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Life Imprisonment (also known as a life sentence, lifelong incarceration or life incarceration) is any sentence of imprisonment for a serious crime under which the convicted person is to remain in jail for the rest of his or her life. Examples of crimes for which a person could receive this sentence include murder, severe child abuse, rape, high treason, severe or violent cases of drug dealing or human trafficking, or aggravated cases of burglary or robbery resulting in death or grievous bodily harm. This sentence does not exist in all countries. Portugal was the first country in the world to abolish life imprisonment by the Prison reforms of Sampaio e Melo, in 1884. However, where life imprisonment is a possible sentence, there may also be formal mechanisms to request parole after a certain period of imprisonment. This means that a convict could be entitled to spend the rest of the sentence (that is, until he or she dies) outside of prison. Early release is usually conditional depending on past and future conduct, possibly with certain restrictions or obligations. In contrast, in jurisdictions without life imprisonment, a convict who has served the given prison sentence is free upon release.

The length of time and the modalities surrounding parole vary greatly for each jurisdiction. In some places convicts are entitled to apply for parole relatively early, in others only after several decades. However, the time of legally being entitled to apply for parole does not often tell anything about the actual date of being granted parole. Article 110 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court stipulates that for the gravest forms of crimes (e.g., war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide), a prisoner ought to serve two thirds of a fixed sentence, or 25 years in the case of life imprisonment. The highest determined prison sentence that can be imposed in the ICC is 35 years in prison, other than life imprisonment. After this period, the court shall then review the sentence to determine whether it should be reduced.

Unlike other areas of criminal law, sentences handed to minors do not differ from those given to legal adults. A few countries worldwide had allowed for minors to be given lifetime sentences that have no provision for eventual release. Countries that allow life imprisonment without the possibility of parole for juveniles include Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Belize, Brunei, Cuba, Dominica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, and the United States. Of these, only the United States currently has minors serving such sentences.^[1] As of 2009, Human Rights Watch had calculated that there were 2,589^[2][3] youth offenders serving life without parole in the United States.^[4]

In 2010, the United States Supreme court ruled that sentencing minors to life without parole for crimes other than first-degree murder violated the 8th Amendment's ban on "cruel and unusual" punishment, in the case of Graham v. Florida.^[5]

The United States Supreme Court will consider in 2012 whether minors should be sentenced to life without parole for any crime at all, including the only cases stated above in which it is now an option: first-degree murder with aggravating factors (felony murder, where life without parole can currently be given as an option to juveniles and where an adult in the same context could be charged with capital murder and given life or death).^[6]

World view[link]

Life imprisonment laws around the world:

  Life imprisonment sentence is used

  Life imprisonment may only be imposed under certain restrictions

  Life imprisonment laws have been abolished

  Life imprisonment status unknown, presumed legal

Reform or abolition[link]

In a number of countries, life imprisonment has been effectively abolished. The majority of countries whose governments have abolished both life imprisonment and indefinite imprisonment have been culturally influenced or colonized by Spain or Portugal, and have written such prohibitions into the current constitutional law of these countries. The most populous nation-state to abolish all forms of life imprisonment is Brazil, where a mandatory cap on prison terms at 30 years is provided by statutory law (that notwithstanding, capital punishment is constitutionally allowed during wartime, and is applied for military crimes such as treason, defection and mutiny).

A number of European countries have abolished all forms of indefinite imprisonment, including Serbia, Croatia, Spain and Bosnia and Herzegovina which set the maximum sentence at 40 years and Portugal which sets the maximum sentence at 25 years; Norway has abolished life imprisonment, but retains other forms of indefinite imprisonment. The only country in Asia to have abolished all forms of indefinite imprisonment is the Chinese dependency (Special Administrative Region) and former Portuguese colony of Macau also maintains a mandatory cap on prison sentences at 30 years, having inherited the law from Portuguese rule. Three African countries, the Republic of the Congo, Mozambique, and Cape Verde are known to have abolished life imprisonment. The maximum sentence in Mozambique and Republic of the Congo are 30 years, and 25 years in Cape Verde.

In South and Central America, Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia, Uruguay, Bolivia, Ecuador, and the Dominican Republic have all abolished life imprisonment. The maximum sentence in Honduras and El Salvador is 40 years, 50 years in Costa Rica and Panama, 60 years in Colombia, 35 years in Ecuador, 30 years in Nicaragua, Bolivia, Uruguay, and Venezuela, and 25 years in Paraguay.

