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A model (from Middle French modèle//aew),^[1] sometimes called a mannequin, is a person who is employed to display, advertise and promote commercial products (notably fashion clothing) or to serve as a subject of works of art.

Modelling ("modeling" in American) is distinguished from other types of public performance, such as an acting, dancing or mime artist, although the boundary is not well defined. Appearing in a movie or a play is almost never considered modelling.

Types of modelling include fashion, glamour, fitness, bikini, fine art, and body-part models. Models are featured in a variety of media formats including books, magazines, movies, newspapers, and TV. Models sometimes are featured in movies (Looker, Tattoo), reality television shows (America's Next Top Model, The Janice Dickinson Modeling Agency), or music videos ("Freedom! '90", "Wicked Game", "Daughters").

Modelling agency[link]

A modelling agency is a company that represents a group of models which they call their model board. Model bookers (also called "bookers" or "agents") manage a model's career. Agents help a model find jobs, book jobs, give advice, and email or give copy books and comp cards to various clients they work with (a comp card is a selection of pictures printed on a card, a copy book is a scanned version of a models portfolio). Agents may send models to various clients and schedule modelling interviews (also called go and see or castings).^{[citation needed]}

A model could work without an agent but it is highly recommended for fashion/runway models.^[2] A model is employed to increase the sales of a product.

Fashion models[link]

History[link]

Fashion models on the runway.

The first person described as a fashion model in Paris was Marie Vernet Worth. She was a house model in 1852, to her fashion designer husband, Charles Frederick Worth.^[3][4] Even after fashion photography became important, fashion models generally remained fairly anonymous and relatively poorly paid until the late 1950s, though often marrying well. The first model widely considered to have paved the way for what would become the supermodel was Lisa Fonssagrives, from the 1930s onwards, in America.^[5] The relationship between her image on over 200 Vogue covers and her name recognition led to the importance of Vogue in shaping future supermodels. Her image appeared on the cover of fashion magazines during the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s from Town & Country, Life and Vogue to the original Vanity Fair. Dorian Leigh was also very well-known after World War II. The rise of model as consistent media personalities perhaps began in the Swinging Sixties with figures like Jean Shrimpton, Twiggy, and Penelope Tree, and has continued ever since.

Runway modelling[link]

Runway models showcase clothes from fashion designers, fashion media, and consumers. They are also called "live models" and are self employed. Runway models work in different locations, constantly traveling between those cities where fashion is well known - London, Milan, New York City, and Paris. Second-tier international fashion center cities includes Rome, Florence, Venice, Brescia, Los Angeles, Tokyo, Moscow, Saint Petersburg, et cetera. Cities where catalog work comprises the bulk of fashion packaging, merchandising and marketing work includes Miami, Los Angeles, San Fransisco, Chicago, Philadelphia, Toronto, Mexico City, Tokyo, Hamburg, London, Beijing et cetera.

The demands for runway models include certain height and weight requirements. During runway shows, models have to constantly change clothes and makeup. The models turn and stand to demonstrate the garment's key features. Models also go to interviews (called "go and sees") and must keep a portfolio of their work. They go to modelling interviews to find more work. The more experience a model has, the more likely she is to be hired for a fashion show. A runway model can work in other areas, such as department store fashion shows, creating product lines, acting etc.^[6]:191-192

The British Association of Model Agents (AMA) says that female models should be around 34-24-34 in and at least 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) tall.^[7] The average model is slender and in shape. Those who do not meet the weight requirement often try for becoming a Plus-size model.^[8] The preferred dimensions for a male model is a height of at least 6 ft 0 in (183 cm), a waist of 28–32 in (71.12–81.28 cm) and a chest measurement of 36–40 in (91.44–101.60 cm).^[7] Male runway models have been noted as being skinny and well toned.^[9]

Male and female models must also possess clear skin, healthy hair, and attractive facial features. Stringent weight and body proportion guidelines form a selective criteria by which established and would-be models are judged for their placement suitability, on an ongoing basis—with some variation regionally and market tier-level dependent, subject, too, to current prevailing trends at any point, in any era—by agents, agencies and end-clients.

