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Central place theory is a geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and location of human settlements in an urban system.^[1] The theory was created by the German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing services to surrounding areas.^[1]

Building the theory[link]

To develop the theory, Christaller made the following simplifying assumptions:

• an unbounded isotropic (all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface (abstract space)
• an evenly distributed population
• all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern
• evenly distributed resources
• distance decay mechanism
• perfect competition and all sellers are economic people maximizing their profits
• consumers are of the same income level and same shopping behaviour
• all consumers have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services
• Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand.They minimize the distance to be travelled
• no provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit(each supplier has a monopoly over a hinterland)

Therefore the trade areas of these central places who provide a particular good or service must all be of equal size

• there is only one type of transport and this would be equally easy in all directions
• transport cost is proportional to distance traveled in example, the longer the distance traveled, the higher the transport cost

The theory then relied on two concepts: threshold and range.

• Threshold is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular good or service.
• Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods - at some point the cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the good.

The result of these consumer preferences is that a system of centers of various sizes will emerge. Each center will supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional hierarchies, generalizations can be made regarding the spacing, size and function of settlements.

1. The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in number they will be, i.e. there are many small villages, but few large cities.
2. The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater the distance between them, i.e. villages are usually found close together, while cities are spaced much further apart.
3. As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase .
4. As a settlement increases in size, the number of higher-order services will also increase, i.e. a greater degree of specialization occurs in the services.

The higher the order of the goods and services (more durable, valuable and variable), the larger the range of the goods and services, the longer the distance people are willing to travel to acquire them.

At the base of the hierarchy pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order goods. These centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres selling high order goods. These centres are large. Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper stalls, groceries, bakeries and post offices. Examples for high order goods and services are: jewellery, large shopping arcades and malls. They are supported by a much larger threshold population and demand.

Predictions of the theory[link]

From this he deduced that settlements would tend to form in a triangular/hexagonal lattice, this being the most efficient pattern to serve areas without any overlap.^[1]

In the orderly arrangement of an urban hierarchy, seven different principal orders of settlement have been identified by Christaller, providing different groups of goods and services. Settlement are regularly spaced - equidistant spacing between same order centers, with larger centers farther apart than smaller centers. Settlements have hexagonal market areas, and are most efficient in number and functions.

The different layouts predicted by Christaller have K-values which show how much the Sphere of Influence of the central places takes in — the central place itself counts as 1 and each portion of a satellite counts as its portion:

[edit] K = 3 Marketing principle

K = 3 Principle

According to the marketing principle K = 3, the market area of a higher-order place includes a third of the market area of each of the following size neighbouring lower-order places and each is located at the corner of a hexagon around the high-order settlement. Each high-order settlement gets 1/3 of each satellite settlement, thus K = 1 + 6×1/3 = 3.

However, although in this K = 3 marketing network the distance traveled is minimized, the transport network is not the most efficient, because the important transport links between the larger places do not pass through intermediate places.

[edit] K = 4 Transport principle

K = 4 Principle

According to K = 4 transport principle, the market area of a higher-order place includes a half of the market area of each of the six neighbouring lower-order places, as they are located on the edges of hexagons around the high-order settlements. This generates a hierarchy of central places which results in the most efficient transport network. There are maximum central places possible located on the main transport routes connecting the higher order center.The transportation principle involves the minimization of the length of roads connecting central places at all hierarchi levels.in this system of nesting, the lower order centres are all located along the roads linking the higher order centres. this alignment of places along a road leads to minimization of road length. Howover, for each higher order centre, there are now four centres fo immediate lower ofder,as opposed to three centres under the marketing principle.

[edit] K = 7 Administrative principle

K = 7 Principle

According to K = 7 administrative principle (or political-social principle), settlements are nested according to sevens. The market areas of the smaller settlements are completely enclosed within the market area of the larger settlement. Since tributary areas cannot be split administratively, they must be allocated exclusively to a single higher-order place. Efficient administration is the control principle in this hierarchy.

Evaluation[link]

The validity of the central place theory may vary with local factors, such as climate, topography, history of development, technological improvement and personal preference of consumers and suppliers.

Economic status of consumers in an area is also important. Consumers of higher economic status tend to be more mobile and therefore bypass centers providing only lower order goods. The application of central place theory must be tempered by an awareness of such factors when planning shopping center space location.

Purchasing power and density affect the spacing of centers and hierarchical arrangements. Sufficient densities will allow, for example, a grocery store, a lower order function, to survive in an isolated location.

Factors shaping the extent of market areas:

• Land use: industrial areas can provide little in the way of a consuming population
• Poor accessibility: this can limit the extent of a center's market area
• Competition: this limits the extent of market areas in all directions
• Technology: high mobility afforded by the automobile allows overlapping of market areas

Market area studies provide another technique for using central place theory as a retail location planning tool. The hierarchy of shopping centers has been widely used in the planning of "new towns". In this new town, the hierarchy of business centers is evident. One main shopping center provides mostly durable goods (higher order); district and local shopping centers supply, increasingly, convenience (lower order) goods. These centers provided for in the new town plan are not free from outside competition. The impacts of surrounding existing centers on the new town centers cannot be ignored.

