A stereotype is a commonly held popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings. Stereotypes are standardized and simplified conceptions of groups based on some prior assumptions.
Etymology
The term
stereotype (
στερεότυπος) derives from the
Greek words
στερεός (), "firm, solid" and
τύπος (), "impression," hence "solid impression".
It was invented by Firmin Didot in the world of printing; it was originally a duplicate impression of an original typographical element, used for printing instead of the original. American journalist Walter Lippmann coined the metaphor, calling a stereotype a "picture in our heads" saying, "Whether right or wrong (...) imagination is shaped by the pictures seen (...) originally printers' words, and in their literal printers' meanings were synonymous. Specifically, cliché was a French word for the printing surface for a stereotype. The first reference to "stereotype," in its modern, English use was in 1850, in the noun, meaning "image perpetuated without change."
The term, in its modern psychology sense, was first used by Walter Lippmann in his 1922 work Public Opinion although in the printing sense it was first coined in 1798.
Dynamics
Sociologists believe that mental categorizing (or
labelling) is necessary and inescapable. One perspective the stereotyping process are the concepts of ingroups and outgroups. Ingroups are viewed as normal and superior, and are generally the group that one associates with or aspires to join. An outgroup is simply all the other groups. They are seen as lesser than or inferior to the in-groups.
A second perspective is that of automatic and explicit or subconscious and conscious. Automatic or subconscious stereotyping is that which everyone does without noticing. Automatic stereotyping is quickly preceded by an explicit or conscious check which permits time for any needed corrections. Automatic stereotyping is affected by explicit stereotyping because frequent conscious thoughts will quickly develop into subconscious stereotypes.
A third method to categorizing stereotypes is general types and sub-types. Stereotypes consist of hierarchical systems consisting of broad and specific groups being the general types and sub-types respectively. A general type could be defined as a broad stereotype typically known among many people and usually widely accepted, whereas the sub-group would be one of the several groups making up the general group. These would be more specific, and opinions of these groups would vary according to differing perspectives.
Certain circumstances can affect the way an individual stereotypes. For instance: Studies have shown that women stereotype more negatively than men, and that women read into appearance more than men. Some theorists argue in favor of the conceptual connection and that one's own subjective thought about someone is sufficient information to make assumptions about that individual. Other theorists argue that at minimum there must be a casual connection between mental states and behavior to make assumptions or stereotypes. Thus results and opinions may vary according to circumstance and theory. An example of a common, incorrect assumption is that of assuming certain internal characteristics based on external appearance. The explanation for one's actions is his or her internal state (goals, feeling, personality, traits, motives, values, and impulses), not his or her appearance.
Sociologist Charles E. Hurst, "One reason for stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of unknown individuals."
Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups. Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences.
This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than different. For example, among African Americans, identity as an American citizen is more salient than racial background; that is, African Americans are more American than African.
Theories
Different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: Psychologists may focus on an individual's experience with groups, patterns of communication about those groups, and intergroup conflict. Pioneering psychologist William James cautioned psychologists themselves to be wary of their own stereotyping, in what he called the
psychologist's fallacy. Sociologists focus on the relations among groups and the of different groups in a social structure. Psychoanalytically-oriented humanists have argued (e.g., Sander Gilman) that stereotypes,
by definition, are representations that are not accurate, but a projection of one to another.
A number of theories have been derived from sociological studies of stereotyping and prejudicial thinking. In early studies it was believed that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. Sociologists concluded that this was a result of conflict, poor parenting, and inadequate mental and emotional development. This idea has been overturned; more recent studies have concluded that stereotypes are commonplace.
One theory as to why people stereotype is that it is too difficult to take in all of the complexities of other people as individuals. Even though stereotyping is inexact, it is an efficient way to mentally organize large blocks of information. Categorization is an essential human capability because it enables us to simplify, predict, and organize our world. Once one has sorted and organized everyone into tidy categories, there is a human tendency to avoid processing new or unexpected information about each individual. Assigning general group characteristics to members of that group saves time and satisfies the need to predict the social world in a general sense.