The former requirement measurements for models used to be 35.5-23.5-35.5 in (90-60-90 cm), which were the alleged measurements of Marilyn Monroe.^{[citation needed]} Today's fashion models tend to have measurements closer to the AMA recommended shape. Although in some fashion centers [regionally speaking, of course], a size 00 is more ideal than a size 0.

The often thin shape of many fashion models has been criticized for warping girls' body image and encouraging eating disorders.^[10] Organizers of a fashion show in Madrid in September 2006 turned away models who were judged to be underweight by medical personnel who were on hand.^[11] In February 2007, six months after her sister, Luisel Ramos - also a model - died, Uruguayan model Eliana Ramos became the third fashion model to die of malnutrition in six months. The second victim was Ana Carolina Reston.^[12] Luisel Ramos died of heart failure caused by anorexia nervosa just after stepping off the catwalk.

In the early 21st century, runway walks became less flamboyant compared to the late 20th century, when Naomi Campbell and other supermodels were known for their distinct struts. Instead, most designers preferred a natural stroll.^[13]

Supermodels[link]

According to Forbes and the Guinness Book, the richest model in the world is Brazilian Gisele Bündchen^[14]

Supermodels are highly paid, high profile fashion models. These (usually female) celebrities appear on top fashion magazine covers and in fashion shows. Much more importantly, in financial terms, their appearance in advertising can amount to an endorsement, attracting far greater rewards, especially when they conclude deals to advertise a brand exclusively, as "the face" of that brand.

Bikini models[link]

Bikini models are also usually required to be physically fit and with an appealing body shape. Bikini models can usually be shorter, around 5 ft 5 in (1.65 m) to 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m).^{[citation needed]}

Advertising models[link]

Glamour models[link]

Glamour models posing on the red carpet — Hollywood, CA, USA 03/09/2008

Glamour photography emphasizes the model and the model's sexuality rather than products, fashion or the environment. Glamour modelling focuses on sexuality and its ability to enhance a product's attractiveness. Glamour models are used for mass-produced calendars, pinup and for men's magazines, such as Playboy magazine. Famous glamour models include Pamela Anderson, Jordan, Jodie Marsh, Lucy Pinder, and Louise Glover.^{[citation needed]}

Gravure idols[link]

Gravure models posing in Akihabara.

A gravure idol (グラビアアイドル, gurabia aidoru^?), often abbreviated to gradol (グラドル, guradoru^?),^[15] is a Japanese female model who primarily models on magazines, especially men's magazines, photobooks or DVDs. Gravure idols, in most cases, emphasize their sexual attractiveness and often model in swimsuits or lingerie.

"Gravure" (グラビア) is a Wasei-eigo term derived from "Rotogravure", which is a type of intaglio printing process that was once a staple of newspaper photo features. The rotogravure process is still used for commercial printing of magazines, postcards, and cardboard product packaging.

Gravure idols appear in a wide range of photography styles and genres. Their photos are largely aimed at male audiences with poses or activities often intended to be provocative or suggestive, generally accentuated by an air of playfulness and innocence rather than aggressive sexuality. Though gravure models may sometimes wear clothing that exposes most of their body, their nipples and genitals are generally covered and they seldom appear fully nude. It is also common for gravure idols to have very large breasts and in their videos models are often shown performing activities specifically intended to cause their breasts to bounce or shake such as jogging or doing jumping jacks.

Gravure models may be of any age but usually range from their late teens to their mid-twenties. In addition to appearing in mainstream magazines, gravure idols often release their own professional photobooks and DVDs for their fans. Many popular female idols in Japan launched their careers by starting out as gravure idols.

Gravure models are commonly photographed wearing bikinis or lingerie but may also appear wearing schoolgirl uniforms, Japanese street fashion, and kimonos. Since 2008, zakzak magazine has awarded a Gravure Idol Award.^[16]

Body-parts models[link]

Some models are employed for their particularly attractive body parts. For example, hand models may be used to promote products held in the hand and nail-related products. They are frequently part of television commercials.^[17] Hand model, Ashly Covington^[18] has worked on television commercials that are shown around the world.^[17] Another hand model, Kimbra Hickey, found fame after being featured on the cover of Twilight.^[19]

Leg models, such as U.K based Zara Miller, showcase tights, stockings, socks and leg grooming products. Wrist models display watches or bracelets. Petite models (females under 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m) and do not qualify as fashion models) have found success in women body part modelling.