Examples[link]

The newly reclaimed polders of the Netherlands provide an isotropic plane on which settlements have developed and in certain areas 6 small towns can be seen surrounding a larger town, especially in the Noord-Oostpolder and Flevoland. The Fens of East Anglia in the UK also provide a large expanse of flat land with no natural barriers to settlement development. Cambridge is a good example of a K=4 Transport Model Central Place, although it is surrounded by 7, rather than 6, settlements. Each satellite is 10–15 miles from Cambridge and each lies on a major road leading out of Cambridge:

• Ely - A10 north
• Newmarket - A1303 (now bypassed by A14/A11) northeast
• Haverhill - A1307 southeast
• Saffron Walden - A1301 south
• Royston - A10 southwest
• St Neots - A428 west
• St Ives - A14 northwest

As all of the satellite settlements are on transport links, this is a good example of a K=4 CPT model (although in this case it is K=4.5 due to 7 rather than 6 settlements).

Another example of the use of CPT was in the delineation of Medical Care Regions in California. A hierarchy of primary, secondary and tertiary care cities was described, and the population size and income needed to support each medical care specialty in California determined.

Criticism[link]

The Central Place Theory has been criticized for being static; it does not incorporate the temporal aspect in the development of central places. Furthermore, the theory holds up well when it comes to agricultural areas, but not industrial or postindustrial areas due to their diversified nature of various services or their varied distribution of natural resources.

Newer developments[link]

Newer theoretical developments have shown that it is possible to overcome the static aspect of CPT. Veneris (1984) developed a theoretical model which starts with (a) a system of evenly distributed ("medieval") towns; (b) new economic activities are located in some towns thus causing differentiation and evolution into an hierarchical ("industrial")city system; (c) further differentiation leads into a post-hierarchical ("postindustrial") city system. This evolution can be modelled by means of the three major CPT theories: stage (a) is a system of von Thunen "isolated states"; stage (b) is a Christallerian hierarchical system; stage (c) is a Loschian post-hierarchical system. Furthermore, stage (b) corresponds to Chris Alexander's "tree" city, while (c) is similar to his "lattice" system (following his dictum "the city is not a tree").

The importance of a City and other Theoretical Considerations[link]

According to Smith, Walter Christaller erred in his development of CPT in 1930 by using size of population and number of telephones in determining the importance of a city. Smith recognized that although population size was important to the area served by a city, the number of kinds of services offered there was more important as a measure of the importance of a city in attracting consumers. In applying CPT to describe the delivery of medical care in California, Smith counted the number of physician specialties to determine the importance of a city in the delivery of medical care.

Christaller also erred in the assumption that cities "emerge". In California and much of the United States, many cities were situated by the railroads at the time the tracks were laid. In California, towns founded by the railroads were 12 miles apart, the amount of track a section crew could maintain in the 1850s; larger towns were 60 miles apart, the distance a steam engine could travel before needing water. Older towns were founded a day's walk apart by the Spanish priests who founded early missions.

In medical care regions described by Smith, there is a hierarchy of services, with primary care hopefully distributed throughout an area, middle sized cities offering secondary care, and metropolitan areas with tertiary care. Income, size of population, population demographics, distance to the next service center, all had an influence on the number and kind of specialists located in a population center. (Smith, 1977, 1979) For example, orthopedic surgeons are found in ski areas, obstetricians in the suburbs, and boutique specialties such as hypnosis, plastic surgery, psychiatry are more likely in high income areas. It was possible to estimate the size of population (threshold) needed to support a specialty, and also to link specialties that needed to cooperate with each other, such as hematology, oncology, and pathology, or cardiology, thoracic surgery and pulmonology.

The distribution of medical care in California followed patterns having to do with the settlement of cities. Cities and their hinterlands having characteristics of the Traffic Principle (See K=4 above) usually have six thoroughfares through them—the thoroughfares including highways, rivers, railroads, and canals. They are most efficient and can deliver the lowest cost services because transportation is cheaper. Those having settled on the market principle (K=3 above) have more expensive services and goods, as they were founded at times when transportation was more primitive. In Appalachia, for example, the market principle still prevails and rural medical care is much more expensive.

Making Central Place Theory operational[link]

CPT is often criticized as being "unrealistic". However, several studies show that it can describe existing urban systems. An important issue is that Christaller's original formulation is incorrect in several ways (Smith). These errors become apparent if we try to make CPT "operational", that is if we try to derive numerical data out of the theoretical schemata. These problems have been identified for by Veneris (1984) and subsequently by Openshaw and Veneris (2003), who provided also theoretically sound and consistent solutions, based on a K=3, 37-centre CP system:

1. Closure problem. Christaller's original scheme implies an infinite landscape. Although each market has finite size, the total system has no boundaries to it. Neither Christaller, nor the early related literature provide any guidance as to how the system can be "contained". Openshaw and Veneris (2003) identified three different types of closure, namely (a) isolated state, (b) territorial closure and (c) functional closure. Each closure type implies different population patterns.

2. Generating trips. Following the basic Christallerian logic and the closure types identified, Openshaw and Veneris (2003) calculate trip patterns between the 27 centres.

3. Calculating inter- and intra-zonal costs/distances. Christaller assumed freedom of movement in all directions, which would imply "airline" distances between centres. At the same time, he provided specific road networks for the CP system, which do not allow for airline distances. This is a major flaw which neither Christaller, nor early related literature have identified. Openshaw and Veneris (2003) calculate costs/distances which are consistent with the Christallerian principles.

Central Place Theory and Spatial Interaction Models[link]

It was once thought that central place theory is not compatible with spatial interaction models (SIM). It is paradoxical however that some times towns or shopping centres are planned with CPT, and subsequently evaluated with SIM.

Openshaw and Veneris (2003) succeeded in linking these two major regional theories in a clear and theoretically consistent way: using the data they derived from the operationalization of CPT, they experimented with several SIM. Following a thorough investigation via computer simulation, they reached important theoretical and practical conclusions.