Another theory is that people stereotype because of the need to feel good about oneself. Stereotypes protect one from anxiety and enhance self-esteem. By designating one's own group as the standard or normal group and assigning others to groups considered inferior or abnormal, it provides one with a sense of worth.
Some believe that childhood influences are some of the most complex and influential factors in developing stereotypes. Though they can be absorbed at any age, stereotypes are usually acquired in early childhood under the influence of parents, teachers, peers, and the media. Once a stereotype is learned, it often becomes self-perpetuating.
Effects, accuracy, terminology
Stereotypes can have a negative and positive impact on individuals. Joshua Aronson and Claude M. Steele have done research on the psychological effects of stereotyping, particularly its effect on African Americans and women. They argue that psychological research has shown that competence is highly responsive to situation and interactions with others. They cite, for example, a study which found that bogus feedback to college students dramatically affected their IQ test performance, and another in which students were either praised as very smart, congratulated on their hard work, or told that they scored high. The group praised as smart performed significantly worse than the others. They believe that there is an 'innate ability bias'. These effects are not just limited to minority groups. Mathematically competent white males, mostly math and engineering students, were asked to take a difficult math test. One group was told that this was being done to determine why Asians were scoring better. This group performed significantly worse than the control group.
Racial and ethnic stereotyping
African stereotypes
Africans are typically presented as living in tiny huts in rural villages, wearing skimpy clothing.
In the Americas
Latino people are stereotyped as needing handouts through welfare and private charity, being Roman Catholic, having many children, and being present in the US illegally. The stereotypes say that they rarely complete high school and cannot speak English well.
Native Americans may be presented positively, as acutely environmentally conscious, spiritual, wise, loyal, or with extraordinary skill in hunting or tracking. They may also be portrayed negatively, as indigent, drunk, violent, or implacable enemies.
Black Americans were stereotyped in the early 20th century as joyous, naive, superstitious, and ignorant. Many portrayals showed them with thick lips, and in cartoons they were often portrayed as crows. By the end of the 20th century, the stereotypes said that they were poor, lazy, ignorant, criminals, and violent, and occasionally ardent adherents of Christianity.
White Americans are also subject to being stereotyped by others, e.g., the ugly American stereotype of American visitors.
East Asian and South Asian stereotypes
East Asians are stereotypically portrayed as being smart, and particularly talented with mathematics. They are the model minority, being stereotyped as educated and relatively wealthy. They may be portrayed as mystical or exotic.
South Asians are presented as all being from India. They are smart businessmen and maintain strictly traditional gender roles at home. Sometimes extremely negative stereotypes surface: families demanding exorbitant dowries for arranged marriages, female infantacide,etc.
European stereotypes
Irish stereotypes
, New York, 1866), contrasts
Florence Nightingale, the
Crimean War nurse, with "Bridget McBruiser," the stereotypical
Irish woman.]]
from an American magazine,
Harper's Weekly, says that the
Irish are similar to '
Negroes.']]
An analysis of nineteenth-century British attitudes by
Mary J. Hickman and Bronwen Walter wrote that the 'Irish Catholic' was one viewed as an "
other," or a different race in the construction of the English nationalist myth. Likewise, the Irish considered the English "other" and fought hard to break away.
Benign in comparison to some of the more vulgar generalizations against other ethnicities but nonetheless incorrect are those accusing the Irish as quick-tempered brawlers and alcoholics. One 19th century British cartoonist even depicted Irish immigrants as simian and racially different from Anglo-Saxons. One American doctor in the 1850s, James Redfield, argued that "facial angle" was a sign of intelligence and character; likening the physiognomies of human ethnic groups to animals. Thus Irishmen resembled dogs, Yankees were like bears, Germans like lions, blacks like elephants and Englishmen like bulls.
In the 20th century physical stereotypes survived in the comic books until the 1950s, with Irish characters like Mutt and Jeff, and Jiggs and Maggie appearing daily in hundreds of newspapers.
Middle Eastern, West and Central Asian stereotypes
Jewish stereotypes
caricature based on racial stereotypes, 1873]]
Jewish people have been stereotyped throughout the centuries and made scapegoats for a multitude of societal problems. Jews are still stereotyped as greedy, nit-picky, misers. They have often been shown counting money or collecting diamonds. Antisemitism prevailed for centuries and reached a climax in Nazi Germany during World War II with the Holocaust.
Early films such as Cohen's Advertising Scheme (1904, silent) stereotyped Jews as "scheming merchants."
Sexual stereotypes
The British
biologist, Angus John Bateman was the one who first talked about sexual stereotypes in the late 1940s. His theory would say that males are
promiscuous and females tend to be more selective when choosing their sexual partners. Although Bateman's principle was based on experiments made of
fruitflies, later on he concluded that the theory applies also in the case of humans. His ideas also were based on the fact that males presented an "undiscriminating eagerness" to mate while females displayed "discriminated passivity."
Impact of sexual stereotypes
Living up to stereotypes can have damaging effects. Intending to live up to sexual stereotypes may lead to frustration. Stereotypes have the ability to create an idea that some are better than others based on their sexual abilities and
sexual organs.
Sexual orientation stereotypes
People with negative views of
gay,
lesbian,
bisexual and
transgender people often use stereotypes about them to justify their attacks. Sometimes, it has also fueled
violence against LGBT people. According to
ABC News, "Gay activists often criticize media coverage of gay pride parades, saying, correctly, that the media focus on the extreme, the more flamboyantly feminine men and very masculine women. But that's not us, they say. Most of us are just like everyone else."
Pedophilia stereotypes
Pedophiles and pedophilia, although not under the category of Sexual Orientation such as homosexuality or bisexuality are also victims of stereotypes. In mass media a
pedophile is usually depicted a serial
child molester or a person with several mental problems, while many organizations remark that most pedophiles , although attracted to young or teenage children, do not molest them and that many of the stereotypes against pedophiles are false or are unacceptable as a generalization .
Gender stereotypes
Masculine gender
Feminine gender
See also
* Archetype
Assumption
Attribute substitution
Attributional bias
Cognitive bias
Communication noise
Counterstereotype (antonym)
Face-ism
Idée fixe (psychology)
Labeling theory
Milieu control
Scapegoating
Social control theory
Stigmatization
Stereotype threat
Negativity effect
Outgroup homogeneity bias
Trait ascription bias
;Other stereotypes
Nurse stereotypes
Animal stereotypes
Ethnic stereotype
Physical attractiveness stereotype
References
Bibliography
Stuart Ewen, Elizabeth Ewen, Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality. New York (Seven Stories Press) 2006
Stereotype & Society A Major Resource: Constantly updated and archived
Social Psychology Network Stereotyping
Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype? Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links
Are Stereotypes True?
Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience and Shifts in Quantitative Performance, Margaret Shih, Todd L. Pittinsky, Nalini Ambady Research about the effects of 'positive' and negative stereotypes on encouraging/discouraging performance.
Crawford, M. & Unger, R. (2004). Women and Gender: A Feminist Psychology. McGraw Hill New York. New York. 45-49.*
Spitzer, B.L., Henderson, K, A., & Zavian, M. T. (1999). Gender differences in population versus media body sizes: A comparison over four decades. Sex Roles, 40, 545-565.*
External links
Social Psychology Network Stereotyping
Understanding Stereotypes - Educational information about stereotypes.
SEPARATING the GOLD from the DROSS: a guide to multicultural literature
Media Awareness Network. What is a stereotype? Definition, role of stereotyping in the media, more links
Category:Social psychology
Category:Greek loanwords
