The Indian Civil Service (ICS), which after 1886 was officially called the Imperial Civil Service and was also known as the British India Civil Service, was the élite higher civil service of the Government of India in the period of the British Raj. Its members were appointed under Section XXXII of the Government of India Act, 1858 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.^[1]

At first almost all the top 1000 officials were British, and were educated in the best British schools. By 1914 5% were Indian. In 1942 there were 597 Indians and 588 British; most of the latter left at the time of independence.^[2]

At the time of the Partition of India in 1947, the ICS was divided between India and Pakistan. Although these are now organised differently, the contemporary Civil Services of India and the Pakistan Civil Service are both descended from the old ICS.

Historians often rate the ICS, together with the railway system, the legal system and the army, as among the most important legacies of the British rule in India.^[3]

Civil Service[link]

Origins and History[link]

From 1858, after the demise of the East India Company's rule in India, the British civil service took on its administrative responsibilities. The cause of the change in governance had been the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which came close to toppling British rule in the country.^[4]

Entry and setting[link]

The competitive examination for entry to the civil service was combined for the Diplomatic, the Home, the Indian, and the Colonial Services. Candidates must be aged between 21 and 24, which gave everyone three chances for entry. The total marks possible in the examination were 1,900.^{[citation needed]} Successful candidates underwent one or two years probation in England, according to whether they had taken the London or the Indian examination. This period was spent at the University of Oxford, the University of Cambridge, or the School of Oriental Studies in London, where a candidate studied the law and institutions of India, including criminal law and the Law of Evidence, which together gave knowledge of the revenue system, as well as reading Indian history and learning the language of the Province to which they had been assigned.^{[citation needed]}

By 1920, there were five methods of entry into the higher civil service: firstly, the open competitive examinations in London; secondly, separate competitive examinations in India; thirdly, nomination in India to satisfy provincial and communal representation; fourthly, promotion from the Provincial Civil Service and lastly, appointments from the bar (one-fourth of the posts in the ICS were to be filled from the bar).^[6]

Working and Types[link]

There were two exclusive groups of civil servants during the formative stage of direct British rule in India. The higher employees who entered into covenants with the Company came to be known as "covenanted" servants, whereas those not signing such agreements came to be known as "uncovenanted". The latter group generally filled the lower positions. This distinction between the covenanted and the uncovenanted virtually came to an end with the constitution of the Imperial Civil Service of India based on the recommendations of the Public Service Commission, 1886–87, though the phrase covenanted continued to be used of anyone in a salaried position with a long term contract — including boxwallah peddlers. The name Imperial Civil Service was changed to Civil Service of India. However, the term Indian Civil Service (ICS) persisted. The acronym ICS continued to be used to denote the covenanted civil servants.^[7]

A third group, the Statutory Civil Service which functioned in the second half of the nineteenth century, was disbanded by the beginning of the 1890s. To this group were recruited young men from respectable and affluent Indian families. This service was replaced by the provincial civil services, which was constituted on the basis of the recommendations of the Aitchison Commission. It consisted of two cadres, the Provincial Civil Service and the Subordinate Civil Service. Further developments took place as a result of the application of the scheme of cadre organization to the administrative departments. Thus, for example, the departments of Forest and Public Works had both imperial and provincial branches. The basic pattern of the cadre system in the civil service was thus established following the recommendations of the Aitchison Commission.^[8]

In 1912, the Islington Commission was appointed to propose reforms, but its report could be published only in 1917, by which time its recommendations had become outdated on account of the First World War and Edwin Montagu's August Declaration (presented to the House of Commons on August 20, 1917) that in response to local demand the government wished to extend the representation of the native Indian population in the ICS. By 1934, the system of administration in India had come to consist of seven All India Services and five Central Departments, all under the control of the Secretary of State for India, and three Central Departments under joint Provincial and Imperial control. The ICS and the Indian Police Service were in the 'transferred field', that is, the authority for the control of these services and for making appointments was transferred from the Secretary of State to the provincial governments. It seems relevant to mention that the All India and class I central services were designated as Central Superior Services as early as 1924 in the Lee Commission's report.^[9]

Changes after 1919[link]

British control of the Indian Civil Service remained after the First World War, but faced growing difficulties. Fewer and fewer young men in Britain were interested in joining, and distrust of such posts among Indians resulted in a declining recruitment base in terms of quality and quantity. By 1945 Indians were numerically dominant in the ICS and at issue was loyalty divided between the Empire and independence.^[10]

The finances of the Raj depended on land taxes, and these became problematic in the 1930s. Epstein argues that after 1919 it became harder and harder to collect the land revenue. The Raj's suppression of civil disobedience after 1934 temporarily increased the power of the revenue agents but after 1937 they were forced by the new Congress-controlled provincial governments to hand back confiscated land. The outbreak of the Second World War strengthened them again, but in the face of the Quit India movement the revenue collectors had to rely on military force and by 1946-47 direct British control was rapidly disappearing in much of the countryside.^[11]

Partition of India[link]

At the time of the partition of India, the Indian Civil Service was divided between the new Dominions of India and Pakistan. The parts which went to India retained the name "Indian Civil Service", while Pakistan renamed the parts it inherited the "Civil Service of Pakistan" (CSP).

Support and criticism[link]

Dewey has commented that "in their heyday they [Indian Civil Service officers] were the most powerful officials in the Empire, if not the world. A tiny cadre, a little over a thousand strong, ruled more than 300,000,000 Indians. Each Civilian had an average 300,000 subjects, and each Civilian penetrated every corner of his subjects' lives, because the Indian Civil Service directed all the activities of the Anglo-Indian state."^[12]

Speaking in the House of Commons in 1935, former British prime minister David Lloyd George said of the ICS that it was "the steel frame on which the whole structure of government and of administration in India rests".^[13]

Jawaharlal Nehru often ridiculed the ICS for its support of British policies. He noted that someone had once defined the Indian Civil Service, "with which we are unfortunately still afflicted in this country, as neither Indian, nor civil, nor a service."^[14]

As Prime Minister Nehru retained the organization and its top people, albeit with a change of title to the "Indian Administrative Service". It continued its main roles. Nehru appointed long-time ICS officials Chintaman Deshmukh as his Finance Minister, and K. P. S. Menon as his Foreign Minister.

See also[link]

• List of Indian members of the Indian Civil Service

Notes[link]

Further reading[link]

• Blunt, Edward. The I.C.S.: the Indian civil service (1937)
• Burra, Arudra. "The Indian Civil Service and the nationalist movement: neutrality, politics and continuity," Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, Nov 2010, 48#4 pp 404–432
• Dewey, Clive. Anglo-Indian attitudes: the mind of the Indian Civil Service (1993)
• Ewing, Ann. "Administering India: The Indian Civil Service," History Today, June 1982, 32#6 pp 43–48, covers 1858-1947
• Gilmour, David. The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj (2007) excerpt and text search
• Gould, William. "The Dual State: The Unruly 'Subordinate', Caste, Community and Civil Service Recruitment in North India, 1930–1955," Journal of Historical Sociology, Mar-June 2007, Vol. 20 Issue 1/2, pp 13–43
• Krishna, Anirudh. "Continuity and change: the Indian administrative service 30 years ago and today," Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, Nov 2010, 48#4 pp 433–444
• MacMillan, Margaret. Women of the Raj: The Mothers, Wives, and Daughters of the British Empire in India (2007)
• Masani, Zareer. Indian Tales of the Raj (1990), interviews with retired ICS officers about pre-1947 days
• Potter, David C. India's Political Administrators, 1919-1983 (1987) 289pp; the standard scholarly history
• Potter, David C. "The Last of the Indian Civil Service," South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies (Apr 1979), Vol. 2 Issue 1/2, pp 19–29
• Potter, David C. "Manpower Shortage and the End of Colonialism: The Case of Indian Civil Service," Modern Asian Studies, (Jan 1973) 7#1 pp 47–73 in JSTOR

• Sharma, Malti. Indianization of the civil services in British India, 1858-1935 (2001)
• Thakur, R.N. The All India services: a study of their origin & growth (1969)

External links[link]

• UPSC Official Website

The term civil service has two different meanings:

• A branch of governmental service in which individuals are employed on the basis of professional merit as proven by competitive examinations.
• The body of employees in any government agency other than the military.

A civil servant or public servant is a person in the public sector employed for a government department or agency. The term explicitly excludes the armed services, although civilian officials can work at "Defence Ministry" headquarters. The extent of civil servants of a state as part of the "Civil Service" varies from country to country. In the United Kingdom, for instance, only Crown employees are referred to as civil servants, county or city employees are not.

Many consider the study of civil service to be a part of the field of public administration. Workers in "non-departmental public bodies" (sometimes called "QUANGOs") may also be classed as civil servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms and conditions. Collectively a state's civil servants form its Civil Service or Public Service.

An international civil servant or international staff member is a civilian employee that is employed by an international organisation.^[1] These international civil servants do not resort under any national legislation (from which they have immunity of jurisdiction) but are governed by an internal staff regulation. All disputes related to international civil service are brought before special tribunals created by these international organisations such as, for instance, the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO.^[2]

Specific referral can be made to the International Civil Service Commission (ICSC) of the United Nations, an independent expert body established by the United Nations General Assembly. Its mandate is to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations common system, while promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service.

History[link]

Early history[link]

The Roman civil service in action. Mary and Joseph of Nazareth register for the census before Governor Quirinius, mosaic 1315–20.

Administrative institutions usually grow out of the personiuoikkut their official tasks but continue to draw their salary themselves. There are obvious parallels here with the early bureaucratic structures in modern states, such as the Office of Works or the Navy in 18th century England, where again appointments depended on patronage and were often bought and sold.

Making of civil service through merit[link]

Imperial Civil Service Examination hall with 7500 cells in Guangdong, 1873.

The origin^[3] of the civil service can be traced back to Imperial examination founded in Imperial China. The Imperial exam based on merit^[4] was designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of scholar-bureaucrats irrespective of their family pedigree.^[5]

From the time of the Han Dynasty (206 BC to AD 220) until the implementation of the imperial examination system, most appointments in the imperial bureaucracy were based on recommendations from prominent aristocrats and local officials whilst recommended individuals were predominantly of aristocratic rank. Emperor Wu of Han started an early form of the imperial examinations, transitioning from inheritance and patronage to merit, in which local officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics.^[5] The system reached its apogee during the Song dynasty.^[6]

The Chinese civil-service system gave the Chinese empire stability for more than 2,000 years and provided one of the major outlets for social mobility in Chinese society.^[7]

The modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one.^[8] This system was admired and then borrowed by European countries from the 16th century onward,^[9] and is now the model for most countries around the world.

By countries[link]

Australia[link]

Brazil[link]

Civil servants in Brazil, Servidores públicos in Portuguese, are those working in the executive, legislative and judicial branches of the federal government, state government, municipal government and the Government of Brasilia, including congressmen, senators, mayors, ministers, the president of the republic, and workers in Government-owned corporation.

Career civil servants (not temporary workers or politicians) are hired only externally on the basis of entrance examinations known as Concurso Público in Portuguese, usually consisting of a white test, also some posts may require physical tests (like policemen) or oral tests (like judges, prosecutors and attorneys). The position according to the examination score is used for filling the vacancies.

The entrance examination are conducted by several companies with a government mandade; the best known are CESPE (which belongs to the University of Brasilia), the FGV (Getulio Vargas Foundation), ESAF, and the Cesgranrio Foundation (which is part of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro).

The labour laws and social insurance for civil servants are different from private workers, even between government branches (like different states or cities) the law and insurance differ between them.

The posts usually are ranked by titles, the most common are technician for high school literates and analyst for graduate literates. There's also high post ranks like auditor, fiscal, chief of police, prosecutor, judge, attorney, etc. Those titles may require master's degree or doctorate.

The law doesn't allow servants to upgrade or downgrade posts internally, if they wanto to do that they need to pass in another external entrance examination.

Canada[link]

Canada's federal public service comprises approximately 200 departments, agencies, commissions, boards, councils, and crown corporations. There are 423,781 active contributors to the federal public service, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and Canadian Forces pension plans. This represents about 2.3 percent of the Canadian workforce of 18.7 million. Each provincial government also has its own public service. In 2010, all provincial governments' public service were employing a total of more than 350 000 persons.^[10]

China[link]

Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581–604), who established the first civil service examination system in China; a painting by the chancellor and artist Yan Liben (600–673).

One of the oldest examples of a civil service based on meritocracy is the Imperial bureaucracy of China, which can be traced as far back as the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC). During the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) the xiaolian system of recommendation by superiors for appointments to office was established. In the areas of administration, especially the military, appointments were based solely on merit.

After the fall of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the Nine-rank system; in this system noble birthright became the most significant prerequisite for gaining access to more authoritative posts.