In the United States, a 2009 report by the Sentencing Project suggested that life imprisonment without parole should be abolished, a suggestion that was met with opposition from law enforcement officials.^[7]

Overview by jurisdiction[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Summary by country[link]

See also[link]

• 10-20-Life
• Incapacitation
• Indefinite prison sentence
• Use of capital punishment by nation

Notes[link]

External links[link]

• International perspectives on life imprisonment^{[dead link]}

Hosni Mubarak حسنى مبارك‎
Mubarak in 2009
4th President of Egypt
In office 14 October 1981 – 11 February 2011
Prime Minister	Himself Ahmad Fuad Mohieddin Kamal Hassan Ali Ali Lutfi Mahmud Atef Sedki Kamal Ganzouri Atef Ebeid Ahmed Nazif Ahmed Shafik
Vice President	None (1981–2011)[a] Omar Suleiman (2011)
Preceded by	Anwar El Sadat Sufi Abu Taleb (Acting)
Succeeded by	Mohamed Hussein Tantawi[b]
Prime Minister of Egypt
In office 7 October 1981 – 2 January 1982
President	Sufi Abu Taleb (Acting) Himself
Preceded by	Anwar El Sadat
Succeeded by	Ahmad Fuad Mohieddin
15th Vice President of Egypt
In office 16 April 1975 – 14 October 1981
President	Anwar El Sadat
Preceded by	Hussein el-Shafei
Succeeded by	None (1981–2011)[a] Omar Suleiman (2011)
Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement
In office 16 July 2009[1] – 11 February 2011
Preceded by	Raúl Castro
Succeeded by	Mohamed Hussein Tantawi
Commander of the Egyptian Air Force
In office 23 April 1972 – 16 April 1975
President	Anwar El Sadat
Preceded by	Ali Mustafa Baghdady
Succeeded by	Mahmoud Shaker
Director of the Egyptian Air Academy
In office 1967–1969
Preceded by	Yahia Saleh Al-Aidaros
Succeeded by	Mahmoud Shaker
Personal details
Born	Muhammad Hosni Sayyid Mubarak (1928-05-04) 4 May 1928 (age 84) Kafr-El Meselha, Egypt
Political party	National Democratic Party
Spouse(s)	Suzanne Mubarak (1959–present)
Children	Alaa Mubarak Gamal Mubarak
Alma mater	Egyptian Military Academy Egyptian Air Academy Frunze Military Academy
Religion	Sunni Islam
Signature
Military service
Allegiance	Egypt
Service/branch	Egyptian Air Force
Years of service	1950–1975
Rank	Air Chief Marshal
Commands	Cairo West Air Base Beni Suef Air Base Egyptian Air Academy Egyptian Air Force
a. ^ Office vacant from 14 October 1981 to 29 January 2011 b. ^ as Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces

Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak (Arabic: محمد حسني السيد مبارك‎, Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mæˈħæmːæd ˈħosni ˈsæjjed moˈbɑːɾˤɑk], Muḥammad Ḥusnī Sayyid Mubārak; born 4 May 1928^[2]) is a former Egyptian politician and military commander. He served as the fourth President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011.

Mubarak was appointed Vice President of Egypt in 1975, and assumed the presidency on 14 October 1981, following the assassination of President Anwar El Sadat. His almost thirty-year presidency made him Egypt's longest-serving ruler since Muhammad Ali Pasha.^[3] Before he entered politics, Mubarak was a career officer in the Egyptian Air Force, serving as its commander from 1972 to 1975 and rising to the rank of air chief marshal.

Mubarak was ousted after 18 days of demonstrations during the 2011 Egyptian revolution^[4] when, on 11 February, Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned as president and transferred authority to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces.^[5][6] On 13 April, a prosecutor^[which?] ordered Mubarak and both his sons to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power.^[7] He was then ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protestors during the revolution.^[8] These trials officially began on 3 August 2011.^[9] Egypt’s military prosecutors then also proclaimed that they are investigating Mubarak's role in the assassination of his predecessor Anwar Sadat.^[10][11]

Early life and Air Force career[link]

Mubarak was born on 4 May 1928,^[2] in Kafr El-Meselha, Monufia Governorate, Egypt. He is married to Suzanne Mubarak, and has two sons: Alaa, and Gamal.

Upon completion of high school, he joined the Egyptian Military Academy, where he received a Bachelor's degree in Military Sciences in 1949.^{[citation needed]} On 2 February 1949, Mubarak left the Military Academy and joined the Air Force Academy, gaining his commission as a pilot officer on 13 March 1950^[12] and eventually receiving a Bachelor's Degree in Aviation Sciences.