Fitness models[link]

Fitness model posing with dumbbell

Fitness modelling centres on displaying an athletic physique. Fitness models usually have the defined muscles of bodybuilders, but with less emphasis on muscle size in favor of lean muscle tone. Their body weight is usually similar to (or heavier than) fashion models, but they have a lower body fat percentage owing to increased muscle mass and reduced fat mass.^{[citation needed]}

Art models[link]

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Art models are models who pose for photographers, painters, sculptors, and other artists as part of their work of art.

A nude male art model in an adult art class at the Brooklyn Museum, 1939.

Models are frequently used for training art students, but are also employed by accomplished artists. The most common types of art created using models are figure drawing, figure painting, sculpture and photography. Although commercial motives dominate over the esthetics in advertising, its 'artwork' commonly employs models.

Throughout the history of Western art, drawing the human figure from living models was considered the most useful tool in developing the skill of draftsmanship. In some cases, the model may pose with various props, other models, props, against real or artificial background, and under various lighting conditions.

Models for life drawing classes are often entirely nude apart from visually non-obstructive personal items such as small jewelry or eyeglasses. Job advertisements seeking nude models use various terms such as "undraped" or "disrobed". Models may wear a cache-sexe to hide the genitals. Eadward Muybridge's historic scientific studies of the male and female form in motion, for example, has examples of both usages.

In Western countries, there is generally no objection to either sex posing nude for or drawing members of the opposite sex. However, this was not always so in the past, particularly prior to the 20th century. In 1886 Thomas Eakins was famously dismissed from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Art for removing the loincloth from a male model in a mixed classroom. Similarly, Victorian modesty required the female model to pose nude with her face draped (illustration). European arts academies did not allow women to study the nude at all until the end of the nineteenth century. Up into the present day some rare art classes prefer male models to wear a jockstrap.

Policies vary regarding male models having an erection. Some instructors don't mind at all (especially with younger or inexperienced models), while others, including the Register of Artists' Models (RAM) in the United Kingdom, this is cause for termination.^[20]

Alternative models[link]

An alternative model is any model that does not fit into the conventional model types and may include punk, goth, fetish, tattooed models or models with distinctive attributes. These mix with high fashion and art models. Publishers such as Goliath in Germany introduced alternative models and punk photography to larger audiences.

Salary[link]

Despite the stereotype of modelling as a lucrative and glamorous profession, according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics the median wage for commercial and print models was only $11.22 per hour in 2006.^[21] MarketWatch listed modelling as one of the ten worst jobs in America.^[21] Print models earn little or nothing working for low-budget clients such as manufacturers or stores. Experienced print models make $200 to $500 per hour. Print models who work with an agent give 15% to 20% of earnings to the agent. The most famous print models make thousands of dollars an hour.^[6]:189

Beginner female runway models make less money than models that have experience. The average wage for a female runway model can range from $ 250 -$1,000 an hour per runway walk. The annual salary of a top runway or print model can exceed $500,000.^[6]:191 Costs of travel, transportation, food, hotels, etc. are deducted from the model's pay. Contract supermodels for larger cosmetic brands are generally paid $300,000 to $2 million a year, depending on exclusivity and the amount of days the model is expected to work.^[22]

Male runway models make less than female runway models. Beginner male models can earn up to $150 per shoot. Most successful male models balance runways shows, commercial catalogs, advertising campaigns and editorial opportunities. Fragrance and exclusive designer advertising campaigns are the most lucrative. High-end catalog photo shoots pay an average of $8,000-$15,000 per day and typically last one day. For models rising up the ranks, most work pays in prestige and non-monetary perks. An editorial shoot may earn a model up to $150, but working with a prominent photographer, padding a portfolio and exposure in a well-respected magazine is valuable beyond the pay. Famous male models make around $500,000 per year. The highest-paid male models can make up to $1 million per year.^[23] Designer clothing and fragrance ads pay the most money. A male runway model can earn from $8,000-$15,000 per day for high-end catalogues.^[24]

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Models (people)

• Academy figure
• Child modeling
• Hip hop model
• Internet modeling
• List of black fashion models
• Promotional model
• Spokesmodel
• Time for print

References[link]

A person is a being, such as a human, that has certain capacities or attributes constituting personhood, the precise definition of which is the subject of much controversy.^{[vague language]} The common plural of "person", "people", is often used to refer to an entire nation or ethnic group (as in "a people"), so the plural "persons" is often used in contexts which require precision such as philosophical and legal writing.