Smith was able to delineate medical care regions (the range), describe the hierarchy of medical services, the population base required of each medical specialty (threshold), the efficiency of regions, and the importance of how an area was settled to the delivery of medical care, that is, according to traffic, market or administrative principles.

See also[link]

• Demographic gravitation
• Fractal
• Penrose tiling
• Zipf's law
• Boundary problem (in spatial analysis)

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Openshaw S, Veneris Y, 2003, "Numerical experiments with central place theory and spatial interaction modelling" Environment and Planning A 35(8) 1389–1403 ([1])
• Veneris, Y, 1984, Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
• Smith, Margot W. Physician's Specialties and Medical Trade Areas: An Application of Central Place Theory. Papers and Proceedings of Applied Geography Conferences, Vol. 9, West Point NY 1986.
• Smith, Margot W. A Guide to the Delineation of Medical Care Regions, Medical Trade Areas and Hospital Service Areas. Public Health Reports, 94:3:247 May 1979
• Smith, Margot W. The Economics of Physician Location, Western Regional Conference, American Association of Geographers, Chicago, Illinois, 1979
• Smith, Margot W. The Distribution of Medical Care in Central California: a Social and Economic Analysis, Thesis, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, 1977 - 1004 pages

External links[link]

• Walter Christaller's Theory of Central Places
• Walter Christaller: Hierarchical Patterns of Urbanization
• Christaller's Central Place Theory
• Christaller - Course notes
• Central Places Theory

Place theory is a theory of hearing which states that our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane. By this theory, the pitch of a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of the primary auditory neurons.^[1][2]

More generally, schemes that base attributes of auditory perception on the neural firing rate as a function of place are known as rate–place schemes.^[3]

The main alternative to the place theory is the temporal theory,^[2] also known as timing theory.^[1] These theories are closely linked with the volley principle or volley theory,^[4] a mechanism by which groups of neurons can encode the timing of a sound waveform. In all cases, neural firing patterns in time determine the perception of pitch. The combination known as the place–volley theory uses both mechanisms in combination, primarily coding low pitches by temporal pattern and high pitches by rate–place patterns.^[4] It is now generally believed that there is good evidence for both mechanisms.^[5]

The place theory is usually attributed to Hermann Helmholtz, though it was widely believed much earlier.^[6][7]

Experiments to distinguish between place theory and rate theory are difficult to devise, because of the strong correlation: large vibrations with low rate are produced at the apical end of the [basilar membrane] while large vibrations with high rate are produced at the basal end. The two can be controlled independently using cochlear implants: pulses with a range of rates can be applied via electrodes distributed along the membrane. Experiments using implant recipients showed that, at low stimulation rates, ratings of pitch on a pitch scale were proportional to the log of stimulation rate, but also decreased with distance from the round window. At higher rates, the effect of rate was weaker, but the effect of place was strong.^[8]

References[link]

1. ^ ^{a b} George Mather (2006). Foundations of perception. Psychology Press. ISBN 0-86377-834-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=oUNfSjS11ggC&pg=PA123&dq=pitch+%22place+theory%22#PPA123,M1. 
2. ^ ^{a b} Brian C. J. Moore (2003). An introduction to the psychology of hearing. Emeraldn Group Publishing. ISBN 0-12-505628-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=tkbOivKH2HkC&pg=PA196&dq=pitch+%22temporal+theory%22+places+tonotopic+%22place+theory%22+alternative. 
3. ^ Bertrand Delgutte (1999). "Auditory Neural Processing of Speech". In William J. Hardcastle and John Laver. The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-21478-X. http://books.google.com/books?id=VrMEG-lKcaEC&pg=PA515&dq=rate+place+theory+hearing+spectrum. 
4. ^ ^{a b} Stanley A. Gelfand (2001). Essentials of Audiology. Thieme. ISBN 1-58890-017-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=UqXS8CLJML4C&pg=PA72&dq=%22temporal+theory%22+%22volley+theory%22. 
5. ^ Alain d'Cheveigné (2005). "Pitch Perception Models". In Christopher J. Plack, Andrew J. Oxenham, Richard R. Fay, and Arthur N. Popper. Pitch. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-387-23472-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=n6VdlK3AQykC&pg=PT214&dq=place+pitch++volley+theory++believed. 
6. ^ Charles Lightfoot Barnes (1897). Practical Acoustics. Macmillan. pp. 160. http://books.google.com/books?id=6TQIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA160&dq=cochlea+Corti+Helmholtz+intitle:acoustics. 
7. ^ Benjamin Martin (1781). The Young Gentleman and Lady's Philosophy: In a Continued Survey of the Works of Nature and Art by Way of Dialogue. W. Owen. http://books.google.com/books?id=UHgKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA415&dq=Corti+cochlea+%22experienced%22+intitle:philosophy+inauthor:benjamin+inauthor:martin. 
8. ^ Fearn R, Carter P, Wolfe J (1999). "The perception of pitch by users of cochlear implants: possible significance for rate and place theories of pitch". Acoustics Australia 27 (2): 41–43. http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/Fearnetal.html. 