As an Egyptian Air Force officer, Mubarak served in various formations and units, including two years when he served in a Spitfire fighter squadron.^[12] Some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy, this time as an instructor, remaining there until early 1959.^[12] From February 1959 to June 1961, Mubarak undertook further training in the Soviet Union, attending a Soviet pilot training school in Moscow and another at Kant Air Base, near Bishkek in Kyrgyzstan (then a Soviet republic), an airfield that is today home to the Russian 5th Air Army's 999th Air Base.

Mubarak undertook training on the Ilyushin Il-28 and Tupolev Tu-16 jet bomber, and then joined the Frunze Military Academy in 1964. On his return to Egypt, Mubarak served in wing and then base commander appointments, taking up command of the Cairo West Air Base in October 1966 before briefly commanding the Beni Suef Air Base.^[12] In November 1967, Mubarak became the Air Force Academy's commander when he was credited with doubling the number of pilots and navigators in the Air Force during the pre-October War years.^[13] Two years later he became Chief of Staff for the Egyptian Air Force.

Mubarak became Commander of the Air Force and Egyptian Deputy Minister of Defence in 1972. In the following year his military career reached its pinnacle when he was promoted to Air Chief Marshal in recognition of service during the October War of 1973.^[12][14] Mubarak has been credited in some publications for Egypt's initial strong performance in the 1973 war against Israel.^[15] The Egyptian analyst Mohamed Hassanein Heikal gave a different evaluation of the role of the Air Force in 1973 from that of Mubarak and his supporters. Heikal argued that the Air Force played a mostly psychological role in the war, providing an inspirational sight for the Egyptian ground troops that carried out the crossing of Suez Canal, rather than for any military necessity.^[16] The role of Mubarak was further disputed by Shahdan El-Shazli the daughter of the former Egyptian military Chief of Staff Saad el-Shazly. She alleged that Mubarak altered the representation of a number of events pertaining to the 1973 war to show a magnified role for himself. In an interview with the Egyptian independent newspaper Almasry Alyoum (26 Feb 2011), El-Shazli claimed that Mubarak altered documents to take credit for the initial success of the Egyptian forces in 1973 from her father. She alleged that even photographs pertaining to the discussions in the military command room were altered, so that the pictures of Saad El-Shazli were erased and replaced by Mubarak. She stated she intends to take legal action.^[17]

Vice President of Egypt[link]

In April 1975, Mubarak was appointed by Sadat as Vice President of Egypt. In this position, he loyally served Sadat's policies. He took part in government consultations that dealt with the future disengagement of forces agreement with Israel.^[18]

As part of his support for Sadat's policies, he went in early September 1975 on a mission to Riyadh, and Damascus to convince the Saudi Arabian, and Syrian governments to accept the disengagement agreement signed with the Israeli government ("Sinai II"), but was refused a meeting by the Syrian President, Hafez Al-Assad.^[19][20]

In addition, Mubarak was sent by Sadat to numerous meetings with foreign leaders.^[21] Mubarak's political significance as Vice-President can be seen from the fact that at a conversation held on 23 June 1975 between Foreign Minister Fahmy and US Ambassador Hermann Eilts, Fahmy said to Eilts that "Mobarek [sic] is, for the time being at least, likely to be a regular participant in all sensitive meetings" and he advised the Ambassador not to antagonize Mubarak, as he was Sadat's personal choice.^[22]

President of Egypt[link]

During the assassination of President Sadat in October 1981 by soldiers led by Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli, Mubarak was one of the injured. Following Sadat's death, Mubarak became the fourth president of Egypt, and the chairman of the National Democratic Party (NDP). He was the longest serving Egyptian president, his term lasting 29 years.

Egypt's return to the Arab League[link]

Mubarak in Berlin in 1989

Until Libya's suspension from the Arab League at the beginning of the 2011 Libyan civil war, Egypt was the only state in the history of the organisation to have had its membership suspended, due to President Sadat's peace treaty with Israel. However, in 1989, eight years after Sadat's assassination, Egypt was re-admitted as a full member, and the League's headquarters were relocated to their original location in Cairo.^[23]

Gulf War of 1991[link]

Egypt was a member of the allied coalition in the 1991 Gulf War, and Egyptian infantry were some of the first to land in Saudi Arabia to evict Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Egypt's involvement in the coalition was deemed by the US government as crucial in garnering wider Arab support for the liberation of Kuwait.

