until 4 April); Alexander Stubb (from 5 April)
2009	Greece	Dora Bakoyannis (until 5 October); George Papandreou (from 6 October)
2010	Kazakhstan	Kanat Saudabayev
2011	Lithuania	Audronius Ažubalis
2012	Ireland	Eamon Gilmore
2013	Ukraine
2014	Switzerland/ Serbia
2015	Serbia/ Switzerland

Fiscal history[link]

Since 1993, the OSCE's budget by year (in millions of euros, not adjusted for inflation) has been:

Participating States[link]

OSCE signatories as of 2006.

  signed Helsinki Final Act and Paris Charter

  signed Helsinki Final Act only

  non-signatory

  partner for cooperation

State	Admission	Signed the Helsinki Final Act	Signed the Charter of Paris
Albania	19 June 1991	16 September 1991	17 September 1991
Andorra	25 April 1996	10 November 1999	17 February 1998
Armenia	30 January 1992	8 July 1992	17 April 1992
Austria	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Azerbaijan	30 January 1992	8 July 1992	20 December 1993
Belarus	30 January 1992	26 February 1992	8 April 1993
Belgium	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Bosnia and Herzegovina	30 April 1992	8 July 1992
Bulgaria	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Canada	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Croatia	24 March 1992	8 July 1992
Cyprus	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Czech Republic	1 January 1993
Denmark	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Estonia	10 September 1991	14 October 1992	6 December 1991
Finland	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
France	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Georgia	24 March 1992	8 July 1992	21 January 1994
Germany	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Greece	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Hungary	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Iceland	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Ireland	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Italy	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Kazakhstan	30 January 1992	8 July 1992	23 September 1992
Kyrgyzstan	30 January 1992	8 July 1992	3 June 1994
Latvia	10 September 1991	14 October 1991	6 December 1991
Liechtenstein	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Lithuania	10 September 1991	14 October 1991	6 December 1991
Luxembourg	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Macedonia[23]	12 October 1995
Malta	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Moldova	30 January 1992	26 February 1992	29 January 1993
Monaco	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Montenegro	22 June 2006	1 September 2006
Netherlands	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Norway	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Poland	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Portugal	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Romania	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Russia (as USSR)	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
San Marino	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Serbia (as FR Yugoslavia)	10 November 2000	27 November 2000[citation needed]	27 November 2000[citation needed]
Slovakia	1 January 1993
Slovenia	24 March 1992	8 July 1992	8 March 1993
Spain	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Sweden	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Switzerland	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Tajikistan	30 January 1992	26 February 1992
Turkey	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Turkmenistan	30 January 1992	8 July 1992
Ukraine	30 January 1992	26 February 1992	16 June 1992
United Kingdom	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
United States	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990
Uzbekistan	30 January 1992	26 February 1992	27 October 1993
Vatican City	25 June 1973	1 August 1975	21 November 1990

Partners for co-operation[link]

See also[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

• Official website of the OSCE
• OSCE Handbook (full version with hyperlinks to key documents)
• OSCE The U.S. Mission to the OSCE
• OSCE The OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina
• OSCE POLIS Policing OnLine Information System
• OSCE at the Open Directory Project
• United States Institute of Peace online training course for OSCE required for U.S. citizens hired by the Organization. Provides a detailed outline of the OSCE, with additional modules on each major area that it is involved in. Website freely available, but tests only given to those who have submitted applications.
• OSCE eLearning unit created by ISRG - University of Innsbruck
• Official OSCE account on Twitter
• Summer Academy on OSCE
• The short film Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (1975) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]

Professional ratings
Review scores
Source	Rating
Allmusic	[1]

In Europe is an album by Miles Davis, released in 1964.

Track listing[link]

1. "Autumn Leaves"
2. "Milestones"
3. "I Thought About You" (bonus track on the CD not on the original vinyl LP)
4. "Joshua"
5. "All of You"
6. "Walking"

A spoken introduction by Andre Francis precedes these.

Musicians[link]

• Miles Davis trumpet
• George Coleman tenor sax
• Herbie Hancock piano
• Tony Williams drums
• Ron Carter bass

References[link]

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Lamberto Zannier, born in 1954, is an Italian diplomat who currently serves as the United Nations Special Representative for Kosovo and Head of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), with the rank of UN Undersecretary-General. He was appointed to this position by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon in June 2008.^[1] On 30 June 2011, Ambassador Lamberto Zannier was appointed the new Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)] Secretary General through a unanimous Ministerial Council decision by the 56 participating States^[2]. Zannier will take up the post of OSCE Secretary General on 1 July 2011.

Zannier has served for the Foreign Service of Italy for more than 30 years. Before his appointment as Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for Kosovo, he played a leading role at the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs as a coordinator for EU Foreign Policy and as a Director for EU Security and Defence issues. Between 2002 and 2006, he was Director of the Conflict Prevention Centre of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe in Vienna. In this capacity, he managed more than 20 civilian field operations in Europe and Central Asia.