External links[link]

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Robert Burns
The best-known portrait of Burns, by Alexander Nasmyth, 1787 (detail)
Born	(1759-01-25)25 January 1759 Ayrshire, Scotland
Died	21 July 1796(1796-07-21) (aged 37) Dumfries, Scotland
Occupation	Poet, lyricist, farmer, exciseman
Nationality	Scottish
Literary movement	Romanticism
Notable work(s)	Auld Lang Syne, To a Mouse, A Man's A Man for A' That, Ae Fond Kiss, Scots Wha Hae, Tam O'Shanter, Halloween, The Battle of Sherramuir
Influences Robert Fergusson
Influenced The Brontë Sisters, John Clare, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Bob Dylan, James Whitcomb Riley, Frank Lebby Stanton, John Steinbeck, William Wordsworth, J. D. Salinger, James Joyce
Signature

Robert Burns (25 January 1759 – 21 July 1796) (also known as Rabbie Burns, Scotland's favourite son, the Ploughman Poet, Robden of Solway Firth, the Bard of Ayrshire and in Scotland as simply The Bard)^[1][2] was a Scottish poet and a lyricist. He is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland, and is celebrated worldwide. He is the best known of the poets who have written in the Scots language, although much of his writing is also in English and a "light" Scots dialect, accessible to an audience beyond Scotland. He also wrote in standard English, and in these his political or civil commentary is often at its most blunt.

He is regarded as a pioneer of the Romantic movement, and after his death he became a great source of inspiration to the founders of both liberalism and socialism, and a cultural icon in Scotland and among the Scottish Diaspora around the world. Celebration of his life and work became almost a national charismatic cult during the 19th and 20th centuries, and his influence has long been strong on Scottish literature. In 2009 he was chosen as the 'Greatest Scot' by the Scottish public in a vote run by Scottish television channel STV.

As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them. His poem (and song) Auld Lang Syne is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and Scots Wha Hae served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country. Other poems and songs of Burns that remain well-known across the world today include A Red, Red Rose; A Man's A Man for A' That; To a Louse; To a Mouse; The Battle of Sherramuir; Tam o' Shanter, and Ae Fond Kiss.

Ayrshire[link]

Burns Cottage in Alloway, Scotland

Inside the Burns Cottage Museum in Alloway.

Alloway[link]

Burns was born two miles (3 km) south of Ayr, in Alloway, South Ayrshire, Scotland, the eldest of the seven children of William Burnes (1721–1784) (Robert Burns spelled his surname Burnes until 1786), a self-educated tenant farmer from Dunnottar, The Mearns, and Agnes Broun (or Brown)^[3][4] (1732–1820), the daughter of a tenant farmer from Kirkoswald, South Ayrshire.

He was born in a house built by his father (now the Burns Cottage Museum), where he lived until Easter 1766, when he was seven years old. William Burnes sold the house and took the tenancy of the 70-acre (280,000 m²) Mount Oliphant farm, southeast of Alloway. Here Burns grew up in poverty and hardship, and the severe manual labour of the farm left its traces in a premature stoop and a weakened constitution.

He had little regular schooling and got much of his education from his father, who taught his children reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and history and also wrote for them A Manual Of Christian Belief. He was also taught by John Murdoch (1747–1824), who opened an 'adventure school' in Alloway in 1763 and taught Latin, French, and mathematics to both Robert and his brother Gilbert (1760–1827) from 1765 to 1768 until Murdoch left the parish. After a few years of home education, Burns was sent to Dalrymple Parish School during the summer of 1772 before returning at harvest time to full-time farm labouring until 1773, when he was sent to lodge with Murdoch for three weeks to study grammar, French, and Latin.

By the age of 15, Burns was the principal labourer at Mount Oliphant. During the harvest of 1774, he was assisted by Nelly Kilpatrick (1759–1820), who inspired his first attempt at poetry, O, Once I Lov'd A Bonnie Lass. In the summer of 1775, he was sent to finish his education with a tutor at Kirkoswald, where he met Peggy Thompson (b.1762), to whom he wrote two songs, Now Westlin' Winds and I Dream'd I Lay.

Tarbolton[link]

Despite his ability and character, William Burnes was consistently unfortunate, and migrated with his large family from farm to farm without ever being able to improve his circumstances. At Whitsun, 1777, he removed his large family from the unfavourable conditions of Mount Oliphant to the 130-acre (0.53 km²) farm at Lochlea, near Tarbolton, where they stayed until William Burnes' death in 1784. Subsequently, the family became integrated into the community of Tarbolton. To his father's disapproval, Robert joined a country dancing school in 1779 and, with Gilbert, formed the Tarbolton Bachelors' Club the following year. His earliest existing letters date from this time, when he began making romantic overtures to Alison Begbie (b. 1762). In spite of four songs written for her and a suggestion that he was willing to marry her, she rejected him.

Robert Burns was initiated into masonic Lodge St David Tarbolton on 4 July 1781, when he was 22.

In December 1781, Burns moved temporarily to Irvine, North Ayrshire to learn to become a flax-dresser, but during the workers' celebrations for New Year 1781/1782 (which included Burns as a participant) the flax shop caught fire and was burnt to the ground. This venture accordingly came to an end, and Burns went home to Lochlea farm. During this time he met and befriended Captain Richard Brown who encouraged him to become a poet.

He continued to write poems and songs and began a commonplace book in 1783, while his father fought a legal dispute with his landlord. The case went to the Court of Session, and Burnes was upheld in January 1784, a fortnight before he died.

Mauchline[link]

Full view of the Naysmith portrait of 1787, Scottish National Portrait Gallery

Robert and Gilbert made an ineffectual struggle to keep on the farm, but after its failure they moved to the farm at Mossgiel, near Mauchline in March, which they maintained with an uphill fight for the next four years. During the summer of 1784, Robbie came to know a group of girls known collectively as The Belles of Mauchline, one of whom was Jean Armour, the daughter of a stonemason from Mauchline.

Love affairs[link]

His casual love affairs did not endear him to the elders of the local kirk and created for him a reputation amongst his neighbours for dissoluteness. His first child, Elizabeth Paton Burns (1785–1817), was born to his mother's servant, Elizabeth Paton (1760-circa 1799) while he was embarking on a relationship with Jean Armour, who became pregnant with twins in March 1786. Burns signed a paper attesting his marriage to Jean, but her father "was in the greatest distress, and fainted away." To avoid disgrace, her parents sent her to live with her uncle in Paisley. Although Armour's father initially forbade it, they were eventually married in 1788.^[5] Armour bore him nine children only three of whom survived infancy.

Burns was in financial difficulties due to his want of success in farming, and to make enough money to support a family he took up a friend's offer of work in Jamaica^[6], at a salary of £30 per annum.^[7][8] The position that Burns accepted was as a bookkeeper on a slave plantation. This seems inconsistent with Burns' egalitarian views as typified by The Slave's Lament six years later, but in 1786 there was little public awareness of the abolitionist movement that began about that time.^[9][10]

At about the same time, Burns fell in love with Mary Campbell (1763–1786), whom he had seen in church while he was still living in Tarbolton. She was born near Dunoon and had lived in Campbeltown before moving to work in Ayrshire. He dedicated the poems The Highland Lassie O, Highland Mary and To Mary in Heaven to her. His song "Will ye go to the Indies, my Mary, And leave auld Scotia's shore?" suggests that they planned to emigrate to Jamaica together. Their relationship has been the subject of much conjecture, and it has been suggested that on 14 May 1786 they exchanged Bibles and plighted their troth over the Water of Fail in a traditional form of marriage. Soon afterwards Mary Campbell left her work in Ayrshire, went to the seaport of Greenock, and sailed home to her parents in Campbeltown.^[7][8]

Kilmarnock Edition[link]

As Burns lacked the funds to pay for his passage to the West Indies, Gavin Hamilton suggested that he should "publish his poems in the mean time by subscription, as a likely way of getting a little money to provide him more liberally in necessaries for Jamaica." On 3 April Burns sent proposals for publishing his Scotch Poems to John Wilson, a local printer in Kilmarnock, who published these proposals on 14 April 1786, on the same day that Jean Armour's father tore up the paper in which Burns attested his marriage to Jean. To obtain a certificate that he was a free bachelor, Burns agreed on 25 June to stand for rebuke in Mauchline kirk for three Sundays. He transferred his share in Mossgiel farm to his brother Gilbert on 22 July, and on 30 July wrote to tell his friend John Richmond that, "Armour has got a warrant to throw me in jail until I can find a warrant for an enormous sum ... I am wandering from one friend's house to another."^[11]

On 31 July 1786 John Wilson published the volume of works by Robert Burns, Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish dialect.^[12] Known as the Kilmarnock volume, it sold for 3 shillings and contained much of his best writing, including The Twa Dogs; Address to the Deil; Halloween; The Cotter's Saturday Night; To a Mouse; Epitaph for James Smith and To a Mountain Daisy, many of which had been written at Mossgiel farm. The success of the work was immediate, and soon he was known across the country.

Burns postponed his proposed emigration to Jamaica on 1 September, and was at Mossgiel two days later when he learnt that Jean Armour had given birth to twins. On 4 September Thomas Blacklock wrote a letter expressing admiration for the poetry in the Kilmarnock volume, and suggesting an enlarged second edition.^[12] A copy of it was passed to Burns, who later recalled, "I had taken the last farewell of my few friends, my chest was on the road to Greenock; I had composed the last song I should ever measure in Scotland – 'The Gloomy night is gathering fast' – when a letter from Dr Blacklock to a friend of mine overthrew all my schemes, by opening new prospects to my poetic ambition. The Doctor belonged to a set of critics for whose applause I had not dared to hope. His opinion that I would meet with encouragement in Edinburgh for a second edition, fired me so much, that away I posted for that city, without a single acquaintance, or a single letter of introduction."^[13]

In October, Mary Campbell (Highland Mary) and her father sailed from Campbeltown to visit her brother in Greenock. Her brother fell ill with typhus, which she also caught while nursing him. She died of typhus on 20 or 21 October 1786, and was buried there.^[8]

Edinburgh[link]

Engraved version of the Alexander Nasmyth 1787 portrait

On 27 November 1786, Burns borrowed a pony and set out for Edinburgh. On 14 December William Creech issued subscription bills for the first Edinburgh edition of Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish dialect, which was published on 17 April 1787. Within a week of this event, Burns had sold his copyright to Creech for 100 guineas.^[12] For the edition, Creech commissioned Alexander Nasmyth to paint the oval bust-length portrait now in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, which was engraved to provide a frontispiece for the book. Nasmyth had got to know Burns and his fresh and appealing image has become the basis for almost all subsequent representations of the poet.^[14] In Edinburgh, he was received as an equal by the city's brilliant men of letters—including Dugald Stewart, Robertson, Blair and others—and was a guest at aristocratic gatherings, where he bore himself with unaffected dignity. Here he encountered, and made a lasting impression on, the 16-year-old Walter Scott, who described him later with great admiration:

Burns statue by David Watson Stevenson in Bernard Street, Leith

The grave of 'Clarinda' in the Canongate Kirkyard

The new edition of his poems brought Burns £400. His stay in the city also resulted in some lifelong friendships, among which were those with Lord Glencairn, and Frances Anna Dunlop (1730–1815), who became his occasional sponsor and with whom he corresponded for many years until a rift developed. He embarked on a relationship with the separated Agnes 'Nancy' McLehose (1758–1841), with whom he exchanged passionate letters under pseudonyms (Burns called himself 'Sylvander' and Nancy 'Clarinda'). When it became clear that Nancy would not be easily seduced into a physical relationship, Burns moved on to Jenny Clow (1766–1792), Nancy's domestic servant, who bore him a son, Robert Burns Clow, in 1788. He also had an affair with a servant girl. Margaret 'May' Cameron. His relationship with Nancy concluded in 1791 with a final meeting in Edinburgh before she sailed to Jamaica for what transpired to be a short-lived reconciliation with her estranged husband. Before she left, he sent her the manuscript of Ae Fond Kiss as a farewell.

In Edinburgh, in early 1787, he met James Johnson, a struggling music engraver and music seller with a love of old Scots songs and a determination to preserve them. Burns shared this interest and became an enthusiastic contributor to The Scots Musical Museum. The first volume was published in 1787 and included three songs by Burns. He contributed 40 songs to volume 2, and would end up responsible for about a third of the 600 songs in the whole collection, as well as making a considerable editorial contribution. The final volume was published in 1803.

Dumfries[link]

Ellisland Farm[link]

The River Nith at Ellisland Farm.

Ellisland farm in the time of Robert Burns

On his return to Ayrshire on 18 February 1788 he resumed his relationship with Jean Armour and took a lease on the farm of Ellisland near Dumfries on 18 March (settling there on 11 June) but trained as a Gauger or exciseman, in case farming continued to prove unsuccessful. He was appointed to duties in Customs and Excise in 1789 and eventually gave up the farm in 1791. Meanwhile, he was writing at his best, and in November 1790 had produced Tam O' Shanter. About this time he was offered and declined an appointment in London on the staff of 'The Star' newspaper,^[15] and refused to become a candidate for a newly-created Chair of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh,^[15] although influential friends offered to support his claims.

Lyricist[link]

After giving up his farm he removed to Dumfries. Burns described the Globe Inn (still running today) on the High Street as his "favourite howff" (or "inn").

Burns House in Dumfries, Scotland

It was at this time that, being requested to write lyrics for The Melodies of Scotland, he responded by contributing over 100 songs. He made major contributions to George Thomson's A Select Collection of Original Scottish Airs for the Voice as well as to James Johnson's The Scots Musical Museum. Arguably his claim to immortality chiefly rests on these volumes, which placed him in the front rank of lyric poets. Burns described how he had to master singing the tune before he composed the words:

Burns also worked to collect and preserve Scottish folk songs, sometimes revising, expanding, and adapting them. One of the better known of these collections is The Merry Muses of Caledonia (the title is not Burns'), a collection of bawdy lyrics that were popular in the music halls of Scotland as late as the 20th century. Many of Burns' most famous poems are songs with the music based upon older traditional songs. For example, Auld Lang Syne is set to the traditional tune Can Ye Labour Lea, A Red, Red Rose is set to the tune of Major Graham and The Battle of Sherramuir is set to the Cameronian Rant.

Failing health and death[link]

The death room of Robert Burns

Robert Burns Mausoleum at St. Michael's churchyard in Dumfries.

Statue of Burns in Dumfries town centre, unveiled in 1882.

Burns's worldly prospects were now perhaps better than they had ever been; but he had become soured, and moreover had alienated many of his best friends by too freely expressing sympathy with the French Revolution and the then unpopular advocates of reform at home. As his health began to give way, he began to age prematurely and fell into fits of despondency. The habits of intemperance (alleged mainly by temperance activist James Currie^[16]) are said to have aggravated his long-standing possible rheumatic heart condition.^[17] His death followed a dental extraction in winter 1795.

On the morning of 21 July 1796 Robert Burns died in Dumfries, at the age of 37. The funeral took place on Monday 25 July 1796, the day that his son Maxwell was born. He was at first buried in the far corner of St. Michael's Churchyard in Dumfries; his body was eventually moved to its final resting place in the same cemetery, the Burns Mausoleum, in September 1815. The body of Jean Armour was laid to rest with his in 1834.^[17]

His widow, Jean, had taken steps to secure his movable estate, partly by liquidating two promissory notes amounting to fifteen pounds sterling (about 1,100 pounds at 2009 prices).^[18] The family went to the Court of Session in 1798 with a scheme to support his surviving children by publishing a four-volume edition of his complete works and a biography written by Dr. James Currie. Subscriptions were raised to meet the initial cost of publication, which was in the hands of Thomas Cadell and William Davies in London and William Creech, bookseller in Edinburgh.^[19] Hogg records that fund-raising for Burns' family was embarrassingly slow, and it took several years to accumulate significant funds through the efforts of John Syme and Alexander Cunningham.^[17]

Burns was posthumously given the freedom of the town of Dumfries.^[16] Hogg records that Burns was given the freedom of the Burgh of Dumfries on 4 June 1787, 9 years before his death, and was also made an Honorary Burgess of Dumfries.^[20]

Through his twelve children, Burns has over 600 living descendents as of 2012.^[21]

Literary style[link]

Burns' style is marked by spontaneity, directness and sincerity, and ranges from the tender intensity of some of his lyrics through the rollicking humour and blazing wit of Tam o' Shanter and the blistering satire of Holy Willie's Prayer and The Holy Fair.

Burns' poetry drew upon a substantial familiarity with and knowledge of Classical, Biblical, and English literature, as well as the Scottish Makar tradition.^[22] Burns was skilled in writing not only in the Scots language but also in the Scottish English dialect of the English language. Some of his works, such as Love and Liberty (also known as The Jolly Beggars), are written in both Scots and English for various effects.^[23]

His themes included republicanism (he lived during the French Revolutionary period) and Radicalism, which he expressed covertly in Scots Wha Hae, Scottish patriotism, anticlericalism, class inequalities, gender roles, commentary on the Scottish Kirk of his time, Scottish cultural identity, poverty, sexuality, and the beneficial aspects of popular socialising (carousing, Scotch whisky, folk songs, and so forth).^[24]

The strong emotional highs and lows associated with many of Burns' poems have led some, such as Burns biographer Robert Crawford,^[25] to suggest that he suffered from manic depression— a hypothesis that has been supported by analysis of various samples of his handwriting. Burns himself referred to suffering from episodes of what he called "blue devilism". However, the National Trust for Scotland has downplayed the suggestion on the grounds that evidence is insufficient to support the claim.^[26] While Burns's life was troubled and his character was flawed in many ways, he fought at tremendous odds. As Thomas Carlyle puts it in his Essay:

Gallery[link]

• 

  Burns statue sculpted by George Edwin Ewing, unveiled in Glasgow in 1877

• 

  Burns statue sculpted by Sir John Steell, unveiled in Central Park, New York in 1880

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  Burns statue erected in Dundee in 1880. A companion statue from the same cast as the New York statue

• 

  Burns statue in Dunedin, New Zealand, unveiled in 1887. A companion statue from the same cast as the New York statue. Dunedin was settled by Burns' nephew

• 

  Burns statue by Henry Bain Smith 1892, Union Terrace Gardens in Aberdeen

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  Burns statue at Irvine, North Ayrshire, unveiled in 1896

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  'The Cotter's Saturday Night' panel, Burns Statue, Leith (1898)

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  Burns Monument by Emanuel Hahn (1902) in Allan Gardens, Toronto, Canada

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  Burns statue in Golden Gate National Park, San Francisco (1908)

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  Burns statue in Schenley Park, Pittsburgh (1914)

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  Burns statue in Stanley Park, Vancouver Canada, unveiled in 1928

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  Burns statue in Dorchester Square, Montréal, Québec Canada, unveiled in 1930

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  Burns statue erected by Clement Wilson at Eglinton Country Park, North Ayrshire (mid-1990s)

Influence[link]

Scotland and the rest of Britain[link]

Burns is generally classified as a proto-Romantic poet, and he influenced William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Percy Bysshe Shelley greatly. His direct literary influences in the use of Scots in poetry were Allan Ramsay (1686-1758) and Robert Fergusson. The Edinburgh literati worked to sentimentalise Burns during his life and after his death, dismissing his education by calling him a "heaven-taught ploughman". Burns would influence later Scottish writers, especially Hugh MacDiarmid, who fought to dismantle what he felt had become a sentimental cult that dominated Scottish literature.

United States[link]

An example of Burns' literary influence in the U.S. is seen in the choice by novelist John Steinbeck of the title of his 1937 novel, Of Mice and Men, taken from a line in the second-to-last stanza of To a Mouse: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men /Gang aft agley." Burns' influence on American vernacular poets such as James Whitcomb Riley and Frank Lebby Stanton has been acknowledged by their biographers.^[27] When asked for the source of his greatest creative inspiration, singer songwriter Bob Dylan selected Burns's 1794 song A Red, Red Rose, as the lyric that had the biggest effect on his life.^[28][29] The author J. D. Salinger used protagonist Holden Caulfield's misinterpretation of Burns' poem Comin' Through the Rye as his title and a main interpretation of Holden's grasping to his childhood in his 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye. The poem, actually about a rendezvous, is thought by Holden to be about saving people from falling out of childhood.^[30]

Russia[link]

Burns became the "people's poet" of Russia. In Imperial Russia Burns was translated into Russian and became a source of inspiration for the ordinary, oppressed Russian people. In Soviet Russia, he was elevated as the archetypal poet of the people. As a great admirer of the egalitarian ethos behind the American and French Revolutions who expressed his own egalitarianism in poems such as his Birthday Ode for George Washington or his Is There for Honest Poverty (A Man's a Man for a' that), Burns was well placed for endorsement by the Communist regime as a "progressive" artist. A new translation of Burns begun in 1924 by Samuil Marshak proved enormously popular, selling over 600,000 copies.^[31] The USSR honoured Burns with a commemorative stamp in 1956. He remains popular in Russia after the fall of the Soviet Union.^[32]

Honours[link]

Landmarks and organisations[link]

Ellisland Farm c. 1900.

Burns clubs have been founded worldwide. The first one, known as The Mother Club, was founded in Greenock in 1801 by merchants born in Ayrshire, some of whom had known Burns. The club set its original objectives as "To cherish the name of Robert Burns; to foster a love of his writings, and generally to encourage an interest in the Scottish language and literature." The club also continues to have local charitable work as a priority.^[33]

Burns' birthplace in Alloway is now a public museum known as Burns Cottage. His house in Dumfries is operated as the Robert Burns House, and the Robert Burns Centre in Dumfries features more exhibits about his life and works. Ellisland Farm in Auldgirth, which he owned from 1788 to 1791, is maintained as a working farm with a museum and interpretation centre by the Friends of Ellisland Farm.

Significant 19th-century monuments to him stand in Alloway, Edinburgh and Dumfries. An early 20th century replica of his birthplace cottage belonging to the Burns Club Atlanta stands in Atlanta, Georgia. These are part of a large list of Robert Burns memorials and statues around the world.

Organisations include the Robert Burns Fellowship of the University of Otago in New Zealand, and the Burns Club Atlanta in the United States. Towns named after Robert Burns include Burns, New York, and Burns, Oregon.

In the suburb of Summerhill, Dumfries, the majority of the streets have names with Burns connotations. A BR Standard Class 7 steam locomotive was named after him, along with a later British Rail Class 87 electric locomotive, No.87035.

On 24 September 1996, class 156 diesel unit 156433 was named "The Kilmarnock Edition" by Jimmy Knapp, General Secretary of the RMT union, at Girvan Station to launch the new 'Burns Line' services between Girvan, Ayr and Kilmarnock, supported by Strathclyde Passenger Transport (SPT).

Several streets surrounding the Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr.'s Back Bay Fens in Boston, Massachusetts were designated with Burns connotations. A life size statue was dedicated in Burns' honor within the Back Bay Fens of the West Fenway neighbourhood in 1912. It stood until 1972 when it was relocated downtown, sparking protests from the neighbourhood, literary fans, and preservationists of Olmsted's vision for the Back Bay Fens.

There is a statue of Robbie Burns in The Octagon, Dunedin, in the same pose as the one in Dundee. Dunedin's first European settlers were Scots; Thomas Burns, a nephew of Robbie Burns, was one of Dunedin's founding fathers.

A crater on Mercury is named after Robert Burns.

Stamps and currency[link]

Burns stamp, USSR 1956

The Soviet Union was the first country in the world to honour Burns with a commemorative stamp, marking the 160th anniversary of his death in 1956.^[34]

The Royal Mail has issued postage stamps commemorating Burns three times. In 1966, two stamps were issued, priced fourpence and 1 shilling and threepence, both carrying Burns' portrait. In 1996, an issue commemorating the bicentenary of his death comprised four stamps, priced 19p, 25p, 41p and 60p and including quotes from Burns' poems. On 22 January 2009, two stamps were issued by the Royal Mail to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Burns' birth.

Burns was pictured on the Clydesdale Bank £5 note from 1971 to 2009.^[35][36] On the reverse of the note was a vignette of a field mouse and a wild rose in reference to Burns' poem To a Mouse. The Clydesdale Bank's notes were redesigned in 2009 and, since then, he has been pictured on the front of their £10 note.^[36] In September 2007, the Bank of Scotland redesigned their banknotes to feature famous Scottish bridges. The reverse side of new £5 features Brig o' Doon, famous from Burns' poem Tam O' Shanter, and pictures the statue of Burns at that site.^[37]

In 1996 the Isle of Man issued a four coin set of Crown (5/-) pieces on the themes of Auld Lang Syne, Edinburgh Castle, Revenue Cutter and Writing Poems.^[38] Tristan da Cunha produced a gold £5 Bicentenary Coin.^[39]

In 2009, the Royal Mint issued a commemorative two pound coin featuring a quote from Auld Lang Syne.^[40]

Musical tributes[link]

In 1996, a musical about Burns' life called Red Red Rose won third place at a competition for new musicals in Denmark. Robert Burns was played by John Barrowman. On 25 January 2008, a musical play about the love affair between Robert Burns and Nancy McLehose entitled "Clarinda" premiered in Edinburgh before touring Scotland.^[41] Eddi Reader has released two albums, Sings the Songs of Robert Burns and The Songs of Robert Burns Deluxe Edition, about the work of the poet.

Burns suppers[link]

"Great chieftain o' the puddin-race!" Cutting the haggis at a Burns supper.

Burns Night, in effect a second national day, is celebrated on Burns' birthday, 25 January with Burns suppers around the world, and is more widely observed in Scotland than the official national day, St. Andrew's Day. The first Burns supper in The Mother Club in Greenock was held on what was thought to be his birthday on 29 January 1802; in 1803 it was discovered from the Ayr parish records that the correct date was 25 January 1759.^[33] The format of Burns suppers has changed little since. The basic format starts with a general welcome and announcements, followed with the Selkirk Grace. After the grace comes the piping and cutting of the haggis, when Burns' famous Address To a Haggis is read and the haggis is cut open. The event usually allows for people to start eating just after the haggis is presented. This is when the reading called the "immortal memory", an overview of Burns' life and work, is given. The event usually concludes with the singing of Auld Lang Syne.

Greatest Scot[link]

In 2009, STV ran a television series and public vote to decide who should be chosen as the 'Greatest Scot'. On St Andrew's day, STV revealed that the results of the public vote were that Robert Burns had been voted officially the greatest Scot of all time, narrowly beating William Wallace, Scottish patriot and independence campaigner, for the title.^[42]

See also[link]

Poetry portal

Notes[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Robert Burns

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Robert Burns

• site of Burns Cottage Museum^{[dead link]}
• Works by Robert Burns at Project Gutenberg
• National Library of Scotland's Burns site
• Archival material relating to Robert Burns listed at the UK National Register of Archives
• Legacy of Robert Burns - National Archives of Scotland website
• Works by Robert Burns on Open Library at the Internet Archive
• Burns Collection -Scottish national archive of Burns-related portraits, manuscripts & objects^{[dead link]}

v t e Poetry by Robert Burns "Comin' Thro' the Rye" (1782) "John Barleycorn" (1782) "Address to the Deil" (1785) "Epitaph for James Smith" (1785) Halloween (1785) Holy Willie's Prayer (1785) "To a Mouse" (1785) The Kilmarnock volume (1786) "To a Louse" (1786) "To a Mountain Daisy" (1786) "The Battle of Sherramuir" (1787) "The Birks of Aberfeldy" (1787) "Auld Lang Syne" (1788) Tam o' Shanter (1790) "Ae Fond Kiss" (1791) "Sweet Afton" (1791) "The Slave's Lament" (1792) "Oh, whistle and I'll come to you, my lad" (1793) "Scots Wha Hae" (1793) "A Red, Red Rose" (1794) "Is There for Honest Poverty" (1795)