This system was reversed during the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581–618), which initiated a civil service bureaucracy recruited through written examinations and recommendation. The following Tang Dynasty (618–907) adopted the same measures for drafting officials, and decreasingly relied on aristocratic recommendations and more and more on promotion based on the results of written examinations.

However, the civil service examinations were practiced on a much smaller scale in comparison to the stronger, centralized bureaucracy of the Song Dynasty (960–1279). In response to the regional military rule of jiedushi and the loss of civil authority during the late Tang period and Five Dynasties (907–960), the Song emperors were eager to implement a system where civil officials would owe their social prestige to the central court and gain their salaries strictly from the central government. This ideal was not fully achieved since many scholar officials were affluent landowners and were engaged in many anonymous business affairs in an age of economic revolution in China. Nonetheless, gaining a degree through three levels of examination — prefectural exams, provincial exams, and the prestigious palace exams — was a far more desirable goal in society than becoming a merchant. This was because the mercantile class was traditionally regarded with some disdain by the scholar official class. This class of state bureaucrats in the Song period were far less aristocratic than their Tang predecessors. The examinations were carefully structured in order to ensure that people of lesser means than what was available to candidates born into wealthy, landowning families were given a greater chance to pass the exams and obtain an official degree. This included the employment of a bureau of copyists who would rewrite all of the candidates' exams in order to mask their handwriting and thus prevent favoritism by graders of the exams who might otherwise recognize a candidate's handwriting. The advent of widespread printing in the Song period allowed many more examination candidates access to the Confucian texts whose mastery was required for passing the exams.

France[link]

The civil service in France (fonction publique) is often considered to include government employees, as well as employees of public corporations.

Germany[link]

This section requires expansion.

The Public service in Germany (Öffentlicher Dienst) is run by 4.6 million employees as of 2011.^[11] Public servants are distinguished into three groups of occupational statuses: Arbeiter ("blue-collar workerers"), Angestellte ("salaried employees") and servants called Beamte. All three groups are employed by Körperschaften des öffentlichen Rechts (communes, states, federal government and many more). While Arbeiter and Angestelle work with individual contracts, Beamte are appointed, employed and removed by law (öffentlich-rechtliches Dienst- und Treueverhältnis).

Arbeiter[link]

Arbeiter in public service serve mostly in low-skilled labor such as construction, waste collection or manual office work. In some cases, training is not obligatory.

Angestellte[link]

Angestellte work in technical, vocational and office work in a very large range of occupational fields. In most cases, they have received a training aside from the government prior to employment.

Beamte[link]

Beamte are known for several centuries in German states, but became a standarized group in 1794. Soldiers other than conscriptive soldiers are not Beamte but have according rights. Judges and public attorneys are troughoutly Beamte, professors are mostly Beamte. The group of Beamte have the most secure employment and are paid by a scheme of Besoldungsordnungen. Is is prohibited for Beamte to take strike action. Beamte are normally employed for life-time but with several exceptions for special positions or course of training.

India[link]

In India, the Civil Service is defined as "appointive positions by the Government in connection with the affairs of the Union and includes a civilian in a Defence Service, except positions in the Indian Armed Forces." The members of civil service serve at the pleasure of the President of India and Article 311 of the constitution protects them from politically motivated or vindictive action.

The Civil Services of India can be classified into two types - the All India Services and the Central Civil Services (Group A and B). The recruits are university graduates (or above) selected through a rigorous system of examinations, called the Civil Services Examination (CSE) conducted by the Union Public Service Commission.

The entry into the State Civil Services is through a competitive examination conducted by every state public service commission. Close to 3.5 lakhs of candidates apply every year for the 400 to 500 vacancies that may arise.

Ireland[link]

The civil service of Ireland includes the employees of the Department of State (excluded are government ministers and a small number of paid political advisors) as well as a small number of core state agencies such as the Office of the Revenue Commissioners, the Office of Public Works, and the Public Appointments Service. The organisation of the Irish Civil Service is very similar to the traditional organization of the British Home Civil Service, and indeed the grading system in the Irish Civil Service is nearly identical to the traditional grading system of its British counterpart. In Ireland, public sector employees such as teachers or members of the country's police force, An Garda Síochána are not considered to be civil servants, but are rather described as "public servants" (and form the Public service of the Republic of Ireland).

Spain[link]

The civil service in Spain (función pública) is often considered to include central government employees, regional employees, as well as municipal employees. There are three main categories of Spanish civil services; political posts ("puestos de libre designación, level 28-30") requiring simple or no examinations, posts called "funcionarios de carrera" requiring an examination, and "personal laboral" posts, also with an exam similar to that for the "funcionarios de carrera". Examinations differ among the states, the 17 autonomic communities and the city councils, and the "funcionarios" and "personal laboral" exams vary in difficulty from one location to another.

As of 2011, there were 2.6 Million civil servants in Spain (22% work for the central state, 50% for the Autonomous communities, 4% for the Universities and 22% for local organization such as municipalities and provinces).^[12]

In December 2011, the government of Rajoy announced that 37,5 working hours would be used as a basis (civil servants are required to work that number of hours if they do not want a reduction in their salaries) ^[12]

United Kingdom[link]

The civil service in the United Kingdom only includes Crown employees; not those who are parliamentary employees. Public sector employees such as those in education and the NHS are not considered to be civil servants. Note that civil servants in the devolved government in Northern Ireland are not part of the Home Civil Service, but constitute the separate Northern Ireland Civil Service nor are employees of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.

United States[link]

In the United States, the civil service was established in 1871. The Federal Civil Service is defined as "all appointive positions in the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the Government of the United States, except positions in the uniformed services." (5 U.S.C. § 2101). In the early 19th century, government jobs were held at the pleasure of the president — a person could be fired at any time. The spoils system meant that jobs were used to support the political parties. This was changed in slow stages by the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 and subsequent laws. By 1909, almost 2/3 of the U.S. federal work force was appointed based on merit, that is, qualifications measured by tests. Certain senior civil service positions, including some heads of diplomatic missions and executive agencies are filled by political appointees. Under the Hatch Act of 1939, civil servants are not allowed to engage in political activities while performing their duties.

The U.S. civil service includes the Competitive service and the Excepted service. The majority of civil service appointments in the U.S. are made under the Competitive Service, but certain categories in the Diplomatic Service, the FBI, and other National Security positions are made under the Excepted Service. (U.S. Code Title V)

U.S. state and local government entities often have competitive civil service systems that are modeled on the national system, in varying degrees.

As of January 2007, the Federal Government, excluding the Postal Service, employed about 1.8 million civilian workers. The Federal Government is the Nation's single largest employer. Although most federal agencies are based in the Washington D.C. region, only about 16% (or about 288,000) of the federal government workforce is employed in this region.^[13]

There are currently 15 federal executive branch agencies and hundreds of subagencies.^[14]

European Union[link]

The European Civil Service is the civil service serving the institutions of the European Union, of which the largest employer is the European Commission, the executive branch of the European Union. It is the permanent bureaucracy that implements the decisions of the Union's government.

Civil servants are recruited directly into the institutions after being selected by competitions set by EPSO, the official selection office. They are allocated to departments, known as Directorates-General (DGs), each covering one or more related policy areas.

Penalties[link]

Penalties apply for government employees falsely claiming to be civilians when they are paid to conduct military operations against civilians.

Other meanings[link]

Civil service also means a form of legal conscientious objection, for example the Swiss Civilian Service. More accurately, in this scope civil service is work performed in the public interest as a replacement for a military obligation to which one objects. The Finnish "siviilipalvelus", French "service civil", German "Zivildienst", Italian "servizio civile" and Swedish "civiltjänst" all can be translated as "civil service" in this sense.

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Ari Hoogenboom. Outlawing the Spoils: A History of the Civil Service Reform Movement, 1865-1883. (1961)
• Bodde, D. Chinese Ideas in the West
• Brownlow, Louis, Charles E. Merriam, and Luther Gulick, Report of the President's Committee on Administrative Management. (1937) U.S. Government Printing Office.

• Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service Since 1945 (Institute of Contemporary British History, 1995)
• Leonard D. White, Charles H. Bland, Walter R. Sharp, and Fritz Morstein Marx; Civil Service Abroad, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany (1935) online
• P. N. Mathur. The Civil Service of India, 1731-1894: a study of the history, evolution and demand for reform (1977)
• Schiesl, Martin. The Politics of Efficiency: Municipal Administration and Reform in America, 1880-1920. (1977)
• Van Riper, Paul. History of the United States Civil Service (1958).
• White, Leonard D., Introduction to the Study of Public Administration. (1955)

External links[link]

• The U.K Civil Service
• www.publicservice.co.uk - Public Sector news and features

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article civil service.

• Brazilian Civil servents