From 2000 to 2002, he served as Permanent Representative of Italy to the Executive Council of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in The Hague. From 1997 to 2000, he was chairperson of the negotiations on the adaptation of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe. From 1991 to 1997, he served as Head of Disarmament, Arms Control and Cooperative Security at the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Previously, he served in Rome, Abu Dhabi and Vienna, mainly specialising in multilateral and security affairs. He has authored several publications on security, conflict prevention and crisis management issues. He is currently member of the Steering Committee of the Centre for International Negotiation and mediation of the Gorizia University. He routinely holds lessons and conferences on international relations and international security.

Zannier obtained a law degree from the University of Trieste.

References[link]

External links[link]

• United Nations Press Release SG/A/1139
• http://www.unmikonline.org/srsg/index.htm

Not to be confused with Thomas the Rhymer, a 13th century Scots laird.

Thomas Rymer (c. 1643 – 13 December 1713), English historiographer royal, was the younger son of Ralph Rymer, lord of the manor of Brafferton in Yorkshire, described by Clarendon as possessed of a good estate, who was executed for his share in the Presbyterian rising of 1663.

Early life and education[link]

Thomas Rymer was born at Appleton Wiske, near Northallerton in the North Riding of Yorkshire in 1643,^[1] or possibly at Yafforth.^[2] He studied at Northallerton Grammar School where he was a class mate of George Hickes.^[1] Here he studied for eight years under Thomas Smelt, a noted Royalist.^[3] Aged sixteen, he then went to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, entering on 29 April 1659.^[3]

Although Rymer was still at Cambridge in 1662, when he contributed Latin verses to a university volume celebrating the marriage of Charles II and Catherine of Braganza, there is no record of his taking a degree. This may have been due to the financial problems his father was suffering at the time, and on 13 October 1663, Ralph Rymer was arrested for his involvement in a plot to stage an uprising in Yorkshire against King Charles; he was executed the next year. Although Thomas's elder brother Ralph was also arrested and imprisoned, Thomas himself was not implicated, and on 2 May 1666, he became a member of Gray's Inn, and was called to the bar on 16 June 1673.

Career[link]

His first appearance in print was as translator of René Rapin's Reflections on Aristotle's Treatise of Poesie (1674), to which he added a preface in defence of the classical rules for unity in drama.^[4] Following the principles there set forth, he composed a tragedy in verse, licensed 13 September 1677, called Edgar, or the English Monarch, which was a failure. It was printed in 1678.

Rymer's views on the drama were again given to the world in the shape of a printed letter to Fleetwood Shepheard, the friend of Prior, under the title of The Tragedies of the Last Age Consider'd (1678). To Ovid's Epistles Translated by Several Hands (1680), with preface by Dryden, Penelope to Ulysses was contributed by Rymer, who was also one of the hands who Englished the Plutarch of 1683-86. The life of Nicias fell to his share. He furnished a preface to Whitelocke's Memorials of English Affairs (1682), and wrote in 1681 A General Draught and Prospect of the Government of Europe, reprinted in 1689 and 1714 as Of the Antiquity, Power, and Decay of Parliaments, where, ignorant of his future dignity, the critic had the misfortune to observe, "You are not to expect truth from an historiographer royal."

He contributed three pieces to the collection of Poems to the Memory of Edmund Waller (1688), afterwards reprinted in Dryden's Miscellany Poems, and is said to have written the Latin inscription on Waller's monument in Beaconsfield churchyard. The preface to the posthumous Historia Ecclesiastica (1688) of Thomas Hobbes is said to have been by Rymer, but the Life of Hobbes (1681) sometimes ascribed to him was written by Richard Blackburne. He produced a congratulatory poem upon the arrival of Queen Mary in 1689.

His next piece of authorship was to translate the sixth elegy of the third book of Ovid's Tristia for Dryden's Miscellany Poems (1692, p. 148). On the death of Thomas Shadwell in 1692 Rymer received the appointment of historiographer royal, at a yearly salary of £200. Immediately afterwards appeared his much discussed Short View of Tragedy (1693), criticizing Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, which produced The Impartial Critick (1693) of John Dennis, the epigram of Dryden.

Rymer's most lasting contribution to scholarship was the sixteen volumes of Foedera^[5] he published from 1704 to 1713; a collection of "all the leagues, treaties, alliances, capitulations, and confederacies, which have at any time been made between the Crown of England and any other kingdoms, princes and states," it was an immense labor of research and transcription on which he spent the last twenty years of his life.^[6] Rymer died on 13 December 1713, and was buried four days later in St Clement Danes Church in the Strand.^[1] He apparently left no immediate family.

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Zimansky, Curt A. The Critical Works of Thomas Rymer. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956.

Attribution

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Thomas Rymer". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Thomas_Rymer. 
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Rymer, Thomas". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.