In addition to further solidifying Egypt's central role in the Arab World, the participation of Egyptian forces brought financial benefits for the Egyptian government. Reports that sums as large as $500,000 per soldier were paid or debt forgiven were published in the news media. According to The Economist:

"The programme worked like a charm: a textbook case, says the IMF. In fact, luck was on Hosni Mubarak's side; when the US was hunting for a military alliance to force Iraq out of Kuwait, Egypt's president joined without hesitation. After the war, his reward was that America, the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and Europe forgave Egypt around $14 billion of debt."^[24]

Assassination attempts and governing style[link]

According to the BBC, Mubarak has survived six assassination attempts.^[23] In June 1995 there was an alleged assassination attempt involving noxious gases and Egyptian Islamic Jihad while he was in Ethiopia for a conference of the Organization of African Unity.^[25] Upon return Mubarak is said to have authorized bombings on Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, which by 1999 saw 20,000 persons placed in detention related to the revolutionary Islamic organizations.^{[citation needed]} He was also reportedly injured by a knife-wielding assailant in Port Said in September 1999.^[26]

In his early years in power, Mubarak greatly expanded the Egyptian State Security Investigations Service (Mabahith Amn ad-Dawla) and Central Security Forces (anti-riot and containment forces).^[27] According to author Tarek Osman, the experience of seeing his predecessor assassinated "right in front of him" and his much longer military career than Presidents Nasser or Sadat may have instilled in him more focus and absorption with security than seemed the case with either of those heads of the Egyptian state. Mubarak sought advice and confidence not in "leading ministers," "senior advisors" or "leading intellectuals", but from his security chiefs—various "interior ministers, army commanders, and the heads of the ultra-influential intelligence services."^[28]

Stance on the invasion of Iraq in 2003[link]

U.S. President George W. Bush and Mubarak, 2002

President Mubarak spoke out against the 2003 Iraq War, arguing that the Israeli-Palestinian conflict should have been resolved first. He also claimed that the war would cause "100 Bin Ladens."^[29] However, as President he did not support an immediate US pull out from Iraq as he believed it would lead to probable chaos.^[30]

Changing economic scene[link]

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In July 2004, Mubarak accepted the resignation of Prime Minister Atef Ebeid and most of the cabinet.^{[citation needed]} He then appointed Ahmed Nazif as the new Prime Minister. The new cabinet was generally viewed with optimism. Economic conditions were starting to improve considerably after a period of stagnation. The new cabinet headed by Ahmed Nazif had some success in overcoming the grim economic situation. The Egyptian stock market had the greatest percentage increase of all emerging markets for the fiscal year 2004/2005. However, unemployment persisted and Mubarak came under criticism for favoring big business and privatization as opposed to workers' rights. All this was a consequence of the wide use of privatization policy, by selling shares in most public sector companies, but it was widely believed that this reserve of previously nationalized capitals would end soon, leaving Nazif's government broke.

2005 elections[link]

This section has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality. Discussion of this nomination can be found on the talk page. (October 2010)

With the President of Brazil, Lula da Silva, in 2003

With the President of Italy, Giorgio Napolitano, in 2008

With the President of Russia, Dmitry Medvedev, in 2009

Hosni Mubarak welcomes (left to right) U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, on 14 September 2010.

President Mubarak has been re-elected by majority votes in a referendum for successive terms on four occasions: in 1987, 1993, and 1999. The referendum in itself and its results are of questionable validity^[who?]. No one could run against the President due to a restriction in the Egyptian constitution in which the People's Assembly played the main role in electing the President of the Republic.

After increased domestic and international pressure for democratic reform in Egypt, Mubarak asked the parliament on 26 February 2005 to amend the constitution to allow multi-candidate presidential elections by September 2005^{[citation needed]}. Previously^[when?], Mubarak secured his position by having himself nominated by parliament, then confirmed without opposition in a referendum.

The September 2005 ballot was, therefore, a multiple candidate election rather than a referendum, but the electoral institutions, and security apparatus remain under the control of the President. The official state media, including the three government newspapers and state television also express views identical to the official line taken by Mubarak. In the last few years however, the cabinet headed by Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif has been somewhat successful in turning things around. According to the List of countries by Human Development Index Egypt ranks 111th out of 177 countries, and rates 0.702 on the index.

On 28 July 2005, Mubarak announced his candidacy, as he had been widely expected to do. The election which was scheduled for 7 September 2005 involved mass rigging activities, according to civil organizations that observed the elections.^[31] Reports^{[citation needed]} have shown that Mubarak's party used government vehicles to take public employees to vote for him. Votes were bought for Mubarak in poor suburbs and rural areas. It was also reported that thousands of illegal votes were allowed for Mubarak from citizens who were not registered to vote. On 8 September 2005, Ayman Nour, a dissident and candidate for the El-Ghad Party ("Tomorrow party"), contested the election results, and demanded a repeat of the election.