Etymology[link]

In ancient Rome, the word "persona" (Latin) or "prosopon" (πρόσωπον: Greek) originally referred to the masks worn by actors on stage. The various masks represented the various "personae" in the stage play, while the masks themselves helped the actor's voice resonate and made it easier for the audience to hear.^[1]

In Roman law, the word "persona" became used to refer to a role played in court, and it became established that it was the role rather than the actor that could have rights, powers, and duties, because different individuals could assume the same roles, the rights, powers, and duties followed the role rather than the actor, and each individual could act in more than one role, each a different "person" in law.^{[tortured english][citation needed]}

The concept of a "person" was further developed during the Trinitarian and Christological debates of the first through sixth centuries. Since then, a number of important changes to the word's meaning and use have taken place, and attempts have been made to redefine the word with varying degrees of adoption and influence.

Many modern speakers of colloquial English conflate the meanings of role and actor, which can result in some confusion when they try to enter into legal discourse.^{[citation needed]}

Personhood[link]

An abstract painting of a person by Paul Klee. The concept of a person can be very challenging to define.

Personhood is the status of being a person. Defining personhood is a controversial topic in philosophy and law, and is closely tied to legal and political concepts of citizenship, equality, and liberty. According to law, only a natural person or legal personality has rights, protections, privileges, responsibilities, and legal liability. Personhood continues to be a topic of international debate. Historically, personhood was questioned during the abolition of slavery, the fight for women's rights and animal rights, debates about abortion, fetal rights and reproductive rights as well as debates about corporate personhood.^[2]

Various specific debates have focused and continue to focus on questions about the personhood of different classes of entities. Historically, the personhood of animals, women, and slaves has been a catalyst of social upheaval. Today, most living adult humans are usually considered persons, but depending on the context, theory or definition, the category of "person" may be taken to include such non-human entities as animals, corporations, sovereign states or other polities, estates in probate, artificial intelligences, or extraterrestrial life; and may exclude some human entities in prenatal development or those with extreme mental impairments or injuries. A deceased person may be considered a person or property, depending on jurisdiction.

Personal identity[link]

What does it take for individuals to persist from moment to moment — or in other words, for the same individual to exist at different moments?

Personal identity is the unique numerical identity of persons through time. That is to say, the necessary and sufficient conditions under which a person at one time and a person at another time can be said to be the same person, persisting through time. In the modern philosophy of mind, this concept of personal identity is sometimes referred to as the diachronic problem of personal identity. The synchronic problem is grounded in the question of what features or traits characterize a given person at one time.

Identity is an issue for both continental philosophy and analytic philosophy. A key question in continental philosophy is in what sense we can maintain the modern conception of identity, while realizing many of our prior assumptions about the world are incorrect.

Proposed solutions to the problem of personal identity include continuity of the physical body, continuity of an immaterial mind or soul, continuity of consciousness or memory, the bundle theory of self, and proposals that there are actually no persons or selves which persist over time at all.

See also[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Lukes, Steven; Carrithers, Michael; Collins, Steven, eds. (1987). The category of the person: Anthropology, philosophy, history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-27757-4. 
• Cornelia J.de Vogel The concept of personality in Greek and Christian thought. In Studies in philosophy and the history of philosophy. Vol. 2. Edited by J. K. Ryan, Washington: Catholic University of America Press 1963. pp. 20–60
• Puccetti, Roland (1968). Persons: A Study of Possible Moral Agents in the Universe. London: Macmillan and Company. 
•  "Person". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. 
• Korfmacher, Carsten (May 29, 2006). "Personal Identity". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/person-i.htm. Retrieved 2011-03-09. 

External links[link]

Look up person in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Rights of Non-Human Persons Program (Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies)