Self control is the ability to control one's emotions, behavior and desires in order to obtain some reward, or avoid some punishment, later. Presumably, some (smaller) reward or punishment is operating in the short term which precludes, or reduces, the later reward or punishment. In psychology it is sometimes called self-regulation. Exerting self-control through the executive functions in decision making is held in some theories to deplete one's ability to do so in the future.^[1]

In Behavior Analysis[link]

Another view is that self-control represents the locus of two conflicting contingencies of reinforcement, which then make a controlling response reinforcing when it causes changes in the controlled response.^[2][3]

By this theory, Self-control is directly related to the pressure an individual may face.

• Good Pressure: When an individual is in a competitive, yet non-judgemental and non-prejudicial environment, the individual may want to be like those around them. An individual may become motivated and inspired and gain self-control.
• Bad Pressure: When an individual is in a judgemental and prejudicial environment and there is no competition, an individual may become depressed and unmotivated, losing self-control.
• No Pressure: When an individual is free and there is no competition, and can do what one may feel, self-control is based on how an individual may feel. Since there are no other individuals to compare, an individual may be less motivated or more motivated depending on the urgency of whatever they are doing.

Self-control research[link]

Human and non-human self-control[link]

Human self-control research is typically modeled by using a token economy system in which human participants choose between tokens for one choice and using obtained for humans and non-humans, with the latter appearing to maximize their overall reinforcement despite delays, with the former being sensitive to changes in delay. The difference in research methodologies with humans - using tokens or conditioned reinforcers - and non-humans using sub-primary forces suggested procedural artifacts as a possible suspect. One aspect of these procedural differences was the delay to the exchange period (Hyten et al. 1994).^[4] Non-human subjects can, and would, access their reinforcement immediately. The human subjects had to wait for an "exchange period" in which they could exchange their tokens for money, usually at the end of the experiment. When this was done with pigeons they responded much like humans in that males have less control than females (Jackson & Hackenberg 1996).^[5] However, Logue, (1995), who is discussed more below, points out that in her study done on self-control it was male children who responded with less self control than female children. She then states, that in adulthood, for the most part, the sexes equalize on their ability to exhibit self control. This could suggest a human being's ability to exert more self control as they mature and become more aware of the consequences associated with impulsivity. This suggestion is further examined below.

Most of the research in the field of self control assumes that self control is in general better than impulsiveness. Some developmental psychologists argue that this is normal, and people age from infants, who have no ability to think of the future, and hence no self control or delayed gratification, to adults. As a result almost all research done on this topic is from this standpoint and very rarely is impulsiveness the more adaptive response in experimental design.

More recently some in the field of developmental psychology have begun to think of self control in a more complicated way that takes into account that sometimes impulsiveness is the more adaptive response. In their view, a normal individual should have the capacity to be either impulsive or controlled depending on which is the most adaptive. However, this is a recent shift in paradigm and there is little research conducted along these lines.^[6]

Brain regions involved in self control[link]

Functional imaging of the brain has shown that self-control is correlated with an area in the dorsal fronto-median cortex in the frontal lobe. This area is distinct from those involved in generating intentional actions, attention to intentions, or select between alternatives.^[7] This control occurs through the top-down inhibition of premotor cortex.^[8]

There are many researchers working on identifying the brain areas involved in the exertion of self control; many different areas are known to be involved. At the biological level, a loss of control is thought to be caused by a malfunctioning of a decision mechanism. A mechanistic explanation of self-control is still in its infancy. However, there is strong demand for knowledge about these mechanism because knowledge of these mechanisms would have tremendous clinical application. Much of the work on how the brain reaches decisions is based on evidence from perceptual learning.

Many of the tasks that subjects are tested on are not tasks typically associated with self-control, but are more general decision tasks. Nevertheless the research on self-control is informed by more general research on decision tasks. Sources for evidence on the neural mechanisms of self-control include fMRI studies on human subject, neural recordings on animals, lesion studies on humans and animals, and clinical behavioral studies on humans with self-control disorders.

There is broad agreement that the cortex is involved in self-control. The details of the final model have yet to be worked out. However, there are some enticing finding that suggest a mechanistic account of self-control could prove to have tremendous explanatory value. What follows is a survey of some of the important recent literature on the brain regions involved in self control.

Amygdala[link]

Benedetto De Martino et al. have shown that the amygdala plays a crucial role in the phenomenon of risk aversion. They tested two subjects who had amygdala lesions and found that these subjects had dramatically lower levels of risk aversion. This suggests that the amygdala plays a key role in inhibiting potentially reckless actions.^[9] It is likely that the amygdala is also implicated in the exertion of self-control since the inhibition of reckless action is required for self control.

Prefrontal Cortex[link]

Ulrike Basten et al. used functional MRI techniques to show that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex perform a cost-benefit computation from neural signatures received from the ventral striatum and amygdala. Basten et al. also found that the bilateral middle intraparietal sulcus plays a role in making decisions that require cost benefit analysis.^[10] Exertion of self control typically involves sacrificing a short term reward for a better long-term reward; and this requires the calculation to the effect that the long-term reward is more valuable than the more immediate short term reward.

Basal Ganglia, Cortex[link]

Rafal Bogacz and Kevin Gurney hypothesize that the basal ganglia and cortex implement optimal decision making. They hypothesize that the basal ganglia acts as a switch between rival decisions. They show that the basal ganglia and the cortex have the appropriate anatomy and physiology to compute optimal decisions.^[11] If they are correct, then an explanation of why some people fail to exert self-control may involve defects in the basal ganglia and not just limited to the cortex.

Ventral Cortex[link]

Marios G. Philiastides et al. use functional MRI techniques to show that the ventral temporal cortex encodes evidence for and against rival decisions. They also show that the ventromedial cortex integrates evidence from the ventral temporal cortex to produce a value signal that informs decisions.^[12] This is relevant to self control because exerting self-control requires correctly computing the value of a better long-term decision over a worse short-term decision.

Prefrontal Cortex[link]

Todd A. Hare et al. use functional MRI techniques to show that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) are crucially involved in the exertion of self control. They found that activity in the vmPFC was correlated with goal values and that the exertion of self control required the modulation of the vmPFC by the DLPFC. The study found that a lack of self control was strongly correlated with reduced activity in the DLPFC. Hare’s study is especially relevant to the self-control literature because it suggests that an important cause of poor self control is a defective DLPFC.^[13]

Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex[link]

Cameron S. Carter and Vincent van Veen theorize that the dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) and the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC) play an important role in goal directed behavior. They appeal to evidence from event-related potential studies and fMRI studies to argue that the ACC and the DLPFC form a “conflict-control loop”. The ACC detects conflicting representations and the DLPFC resolves conflicts by shifting attention away from goal-irrelevant stimuli and toward goal-relevant stimuli.^[14]

Orbitofrontal Cortex[link]

Patients who have damage to the orbitofrontal cortex tend to make decisions on the basis of short-term rather than long term consequences, suggesting that this area is key to the exercise of self-control ^[15][16]

Lateral prefrontal cortex[link]

Masataka Watanabe and Masamichi Sakagami cite evidence from neuronal recordings in monkeys to argue that the lateral prefrontal cortex plays an important role in “integrating the cognitive and motivational context” for adaptive goal-directed behavior.^[17]

Outcomes as determining whether a self-control choice is made[link]

Alexandra W. Logue is interested in how outcomes change the possibilities of a self-control choice being made. Logue identifies three possible outcome effects: outcome delays, outcome size, and outcome contingencies.^[6] The delay of an outcome results in the perception that the outcome is less valuable than an outcome which is more readily achieved. The devaluing of the delayed outcome can cause less self-control. A way to increase self-control in situations of a delayed outcome is to pre-expose an outcome. Pre-exposure reduces the frustrations related to the delay of the outcome. An example of this is signing bonuses.

Outcome size deals with the relative, perceived size of possible outcomes. There tends to be a relationship between the value of the incentive and the desired outcome; the larger the desired outcome, the larger the value. Some factors that decrease value include delay, effort/cost, and uncertainty. The decision tends to be based on the option with the higher value at the time of the decision.

Finally, Logue defines the relationship between responses and outcomes as outcome contingencies.^[6] Outcome contingencies also impact the degree of self-control that a person exercises. For instance, if a person is able to change his choice after the initial choice is made, the person is far more likely to take the impulsive, rather than self-controlled, choice. Additionally, it is possible for people to make precommitment action. A precommitment action is an action meant to lead to a self-controlled action at a later period in time. When a person sets an alarm clock, they are making a precommitted response to wake up early in the morning. Hence, that person is more likely to exercise the self-controlled decision to wake up, rather than to fall back in bed for a little more sleep.

Cassandra B. Whyte studied locus of control and academic performance and determined that internals tend to achieve at a higher level. Internals may perceive they have options from which to choose, thus facilitating more hopeful decision-making behavior as opposed to dependence on externally determined outcomes that require less commitment, effort, or self-control.^[18][19]

Physiology of Behavior[link]

Many things affect one's ability to exert self-control, but self-control particularly requires sufficient glucose levels in the brain. Exerting self-control depletes glucose. Research has found that reduced glucose, and poor glucose tolerance (reduced ability to transport glucose to the brain) are tied to lower performance in tests of self-control, particularly in difficult new situations.^[20]

As a limited resource[link]

For more details see Ego depletion

Research by Roy Baumeister and colleagues has shown that people's ability to exert self-control depends on a strength-like resource that diminishes after use.

After participants performed a task requiring self-control, they were less able to exert self-control, even in entirely different areas; this result was replicated in over a hundred experiments ^[21]

There is also evidence that training people to accept the time delay before receiving a reward similarly enhances people's self-control. Donal Logue (1984)^{[citation needed]} used a fading procedure in which participants were initially presented with a choice between two different rewards - a small one and a big one - which could be received after the same (large) time delay. On subsequent presentations of the two rewards, the time delay for the small reward was gradually reduced. The results showed that as the time delay for the small reward decreased, participants tended to choose the big reward more often than the small reward. Thus, Logue was able to condition participants to accept a large time delay in order to receive a big reward, rather than to choose not to wait in order to receive a small but immediate reward. Not only can people be trained to accept long time delays, but people's perception of the delay itself can be modified. For instance, Mischel and Ebbessen (1970) showed that a distracting entertaining task can lead people to perceive the time delay as shorter than they typically perceive it.

In sum, although there is empirical evidence that self-control is a limited mental resource, a number of studies support the notion that self-control is nevertheless a resource that can be increased through suitable "exercise".

In quality of life[link]

In the 1960s, Walter Mischel tested four year old children for self control in "The Marshmallow Test": the children were each given a marshmallow and told that they can eat it anytime they want, but if they waited 15 minutes, they would receive another marshmallow. Follow up studies showed that the results correlated well with these children's success levels in later life.^[22][23]

Reviews concluded that self control is correlated with various positive life outcomes, such as happiness, adjustment and various positive psychological factors.^{[citation needed]}

Impulse control[link]

Self Control as defined here is also known as impulse control or self regulation. Some psychologists prefer the term "impulse control" because it may be more precise. The term self regulation is used to refer to the many processes individuals use to manage drives and emotions. Therefore, self regulation also embodies the concept of willpower. Self regulation is an extremely important executive function of the brain. Deficits in self control/regulation are found in a large number of psychological disorders including ADHD, Antisocial Personality Disorder, Borderline Personality Disorder, addiction, eating disorders and impulse control disorders[3].

Skinner's Survey of Self-Control Techniques[link]

B.F. Skinner's Science and Human Behavior provides a survey of nine categories of self control methods.^[24]

Physical Restraint and physical aid[link]

The manipulation of the environment to make some response easier to physically execute and others physically more difficult illustrates this principle. Clapping one's hand over your own mouth, placing your hands in your pockets to prevent fidgeting, using a 'bridge' hand position to steady a pool shot all represent physical methods to affect behavior.^[25]

Changing the stimulus[link]

Manipulating the occasion for behavior may change behavior as well. Removing distractions that induce undesired actions or adding a prompt to induce it are examples. Hiding temptation and reminders are two more.^[26]

Depriving and satiating[link]

One may manipulate one's own behavior by affecting states of deprivation or satiation. By skipping a meal before a free dinner one may more effectively capitalize on the free meal. By eating a healthy snack beforehand the temptation to eat free "junk food" is reduced.^[27]

Manipulating emotional conditions[link]

Going for a 'change of scene' may remove emotional stimuli, as may rehearsing injustice to motivate a strong response later.^[28]

Treating an activity as "work" or "fun" can have an effect on the difficulty of self control.^[29]

Using aversive stimulation[link]

Setting an alarm clock to awake ourselves later is a form of aversive control. By doing this we arrange something that will only be escapable by doing things (turning off the clock) which tend to awakening ourselves.^[28]

Drugs[link]

The use of self-administered drugs allows us to simulate changes in our conditioning history. The ingestion of caffeine allows us to simulate a state of wakefulness which may be useful for various reasons.^[30]

Operant conditioning[link]

The use of a token economy, or other methods or techniques unique to operant conditioning may be seen as a special form of self-control. It can take great self control to stay off drugs or to stop smoking.

Punishment[link]

Self-punishment of responses would include the arranging of punishment contingent upon undesired responses. This might be seen in the behavior of whipping oneself which some monks and religious persons do. This is different from aversive stimulation in that, for example, the alarm clock generates escape from the alarm, while self-punishment presents stimulation after the fact to reduce the probability of future behavior.^[30]

Punishment: is more like conformity than self control because with self control there needs to be an internal drive, not an external source of punishment that makes the person want to do something. There is external locus of control which is similar to determinism and there is internal locus of control which is similar to free will. With a learning system of punishment the person does not make their decision based upon what they want, rather they base it on the external factors. When you use a negative reinforcement you are more likely to influence their internal decisions and allow them to make the choice on their own whereas with a punishment the person will make their decisions based upon the consequences and not exert self control. The best way to learn self control is with free will where people are able to perceive they are making their own choices.^[31]

"Doing something else"[link]

Skinner noted that various philosophies and religions exemplified this principle by instructing believers to love their enemies.^[32] When we are filled with rage or hatred we might control ourselves by 'doing something else' or more specifically something that is incompatible with our response.

See also[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Measuring Self Control
• Teaching Children the Art of Self-Control

Laura Ann Branigan (July 3, 1957 – August 26, 2004^[1]) was an Italian-American singer-songwriter and actress. She is best known for her 1982 Platinum-certified hit "Gloria" (an Italian love song recorded by Umberto Tozzi in 1979) and for the number-one single "Self Control" (The original version by the italian singer and writers Raffaele Riefoli "Raf"). Branigan is also remembered for the Top 10 "Solitaire" and for the number-one adult contemporary hit "How Am I Supposed to Live Without You", as well as four other US Top 40 hits.

Branigan also contributed songs to notable motion picture and television soundtracks, including the Grammy and Academy Award-winning Flashdance soundtrack (1983), the Ghostbusters soundtrack (1984), and the Baywatch soundtrack (1994), as well as having songs featured in the popular Grand Theft Auto video game series.

Her signature song "Gloria" stayed on the Billboard Hot 100 for 36 weeks, at the time a record for a female artist. The song holds a place in the top 100 singles of both 1982 and 1983.

Branigan died at her home in East Quogue, New York, on August 26, 2004, of a previously undiagnosed cerebral aneurysm.

Biography[link]

Early career[link]

In the early 1970s Branigan was a member of the band, Meadow, which recorded one album in 1973 called The Friend Ship. The record was never re-released, and Branigan preferred not to discuss her involvement with Meadow publicly. During the years after Meadow broke up, she had various jobs, including a stint as one of Leonard Cohen's backup singers for his European tour.

In 1979 Branigan was signed by Ahmet Ertegun to Atlantic Records. The strength of her alto voice, with its five-octave range,^[2] ironically impeded her career for a couple of years while the label went through the process of categorizing her. She was finally categorized as a pop singer and a single called "Looking Out for Number One" made a brief appearance on the U.S. Dance chart. Two other early Atlantic singles, "Tell Him" and "Fool's Affair", followed. None of these three singles (or the B-side "When") were included on her first album or ever reissued on any compilation LP or CD to date. Her first solo album Branigan was released in 1982; the first single from this album was "All Night With Me," which hit #69 on the Billboard charts in early 1982. Her first reviews saw her voice compared to both Donna Summer and Barbra Streisand, both of whom had enjoyed iconic Disco hits.^{[citation needed]}

Branigan, the nine-song debut album, alternated four energetic up-tempo songs with five ballads, including one of the few songs written solely by Branigan: "I Wish We Could Be Alone". "Gloria", an Italian love song recorded by Umberto Tozzi in 1979 (and successful in several European countries), was released as the album's second single. Branigan's version was reworked with Tozzi's own arranger, Greg Mathieson, who updated its production with fellow producer Jack White to give it what Branigan called "an American kick" to match the new English lyrics. American radio was initially unreceptive to "Gloria"; the song's combination of American and European sound predated the imminent second "British Invasion" of popular music by several months. Embraced by dance clubs, especially gay clubs, it eventually won over American radio stations and the song became one of the biggest hits of the 1980s. The album went Gold, and the single was eventually certified Platinum (for sales of more than two million U.S. copies). Branigan's vocal performance of "Gloria" was nominated for a Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female Grammy Award (alongside Linda Ronstadt, Olivia Newton-John, Juice Newton, and that year's winner, Melissa Manchester); "Gloria" marked Branigan's only solo nomination. The following year she received a second nomination as one of the various artists on the Flashdance original soundtrack album when it was nominated for Album of the Year. The album also won the Best Soundtrack Grammy but, as this award is given only to the composers, Branigan was not nominated.

In the spring of 1983 Branigan released her second album, Branigan 2. By this time, the dramatic European synth-pop sound was on the rise, and Branigan's vocals propelled her English-language version of the French song "Solitaire" to the upper reaches of the U.S. charts. The original "Solitaire" was written and recorded in 1981 by French singer-songwriter Martine Clemenceau. In addition to cementing a place in pop history and ensuring she was not a one-hit wonder, her second album's two big hits began the careers for two then-unknowns, who themselves became industry legends. The English translation of "Solitaire" was the first major hit for songwriter Diane Warren, while the album's second hit single, the ballad "How Am I Supposed to Live Without You," was the first major hit for its co-writer, Michael Bolton. Branigan's debut recording of "How Am I Supposed to Live Without You" reached #12 on the Hot 100 and spent three weeks at #1 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart.

The 1983 film Flashdance contained two Laura Branigan songs, "Gloria" and a new song, "Imagination". The latter song was included on the Grammy Award winning Flashdance soundtrack, which reached #1 and sold more than six million copies in the U.S. alone.

Height of her career[link]

The year 1984 was the height of the European synth-pop era, and "Self Control", the title track of Branigan's third album, became her biggest hit internationally, topping the charts in over six countries, most notably {West Germany, where it spent six weeks at #1. The original version of "Self Control," recorded a few months earlier in 1984 by one of the song's co-writers Raffaele Riefoli (under the name Raf), held the West German number-two spot during this time period; outside of Raf's native Italy, Branigan's version enjoyed more success. It hit #4 in the U.S.

Other pop, dancefloor and adult contemporary hits from Branigan's Self Control album include "The Lucky One" (which won her a Tokyo Music Festival prize), the continental ballad "Ti Amo" (another Umberto Tozzi hit, and a #2 hit in Australia for Branigan) and the Dance hit "Satisfaction." The album also featured an understated version of Carole King's "Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow"; as a counterpoint to all the dance productions, it was a bare-bones piano version. (In concerts and television appearances throughout her career, Branigan accompanied herself on the piano for the song.) That year Branigan's live show was recorded twice, for a syndicated radio concert series and a concert video. Branigan was also nominated for an award at the American Music Awards of 1985 for Favorite Pop/Rock Female Video Artist (though Cyndi Lauper won the award). Also in 1985 Branigan performed the main theme song for the highly rated television mini-series Hollywood Wives, based on the novel by Jackie Collins.

By the time of Branigan's fourth album, 1985's Hold Me, "Self Control" was a world-wide success. The hits continued with "Spanish Eddie," which was her sixth US Billboard Top 40 Pop hit in two and a half years. The subsequent single release "Hold Me" was a U.S. top 40 dance hit, and Branigan's introduction of the rock ballad "I Found Someone" (cowritten by Michael Bolton, and later a hit for Cher) scored even higher on the Adult Contemporary chart. However, neither song was supported by a music video and stalled in the lower reaches of the Hot 100 chart.

Touch, which was released in 1987, marked a change in Branigan's career. Under new management and using different producers, Branigan took a more active role in her work and in the studio. Touch saw her return to dancefloors with the Stock/Aitken/Waterman-produced "Shattered Glass", written by Bob Mitchell and Steve Coe.^[3] The album also included a return to the Billboard Top 40 with her cover of Jennifer Rush's "The Power of Love," which was one of the top 20 bestselling singles in the United States during Christmastime. The album's third single, "Cry Wolf," a top 30 AC hit, did not capture attention at pop radio and stalled. The ballad was recorded two years later by Stevie Nicks, and more recently by writer Jude Johnstone.

During the height of her career, Branigan also made acting appearances, first in 1981 in An American Girl in Berlin for German television, and then after the success of "Gloria," guest appearances on American television series such as CHiPs, Automan and Knight Rider. She would later do independent films such as Mugsy's Girls (aka Delta Pi, 1985) with Academy Award winner Ruth Gordon, and the Australian film Backstage. She sang on major national television and radio campaigns for products including Dr Pepper, Coca-Cola and Chrysler, which sponsored her 1985-1986 "Hold Me" tour.

Later years[link]

Branigan's 1990 self-titled album brought the singer back to the Hi-NRG charts and gay clubs with "Moonlight On Water", and she scored a Top-30 Adult Contemporary hit with "Never in a Million Years". Branigan added production to her list of credits with her cover of Vicki Sue Robinson's disco-era "Turn the Beat Around" and the atmospheric "Let Me In," a cover of an Eddie Money song. The album also included "Unison," which was the title track for Celine Dion's English debut CD in the same year. The album's closing track, a cover of Bryan Adams' "The Best Was Yet to Come," was produced and arranged by Branigan herself. The singer's 1990-1991 concert tour was filmed for a syndicated U.S. television show, SRO in Concert, which was also released on videocassette and laserdisc (though not on DVD, to date.)

On Branigan's seventh and final studio album, 1993's Over My Heart, the singer again produced (with Phil Ramone), wrote and arranged. The album included a cover of Roxette's song "The Sweet Hello, the Sad Goodbye," and "Is There Anybody Here But Me?" (Pessis, Wells), a smooth mid-tempo number.

Branigan was married to Larry Kruteck, a lawyer 20 years her senior, in December 1981. Not long after the Over My Heart album's release, Branigan left the music industry in 1994 to spend more time with Kruteck following his diagnosis of colon cancer. He died on June 15, 1996.^[4][5]

During these years, Branigan's chart success cooled in the United States, though she was still in demand around the world and went on several global tours. Branigan had official hit collections released in South America, Japan, Germany, South Africa, and the United States. The United States collection was released in 1995: The 13-track The Best of Branigan and included two newly recorded covers: "Show Me Heaven" (written by Maria McKee) and the Donna Summer hit "Dim All the Lights", which Branigan released in several remixes.

Branigan's vocal coach was Carlo Menotti and she worked with Steve Lukather (Toto), Dann Huff (Giant) and Michael Landau; keyboardists Greg Mathieson, Harold Faltermeyer, Michael Boddicker and Robbie Buchanan; bassists Nathan East and Dennis Belfield (Rufus); drummer Carlos Vega; percussionists Paulinho Da Costa and Lenny Castro; and guest vocalists including Joe "Bean" Esposito and background vocalists including The Waters Sisters (Maxine & Julia), James Ingram, and Richard Page and Stephen George (Mr. Mister). As her stature grew, she attracted Grammy-winning producers including Phil Ramone, Richard Perry and David Kershenbaum. She performed duets with John Farnham as well as Latin pop artist Luis Miguel. She also appeared frequently on various television shows, including The Merv Griffin Show, Dick Clark's American Bandstand, Solid Gold, and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.

In 2001 Branigan's return to the stage was postponed when she broke both of her femurs in a fall. In 2002 she performed twice as the "singing" Janis Joplin in the off-Broadway musical Love, Janis, before dropping out of the show. "I left Janis because the producers didn't file with Equity properly", she told the Sunday News in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. "I was sort of relieved. My voice isn't anything like Janis Joplin's, and there were 19 of her songs in the show."^[6]

Also in 2002 her second official United States hits collection, The Essentials: Laura Branigan, was released, including the long out-of-print hit "I Found Someone".

Death[link]

Branigan died in her sleep at her lodge in East Quogue, New York, on August 26, 2004. The cause was attributed to a previously undiagnosed cerebral aneurysm. It was reported in the media that she had been experiencing headaches for several weeks before her death but did not seek medical attention. Her ashes were scattered over Long Island Sound.

Legacy[link]

Other Half Entertainment, Branigan's management company at the time of her death, continues to oversee her career legacy through her official website, www.LauraBraniganOnline.com, her official MySpace and Facebook pages, by taking part in various media opportunities, as well as through relationships with Warner Music Group and other entertainment industry entities. Other Half Entertainment serves as the comprehensive, official voice for her legacy interests, while keeping her artistic visions and standards at the heart of its operations.

In 2005, Other Half Entertainment organized a memorial for Branigan's friends and fans, held on the anniversary of her death, near the Long Island home in which she was caring for her mother at the time of her death. Following its initial success, the "Spirit of Love Memorial Gathering" remains an annual event in celebration of her life and the legacy of her passionate vocal performances and the heartfelt connection she made with her fans, whom she consistently referred to as "my other half".^{[citation needed]}

Between 2006 and the present, Branigan's management company worked regularly with Warner Music Group entities in the production and release of various new greatest hits compilations. The Platinum Collection is an 18-song compilation including all the major hits as well as tracks such as "Silent Partners", "Satisfaction", "All Night With Me" and "If You Loved Me", that were four relatively new additions to Branigan hits compilations. In 2007, the 1995 "The Best of Branigan" was re-released as part of Rhino's 2007 "Greatest Hits" series of CDs. In 2008, Rhino/WEA authorized the re-release of three out-of-print Branigan albums, Touch, Laura Branigan and Over My Heart. In June 2010, Shine On: The Ultimate Collection was released, which for the first time, incorporated a PAL, DVD featuring official Atlantic music videos to 10 of Branigan's songs in addition to an 18-track CD including Forever Young which made its return to the greatest hits compilations. The CD contains edited versions of most songs.

At Byram Hills High School in Armonk, New York, the Laura Branigan Memorial Scholarship is given annually to a senior for excellence in the Performing Arts.^[7]

Discography[link]

Filmography[link]

Awards and nominations[link]

• ^ This nomination was not awarded to Laura Branigan alone.

References[link]

External links[link]

• Laura Branigan official website
• Laura Branigan at the Internet Movie Database
• Laura Branigan at AllRovi

Dan Ariely

Dan Ariely speaking at TED, 2009
Born	(1968-04-29) April 29, 1968 (age 44)
Nationality	Israeli American
Institution	Duke University Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Field	Behavioral economics
Alma mater	Duke University University of North Carolina Tel Aviv University

Dan Ariely (born April 29, 1968) is an Israeli American professor of psychology and behavioral economics.^[1] He teaches at Duke University and is the founder of The Center for Advanced Hindsight.^[2]Ariely's talks on TED have been watched 2.8 million times. He is the author of Predictably Irrational and The Upside of Irrationality, both of which became New York Times best sellers.^[3]

Biography[link]

Dan Ariely was born in New York while his father was studying for an MBA degree at Columbia University. The family returned to Israel when he was three. He grew up in Ramat Hasharon. ^[4] In his senior year of high school, he was active in Hanoar Haoved Vehalomed, an Israeli youth movement. While preparing a ktovet esh (fire inscription) for a traditional nighttime ceremony, the flammable materials he was mixing exploded, causing third-degree burns over 70 percent of his body. ^[5]

Ariely was a physics and mathematics major at Tel Aviv University, but transferred to philosophy and psychology when he found the writing too physically taxing. However, in his last year he dropped philosophy and concentrated solely on psychology, in which he received his B.A. He also holds an M.A. and Ph.D. in cognitive psychology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He did a second doctorate in business administration at Duke University at the urging of Nobel economic sciences laureate Daniel Kahneman.^[6]

Ariely is married to Sumi, with whom he has two children, a son and a daughter.^[7]

Academic career[link]

After obtaining his PhD degree, he taught at MIT between 1998 and 2008, before returning to Duke University as James B. Duke Professor of Psychology and Behavioral Economics. He was formerly the Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Behavioral Economics at MIT Sloan School of Management. Although he is a professor of marketing with no formal training in economics, he is considered one of the leading behavioral economists. Ariely is the author of the books Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions and The Upside of Irrationality: The Unexpected Benefits of Defying Logic at Work and at Home. When asked whether reading Predictably Irrational and understanding one's irrational behaviors could make a person's life worse (such as by defeating the benefits of a placebo), Ariely responded that there could be a short term cost, but that there would also likely be long-term benefits, and that reading his book would not make a person worse off.^[8]

Center of Advanced Hindsight[link]

Ariely's laboratory, the Center of Advanced Hindsight at Duke University, pursues research in such subjects as the psychology of money, decision-making by physicians and patients, cheating and social justice.^[9]

Publications[link]

Books[link]

• Ariely, Dan (2008), Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions, HarperCollins, pp. 304, ISBN 978-0-06-135323-9 
• Ariely, Dan (2010), The Upside of Irrationality, HarperCollins, pp. 352, ISBN 978-0-06-199503-3 

Articles[link]

• Ariely, Dan; Zauberman, Gal (2000), "On the making of an experience: The effects of breaking and combining experiences on their overall evaluation", Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 13 (2): 219–232, DOI:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(200004/06)13:2<219::AID-BDM331>3.0.CO;2-P, http://web.mit.edu/ariely/www/MIT/Papers/expseg.pdf 
• Combining experiences over time: the effects of duration, intensity changes and on-line measurements on retrospective pain evaluations
• Coherent Arbitrariness: Stable demand curves without stable preferences
• Ariely, Dan (2000), "Controlling information flow: Effects on consumers' decision making and preference", Journal of Consumer Research 27 (2): 233–248, DOI:10.1086/314322, http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?id=doi:10.1086/314322 
• Ariely, Dan; Wertenbroch, Klaus (2002), "Procrastination, Deadlines, and Performance: Self-Control by Precommitment", Psychological Science 13 (3): 219–224, DOI:10.1111/1467-9280.00441, PMID 12009041, http://web.mit.edu/ariely/www/MIT/Papers/deadlines.pdf 
• Heyman, James; Ariely, Dan (2004), "Effort for Payment: A Tale of Two markets", Psychological Science 15 (11): 787–793(7), DOI:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00757.x, PMID 15482452, http://web.mit.edu/ariely/www/MIT/Papers/2markets.pdf 
• Tom Sawyer and the Construction of Value
• Placebo Effects of Marketing Actions: Consumers May Get What They Pay For
• Dishonesty in Everyday Life and Its Policy Implications
• Try it, you'll like it: The influence of expectation, consumption, and revelation on preferences for beer

See also[link]

• Cognitive bias
• Procrastination

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Center for Advanced Hindsight
• Ariely's MIT home page
• Ariely's Duke University faculty listing
• Learning First Alliance interview with Ariely
• Interview with Dan Ariely
• 33voices Interview with Dan Ariely

Joel Osteen
Joel Osteen at Lakewood Church, December 8, 2007
Born	Joel Scott Osteen (1963-03-05) March 5, 1963 (age 49) Houston, Texas
Occupation	Pastor, author, televangelist
Employer	Lakewood Church
Term	1999 – present
Predecessor	John Osteen
Religion	Evangelical Charismatic
Spouse	Victoria Osteen (m. 1987) «start: (1987)»"Marriage: Victoria Osteen to Joel Osteen" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Joel_Osteen)
Children	Jonathan, Alexandra
Parents	John Osteen (father) Dolores ("Dodie") Pilgrim Osteen (mother)[1]
Website
joelosteen.com

Joel Scott Osteen (born March 5, 1963^[2]) is an American author, televangelist, and the senior pastor of Lakewood Church in Houston, Texas. His ministry reaches over seven million broadcast media viewers weekly in over 100 nations around the world.^[3]

Biography[link]

Born in Houston, Texas, Osteen is one of five children of John Osteen and Dolores ("Dodie") Pilgrim. His father, a former Southern Baptist pastor, founded Lakewood Church where Osteen is the current senior pastor.^[4] Osteen married his wife, Victoria L. Iloff, on April 4, 1987.^[5] They have two children, Jonathan and Alexandra. His older siblings, Paul, Lisa, and Tamara, and his younger sister, April, are also involved in full-time ministry.^[6] His half-brother Justin does missionary work out of New York.^[7]

After 17 years producing the church's television program, Osteen succeeded his father on October 3, 1999, as pastor of Lakewood Church. He had only preached once in his life, the week before his father's death.^[7] Today, Lakewood Church services, led by Pastor Joel Osteen, are seen in over 100 nations around the world.^[8] Joel Osteen's first book, Your Best Life Now: 7 Steps to Living at Your Full Potential, was released in October 2004. In December 2006, he was named one of the year's "Ten Most Fascinating People" by Barbara Walters.^[9] Former presidential candidate John McCain has described Osteen as "inspirational".^[10]

The Lakewood Church in Houston.

Currently, Osteen and several Lakewood Church personnel travel across the nation, presenting programs in large arenas. The event, titled "A Night of Hope", includes worship music led by the church's music ministry, a sermon from Osteen and a testimony by his mother, Dodie. In 2007, the tour expanded to include stops in several other countries, including Canada, England, Northern Ireland and Israel.^[11] Osteen released his second book, titled Become a Better You: 7 Keys to Improving Your Life Every Day in October 2007, which also topped the New York Times Best Sellers List with a first printing of four million copies.^[12][13] Osteen told Larry King the new book will focus more on relationships and not getting stuck where we are in life. "Just my basic message of becoming all God's created you to be," he added.^[14]

Osteen at a Nashville book signing, 18 May 2007

Osteen's popularity led to him being featured as one of ABC News' "10 Most Fascinating People of 2006",^[15] and was named "Most Influential Christian in America" in 2006 by The Church Report.^[16] Osteen is one of five children of John Osteen and Dolores "Dodie" Pilgrim.

Education[link]

It has been widely reported that Osteen attended Oral Roberts University in Tulsa, Oklahoma, for a two year period without receiving a degree.^{[citation needed]} Likewise, it has been reported that he has no higher level training in religious matters or Bible studies.^{[citation needed]} In an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight in January, 2011, Osteen mentioned that he had never attended seminary.^[17]

Preaching style[link]

On the December 23, 2007, edition of Fox News Sunday, host Chris Wallace on Fox News Sunday brought up Osteen's lack of Scripture reference in his sermons, as well as his hesitancy to discuss sin as an integral part of life. Osteen responded: "And I am ultimately trying to do that, but I'm trying to teach people how to live their everyday lives, and so I do focus on it, probably not as much as some people would like."^[18] Osteen says that he chooses to focus on the goodness of God rather than sin.^[19] Osteen explains that he tries to teach Biblical principles in a simple way, emphasizing the power of love and a positive attitude.^[20]

Osteen's sermons and writings are sometimes reproached for their use of the concepts of prosperity theology, or the prosperity gospel, a belief that wealth and power are rewards for pious Christians.^[21]

Political and social views[link]

Osteen said that he is opposed to same-sex marriage in an interview wth Fox News.^[22] In an interview with CNN, he further said that he believes "that homosexuality is a sin".^[23][24]

In an interview on Fox News in 2008 during the U.S. Presidential primary race, when discussing whether he thought that a Mormons were Christians, Osteen indicated that he believed that they were. He further noted that he had not studied the religion.^[25]

Criticism[link]

On October 14, 2007, 60 Minutes ran a twelve minute segment on Osteen, titled "Joel Osteen Answers his Critics", during which Reformed theologian Michael Horton critiqued his message. Horton told CBS News correspondent Byron Pitts that Osteen's method of teaching is "heresy".^[26]

See also[link]

• Charismatic movement
• Christianity
• Prosperity theology
• Word Faith

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official Joel Osteen Ministries

Roy F. Baumeister (born May 16, 1953) is Francis Eppes Professor of Psychology at Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida. He is a social psychologist who is known for his work on the self, social rejection, belongingness, sexuality, self-control, self-esteem, self-defeating behaviors, motivation, aggression, consciousness, and free will. He has authored nearly 500 publications and has written, co-written, or edited almost 30 books. He earned his A.B. summa cum laude from Princeton University and his M.A. from Duke University. He returned to Princeton University with his mentor Edward E. Jones and earned his Ph.D. from the university's Department of Psychology in 1978. He then taught at Case Western Reserve University for over two decades before transferring to Florida State.^[1] He is a fellow of both the Society for Personality and Social Psychology and the Association for Psychological Science. Baumeister was named an ISI highly cited researcher in 2003.

Topics of research[link]

The self[link]

Baumeister has conducted research on the self, including various concepts related to how people perceive, act, and relate to their selves. Baumeister wrote a chapter titled, "The Self" in The Handbook of Social Psychology, and reviewed the research on the self-esteem in which he claimed that the importance of self-esteem is overrated.

Irrationality and self-defeating behavior[link]

In a series of journal articles and books, Baumeister inquired about the reasons for self-defeating behavior. His conclusions: there is no self-defeating urge as some have thought. Rather, self-defeating behavior is either a result of trade-offs (enjoying drugs now at the expense of the future), backfiring strategies (eating a snack to reduce stress only to feel more stressed), or the psychological strategy to escape the self - where various self-defeating strategies are rather directed to relieve the burden of selfhood.^[2]

The Need to Belong[link]

The Need to Belong is a highly cited work from 1995, written with Mark Leary, showing that humans have a natural need to belong with others. Later, Baumeister published evidence that the way people look for belongingness differs between men and women. Women prefer a few close and intimate relationships, whereas men prefer many but shallower connections. Men realize more of their need to belong via a group of people, or a cause, rather than in close interpersonal relations.

Self regulation[link]

Baumeister also researched self-regulation. He coined the term Ego depletion to describe the evidence that humans' ability to self-regulate is limited, and after using it there is less ability (or energy) to self-regulate. Ego depletion has a general effect, such that exerting self-control in one area will use up energy for further regulation in other areas of life.^[3] Further research by Baumeister and colleagues has led to the development of the Strength Model of self control, which likens this ego depletion to the tiredness that comes from physically exerting a muscle. A corollary to this analogy, supported by his research, is that self control can be strengthened over time, much like a muscle.^[4] The energy used up is more than metaphorical, however; his research has found a strong link between ego depletion and depletion of blood glucose levels.^[5] Baumeister also edited two academic books on self-regulation: Losing Control and Handbook of Self-Regulation, along with endless experiments and journal papers.

Culture and human sexuality[link]

A series of studies of human sexuality has addressed questions such as how nature and culture influence people's sex drive, rape and sexual coercion, the cultural suppression of female sexuality, and how couples negotiate their sexual patterns.^[6]

Free will[link]

Baumeister approaches the topic of free will from the view-point of evolutionary psychology. He has listed the major aspects that make up free will as self-control, rational, intelligent choice, planful behavior, and autonomous initiative.^[7] Baumeister proposes that “the defining thrust of human psychological evolution was selection in favor of cultural capability” ^[8] and that these four psychological capabilities evolved to help humans function in the context of culture. On his view, free will is an advanced form of action control that allows humans to act in pro-social ways towards their enlightened self-interest when acting in these ways would otherwise be in conflict with the fulfillment of evolutionarily older drives or instincts.^[9] Research by Baumeister and colleagues (principally Kathleen Vohs) has shown that disbelief in free will can lead people to act in ways that are harmful to themselves and society, such as cheating on a test, increased aggression, decreased helpfulness, lower achievement levels in the workplace, and possible barriers to beating addiction.^{[10][11][12][13]}

Erotic Plasticity[link]

Baumeister coined the term erotic plasticity, which is the extent to which one’s sex drive can be shaped by cultural, social and situational factors.^[14][15] He argues that women have high plasticity, meaning that their sex drive can more easily change in response to external pressures. On the other hand, men have low plasticity, and therefore have sex drives that are relatively inflexible.

Books[link]

Baumeister has written or edited 20 books so far. The following is a partial listing of his works.

For a general audience[link]

• Willpower: rediscovering the greatest human strength with John Tierney, 2011. ISBN 978-1-59420-307-7
• Is There Anything Good About Men?: How Cultures Flourish by Exploiting Men, 2010. ISBN 978-0-19-537410-0

academic books[link]

(note that some books here are readable for the non academic, but the main audience in mind is academic)

• Your Own Worst Enemy: Understanding the Paradox of Self-Defeating Behavior
• Evil: Inside Human Violence and Cruelty
• Social Psychology and Human Nature
• Losing Control: How and Why People Fail at Self-Regulation
• The Social Dimension of Sex
• Breaking Hearts: The Two Sides of Unrequited Love
• Masochism and the Self
• Identity: Cultural Change and the Struggle for Self
• Escaping the Self: Alcoholism, Spirituality, Masochism, and Other Flights from the Burden of Selfhood
• Meanings of life
• The Cultural Animal: Human Nature, Meaning, and Social Life
• Self in Social Psychology: Key Readings (Key Readings in Social Psychology)
• Encyclopedia of Social Psychology (2 Volume Set)
• Social Psychology and Human Sexuality: Key Readings (Key Readings in Social Psychology)
• Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard (The Plenum Series in Social/Clinical Psychology) (Hardcover)
• Public Self and Private Self (Springer Series in Social Psychology)
• Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications research. New York: Guilford Press, 2004. ISBN 978-1-59385-475-1
• Free Will and Consciousness: How Might They Work?
• Advanced Social Psychology: The State of the Science

second or third co-editor in scientific collections:

• Psychology of Self-Regulation: Cognitive, Affective, and Motivational Processes (Sydney Symposium in Social Psychology)
• Human Sexuality: Meeting Your Basic Needs
• Do Emotions Help or Hurt Decision Making?: A Hedgefoxian Perspective
• Time and Decision: Economic and Psychological Perspectives on Intertemporal Choice
• Are We Free? Psychology and Free Will

See also[link]

• Decision fatigue
• Ego depletion
• Negativity bias

References[link]

External links[link]

• Roy Baumeister's Page at Florida State University
• The Psychology Department Florida State University
• Lab Website
• Social Psychology Network Professional Profile
• Is There Anything Good About Men? (2007)