In a move widely seen as political persecution, Nour was convicted of forgery and sentenced to five years at hard labor on 24 December 2005.^[32] On the day of Nour's guilty verdict and sentencing, the White House Press Secretary released the following statement denouncing the government's action:

"The United States is deeply troubled by the conviction today of Egyptian politician Ayman Nour by an Egyptian court. The conviction of Dr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom and the rule of law. We are also disturbed by reports that Mr. Nour's health has seriously declined due to the hunger strike on which he has embarked in protest of the conditions of his trial and detention. The United States calls upon the Egyptian government to act under the laws of Egypt in the spirit of its professed desire for increased political openness and dialogue within Egyptian society, and out of humanitarian concern, to release Mr. Nour from detention."^[33]

According to Reporters Without Borders; Egyptian media ranks 133 out of 168 in freedom of the press,^[34] showing an improvement of 10 places from 2005.

State corruption during Mubarak's presidency[link]

While in office, political corruption in the Mubarak administration's Ministry of Interior rose dramatically, due to the increased power over the institutional system that is necessary to secure the prolonged presidency.^{[clarification needed]} Such corruption has led to the imprisonment of political figures and young activists without trials,^[35] illegal undocumented hidden detention facilities,^[36][37] and rejecting universities, mosques, newspapers staff members based on political inclination.^[38] On a personnel level,^{[clarification needed]} each individual officer is allowed to violate citizens' privacy in his area using unconditioned arrests due to the emergency law.^{[citation needed]}

In 2005 Freedom House, a non-governmental organization that conducts research into democracy, reported that the Egyptian governments, under Mubarak expanded bureaucratic regulations, registration requirements, and other controls that feed corruption. Whenever Egyptians face such controls, money is what ultimately triggers the requisite signature or relevant approval. Compounding the normal bureaucratic culture is the state ownership of many or most of the primary economic levers – banking and financial institutions, tourism, oil, the Suez Canal, manufacturing, the media, and so on. Furthermore, government employees receive insufficient pay, while a decreasing minority of Egyptians achieve increasingly vast wealth, thus creating a growing income gap between the classes and causing the supposed middle class to be squeezed to the smallest minority between the rich and the poor. Freedom House claimed that "corruption remained a significant problem under Mubarak, who promised to do much, but in fact neither did anything significant to tackle it effectively."^[39]

In 2010, Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index report assessed Egypt with a CPI score of 3.1, based on perceptions of the degree of corruption from business people and country analysts, with 10 being very clean and 0 being highly corrupt. Egypt ranked 98th out of the 178 countries included in the report.^[40]

Emergency law rule[link]

Egypt is a semi-presidential republic under Emergency Law (Law No. 162 of 1958)^[41] and has been since 1967, except for an 18-month break in 1980s (which ended with the assassination of Anwar Sadat). Under the law, police powers are extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship is legalized.^[42] The law sharply circumscribes any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and unregistered financial donations are formally banned. Some 17,000 people are detained under the law, and estimates of political prisoners run as high as 30,000.^[43] Under that "state of emergency", the government has the right to imprison individuals for any period of time, and for virtually no reason, thus keeping them in prisons without trials for any period. The government continues the claim that opposition groups like the Muslim Brotherhood could come into power in Egypt if the current government did not forgo parliamentary elections, confiscate the group's main financiers' possessions, and detain group figureheads, actions which are virtually impossible without emergency law and judicial-system independence prevention.^[44] Pro-democracy advocates in Egypt argue that this goes against the principles of democracy, which include a citizen's right to a fair trial and their right to vote for whichever candidate and/or party they deem fit to run their country.^{[citation needed]}

Presidential succession[link]

Gamal Mubarak, son of Hosni Mubarak

In 2009, US Ambassador Margaret Scobey reported uncertainty regarding presidential succession, stating "Despite incessant whispered discussions, no one in Egypt has any certainty about who will eventually succeed Mubarak nor under what circumstances."^[45] She listed likely candidates, saying, "The most likely contender is presidential son Gamal Mubarak (whose profile was ever-increasing at the ruling party, until that party collapsed during The Egyptian Revolution of 2011); some suggest that intelligence chief Omar Suleiman might seek the office, or dark horse Arab League Secretary-General Amr Moussa might run. Mubarak's ideal of a strong but fair leader would seem to discount Gamal Mubarak to some degree, given Gamal's lack of military experience, and may explain Mubarak's hands off approach to the succession question."^[45] President Mubarak and his son denied this, "saying [that] a multi-candidate electoral system introduced in 2005 has made the political process more transparent."^[46] Nigerian Tribune journalist Abiodun Awolaja described a would-be succession by Gamal Mubarak as a "hereditary pseudo-monarchy".^[47] Ambassador Scobey summarised Mubarak's vision of the presidential succession, stating, "Indeed, he seems to be trusting to God and the ubiquitous military and civilian security services to ensure an orderly transition."^[45] The National Democratic Party of Egypt continued to state that Hosni Mubarak was to be the party's only candidate to the 2011 Presedential Elections. Mubarak declared on 1 February 2011 that he had no intention to run in the presidential race at the end of 2011. When this declaration failed to ease the protests, Mubarak's vice president stated that Gamal Mubarak, the son, will not run for president. With the escalation of the demonstration and the fall of Mubarak, a former influential figure in the National Democratic Party Hamdy El-Sayed, claimed that Gamal Mubarak intended to forcibly take over his father's position, assisted in that by the then Interior Minister, Habib El-Adly.^[48]

Israeli–Palestinian conflict[link]

As he has been involved intensely in the Arab League, he has supported Arab efforts to achieve a lasting peace in the region. The current position of the League is that which was endorsed at the Beirut Summit, on 28 March 2002. At the summit the league adopted the Arab Peace Initiative,^[49] a Saudi-inspired peace plan for the Arab–Israeli conflict. The initiative offered full normalization of the relations with Israel. In exchange, Israel was demanded to withdraw from all occupied territories, including the Golan Heights, to recognize an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip with East Jerusalem as its capital, as well as a "just solution" for the Palestinian refugees. The Peace Initiative was again endorsed at 2007 in the Riyadh Summit. In July 2007, the Arab League sent a mission, consisting of the Jordanian and Egyptian foreign ministers, to Israel to promote the initiative.

1 September 2010. During Middle East negotiations, Mubarak and Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel look at their watches to see if it is officially sunset; during Ramadan, Muslims fast until sunset.

On 19 June 2008, the Egypt-brokered "lull" or pause in hostilities between Israel and Hamas went into effect.^[50] The term "lull" is a translation of the Arabic term Tahdia.^[51] According to The New York Times, neither side fully respected the terms of the cease-fire.^[52]

The agreement required Hamas to end rocket attacks on Israel and to enforce the lull throughout Gaza. In exchange, Hamas expected the blockade to end, commerce in Gaza to resume, and truck shipments to be restored to 2005 levels, which was between 500 and 600 trucks per day.^[52][53] Israel tied easing of the blockade to a reduction in rocket fire and gradually re-opened supply lines and permitted around 90 daily truck shipments to enter Gaza, up from around 70 per day.^[54] Hamas criticized Israel for its continued blockade^[55] while Israel accused Hamas of continued weapons smuggling via tunnels to Egypt and pointed to continued rocket attacks.^[52]

However, when conflict again ensued during the Gaza War, Egypt's foreign minister stated that Hamas had brought it upon itself.

In 2009, Mubarak's government banned the Cairo Anti-war Conference, which has criticised his lack of action against Israel.^[56]

Revolution and resignation[link]

Massive protests centered on Cairo's Tahrir Square led to Mubarak's resignation in February 2011.

Mass protests against Mubarak and his regime erupted in Cairo and other Egyptian cities on 25 January 2011. On 1 February, Mubarak announced he would not contest the presidential election due in September. He also promised constitutional reform.^[57] This did not satisfy the majority of protesters as they expected Mubarak to depart immediately.^[58] The demonstrations continued and on 2 February, violent clashes occurred between pro-Mubarak and anti-Mubarak protestors.^[59]

On 10 February, contrary to rumours,^[60] Mubarak asserted that he would not resign until the September election, though he would be delegating responsibilities to Vice President Omar Suleiman. The next day, Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned.^[5] The announcement sparked cheers, flag-waving, and celebrations from protesters in Egypt after Mubarak's announcement of resignation. Discussions began about the nation's future direction.^[61] It had been suggested that Egypt be put in the hands of a caretaker government.^[62] A few hours prior to the resignation announcement, reports surfaced suggesting the ousted president and his immediate family had left Cairo for Sharm el-Sheikh.

Protests[link]

On 25 January 2011, protests against Mubarak and his government erupted in Cairo and around Egypt calling for Mubarak's resignation.^[61] Mubarak stated in a speech that he would not leave, and would die on Egyptian soil. Opposition leader Mohamed ElBaradei paid no attention to Mubarak's remarks^[61] and labeled it as a trick designed to help Mubarak to stay in power.^[62] In a state televised broadcast on 1 February 2011, Mubarak announced that he would not seek re-election in September but would like to finish his current term and promised constitutional reform. This compromise was not acceptable for the protestors and violent demonstrations occurred in front of the Presidential Palace. On 11 February, Vice President Omar Suleiman announced Mubarak had resigned and that power would be turned over to the Egyptian military.

Remarks made[link]

Two and a half hours after Mubarak's resignation, an Egyptian military member came on air and thanked him for "putting the interests of the country first." The statement, which said "The Supreme Council is currently studying the situation," never provided what the council will do next.^[63]

Post-resignation[link]

Following his resignation, Mubarak did not make any media appearances. With the exception of family and a close circle of aides, he reportedly refused to talk to anyone, even his supporters. His health was speculated to be rapidly deteriorating with some reports even alleging him to be in a coma. Most sources claim that he is no longer interested in performing any duties and wants to "die in Sharm El-Sheikh."^[64][65]

On 28 February 2011, the General Prosecutor of Egypt issued an order prohibiting Mubarak and his family from leaving Egypt. It was reported that the former president was in contact with his lawyer in case of possible criminal charges against him.^[66] As a result, Mubarak and his family had been under house arrest at a presidential palace in the Red Sea resort of Sharm el-Sheikh.^[67] On 13 April 2011, a prosecutor originally appointed by Mubarak ordered the former president and both his sons to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power amidst growing suspicion that the Egyptian military was more aligned with the Mubaraks than with the revolution. Gamal and Alaa were jailed in Tora Prison, while state television reported that Mubarak was in police custody in a hospital near his residence following a heart attack.^[7] Former Israeli Cabinet minister Benjamin Ben Eliezer told Israeli Radio that he had offered Mubarak refuge in the southern Israeli city of Eilat.^[68]

Trial[link]

On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protestors during the 2011 Egyptian revolution and, if convicted, could face the death penalty. The decision to try Mubarak was made days before a scheduled protest in Tahrir Square. The full list of charges released by the public prosecutor was "intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators...misuse of influence and deliberately wasting public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits."^[8]

On 28 May, a Cairo administrative court found him guilty of damaging the national economy during the protests by shutting down the Internet and telephone services. He was fined LE200 million (about US$33.6 million), which the court ordered he must pay from his personal assets. This was the first court ruling against Mubarak, who will next have to answer to the murder charges.^[69][70]

The trial of Hosni Mubarak and his two sons Ala'a and Gamal, along with former interior minister Habib el-Adly and six former top police officials began on 3 August 2011 at a temporary criminal court at the Police Academy in north Cairo. The charges are corruption and the premediated killing of peaceful protestors during the mass movement to oust him, the latter of which carries the death penalty.^[71] The trial was broadcast on Egyptian television, with Mubarak making a surprise first appearance since his resignation, brought in on a hospital bed and held in a cage for the session. Upon reading out the charges to him, Mubarak pleaded not guilty, denying responsibility for the charges against him. Judge Ahmed Refaat adjourned the court, ruling that Mubarak be transferred under continued arrest to the military hospital on the outskirts of Cairo, with the second session scheduled for 15 August.^[72] On 15 August the trial was resumed. It lasted three hours, at the conclusion of which Judge Rifaat determined that the third session would take place on 5 September and that the remainder of the proceedings would be off-limits to television cameras.^[73]

The trial began again in December 2011 and lasted until January 2012. The defense strategy was that Mubarak never actually resigned, was still president, and thus had immunity.^[74] The judge said a verdict would be announced on 2 June 2012.^[75]

Health[link]

In the summer of 2010, the media speculated "Egypt is on the cusp of dramatic change", because Mubarak was thought to be afflicted by cancer, and because of the scheduled 2011 presidential election. While intelligence sources suggested that he suffered from esophageal cancer,^[76] stomach or pancreatic cancer, it was denied by Egyptian authorities.^[77][78] Speculation about his ill health flared up with his resignation on 11 February 2011.^[79] According to Egyptian media, Mubarak's condition worsened after he went into exile in Sharm el-Sheikh. Mubarak was reportedly depressed, refused to take medications, and was slipping in and out of consciousness. According to the source, an unnamed Egyptian security official, "Mubarak wants to be left alone and die in his homeland". The source also denied that Mubarak was writing his memoirs, stating that he was in a state of almost complete unconsciousness.^[80] After his February 2011 resignation, Egypt's ambassador to the United States Sameh Shoukry reported that his personal sources said Mubarak "is possibly in somewhat of bad health", while several Egyptian and a Saudi Arabian newspapers reported that Mubarak was near death and in a coma.^[81] On 12 April 2011, it was reported that Mubarak had been hospitalized after suffering a heart attack during questioning over possible corruption charges.^[82]

In June 2011, Mubarak's lawyer Farid el-Deeb disclosed that his client "has stomach cancer, and the cancer is growing."^[83] Mubarak had undergone surgery for the condition in Germany the year prior and also suffers from circulatory problems with an irregular heart beat.^[83] On 13 July 2011, unconfirmed reports stated that Mubarak had slipped into a coma at his residence after giving his final speech, and on 17 July, el-Deeb confirmed the reports.^[84] On 26 July 2011, Mubarak was reported to be depressed and refusing solid food while in the hospital being treated for a heart condition and in custody awaiting trial.^[85]

Wealth and allegations of personal corruption[link]

In February 2011, the media reported on the wealth of the Mubarak family. ABC News indicated that experts believed the personal wealth of Mubarak and his family to be between US$40 billion and $70 billion founded on military contracts made during his time as an air force officer.^[86] Britain's Guardian newspaper also reported that Mubarak and his family might be worth up to $70 billion due to corruption, kickbacks and legitimate business activities. The money was said to be spread out in various bank accounts at home and abroad, including Switzerland and Britain, and also invested in foreign property. The newspaper admitted, however, that some of the information regarding the family's wealth might be ten years old.^[87] According to Newsweek, these allegations are poorly substantiated and lack credibility.^[88] On 17 March 2011 Senator John Kerry, head of foreign relations committee of the US congress, officially confirmed that the government of the United States froze assets worth $31 billion belonging to Mubarak, including property and bank accounts.^[89] John Kerry later retracted his statement saying he meant Gaddafi not Mubarak.

On 12 February 2011, the government of Switzerland announced that it was freezing the Swiss bank accounts of Mubarak and his family.^[90] On 20 February 2011, the Egyptian Prosecutor General ordered the freeze of Mubarak's assets and the assets of his wife Suzanne, his sons Alaa and Gamal Mubarak, and his daughters in law Heidi Rasekh and Khadiga Gamal. The Prosecutor General also ordered the Egyptian Foreign Minister to communicate this to other countries where Mubarak and his family could have assets. This order came two days after Egyptian newspapers reported that Mubarak filed his financial statement.^[91] The Egyptian regulations mandate government officials to submit a financial statement listing his / her total assets and sources of income during governmental work. On 21 February 2011, the Egyptian Military Council, which was temporarily given the presidential authorities following the 25 January 2011 Revolution, declared no objection to a trial of Mubarak on charges of corruption.^[92] On 23 February 2011, the Egyptian newspaper Eldostor reported that a "knowledgeable source" described the order of the Prosecutor General for freezing Mubarak's assets and the threats of a legal action as nothing but a signal for Mubarak to leave Egypt after a number of attempts were made to encourage him to leave willingly.^[93] In February 2011, Voice of America reported that Egypt's top prosecutor has ordered a travel ban and an asset freeze for former President Hosni Mubarak and his family, as he considers further action.^[94]

Political and military posts[link]

Awards[link]

• Mubarak was awarded the Jawaharlal Nehru Award in 1995.^[95]
• Honor Star Medal twice.^[96]
• Military Training medal.^[96]
• Military Honor Medal Knight Rank from the President of Syria.^[96]
• Honor Star Medal from the PLO.^[96]
• Decoration of King Abdul Aziz-Excellent Degree from King Faisal Bin Abdul Aziz Al-Saoud.^[96]
• Hamayon Merit from Emperor Mohamed Reda Bahlawy [Muhammad Reza Phalavi, Iran].^[96]

Monument[link]

A monument to Hosni Mubarak was erected in 2007 in Xırdalan (Azerbaijan).^[97] The Azerbaijani Musavat party called for its demolition in order to avoid idolatry. The monument was then taken down and a statue symbolising Egypt and ancient Egyptian culture was erected instead.^{[citation needed]}

Public image[link]

Mubarak is ranked 20th on Parade Magazine's 2009 World's Worst Dictators list.^[98] He, as other presidents had been before him, had frequently been the target of jokes by the Egyptian people for many years before his resignation.^{[99][100][101][102][103]}

See also[link]

	Egypt portal
	Biography portal
	Politics portal
	Human rights portal

• Saad Eddin Ibrahim

References[link]