Sir Syed, the founder of Aligarh movement

Aligarh Movement (Urdu: تحریک علی گڑھ) was the movement led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, to educate the Muslims of the South Asia after the defeat of the rebels in the Indian rebellion of 1857. It had enormous success and had a profound impact on the future of the subcontinent. Its most significant achievement was the establishment of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, which later became Aligarh Muslim University, a centre of Pakistan Movement and Indian Independence Movement.

Aligarh Muslim University

Background[link]

The War of Independence 1857 ended in disaster for the Muslims. The British chose to believe that the Muslims were responsible for the anti-British uprising; therefore they made them the subject of ruthless punishments and merciless vengeance. With the rebellion of 1857, this feeling was intensified and every attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. After dislodging the Muslim Nawabs from the throne, the new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes. The policy banned Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835. This spawned a negative attitude amongst the Muslims towards everything modern and western, and a disinclination to make use of the opportunities available under the new regime.

Seeing this atmosphere of despair and despondency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit of progress within the Muslim community of India. He was convinced that the Muslims in their attempt to regenerate themselves, had failed to realize the fact that mankind had entered a very important phase of its existence, i.e., an era of science and learning. He knew that the realization of the very fact was the source of progress and prosperity for the British. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for regeneration of the Indian Muslims. He tried to transform the Muslim outlook from a medieval one to a modern one.

Movement[link]

Sir Syed's first and foremost objective was to acquaint the British with the Indian mind; his next goal was to open the minds of his countrymen to European literature, science and technology.

Therefore, in order to attain these goals, Sir Syed launched the Aligarh Movement of which Aligarh was the center. He had two immediate objectives in mind: to remove the state of misunderstanding and tension between the Muslims and the new British government, and to induce them to go after the opportunities available under the new regime without deviating in any way from the fundamentals of their faith. Keeping education and social reform as the two planks of his program, he launched the Aligarh Movement with the following objectives:

[edit] Efforts made by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Fortunately, Syed Ahmad Khan was able to attract into his orbit a number of sincere friends who shared his views and helped him. Among them were well-known figures like Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk, Hali, Shibli, Maulvi Nazir Ahmad, Chiragh Ali, Mohammad Hayat, and Zakaullah. Above all, his gifted son Syed Mahmood, a renowned scholar, jurist and educationist, was a great source of help to him.

Syed Ahmad also succeeded in enlisting the services of a number of distinguished English professors like Bech, Morison, Raleigh and Arnold who gave their best in building up the Aligarh College into a first-rate institution.

A brief chronology of Syed Ahmad's efforts is given below:

1859: Built Gulshan School in Muradabad.

1863: Set up Victoria School in Ghazipur.

1864: Set up the Scientific Society in Aligarh. This society was involved in the translation of English works into the native language.

1866: Aligarh Institute Gazette. This imparted information on history; ancient and modern science of agriculture, natural and physical sciences and advanced mathematics. This journal was published until 1926.

1870: Committee Striving for the Educational Progress of Muslims.

1875: Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School (M. A. O.), Aligarh, setup on the pattern of English public schools. Later raised to the level of college in 1877 and university in 1920.

1886: Muhammadan Educational Conference. This conference met every year to take stock of the educational problems of the Muslims and to persuade them to get modern education and abstain from politics. It later became the political mouthpiece of the Indian Muslims and was the forerunner of the Muslim League.

[edit] Writings of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Besides his prominent role in the educational uplift of the Muslims, Syed Ahmad Khan's writings played an important role in popularizing the ideals for which the Aligarh stood. His essay on "The Causes of Indian Revolt in 1858", and other writings such as "Loyal Muhammadans of India", Tabyin-ul-Kalam and "A Series of Essays on the Life of Muhammad and Subjects Subsidiary Therein" helped to create cordial relations between the British Government and the Indian Muslims. They also helped to remove misunderstandings about Islam and Christianity. It was from this platform that Syed Ahmad Khan strongly advised the Muslims against joining the Hindu dominated Congress. He was in favor of reserved seats for Muslims and also promoted the idea that Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations. This idea led to the Two-Nation Theory.

Syed Ahmad Khan's Aligarh Movement played a significant role in bringing about an intellectual revolution among the Indian Muslims. Thus it succeeded in achieving its major objectives, i.e. educational progress and social reform. His efforts earned Sir Syed the title "Prophet of Education".

Education[link]

Sir Syed held the view that acquisition of modern education would help in the progress and development of Muslim so he set up a scientific study at Ghazipur in 1862 which established many educational institution at different places. Due to this, application of modern scientific knowledge became easy. They helped the development of the Urdu language because modern subjects were translated into it.

See also[link]

• Sir Syed
• Aligarh Muslim University
• The Federation of Aligarh Alumni Associations
• Pakistan Movement

References[link]

EDUCATIONAL REVOLUTION The Aligarh movement launched by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan influenced the Muslims in the country, particularly in South India( ALLAH RAKHA )

External links[link]

• Comprehensive detail about Aligarh Movement
• Tehrik Aligarh at Pakistan Movement
• Aligarh movement at Story of Pakistan page
• Aligarh Muslim University Alumni Website
• Sir Syed Ahmad Khan - The War of Independence (1857)
• Aligarh movement at MeraChaman
• Muslim Students'Organization of India AMU Unit

v t e Aligarh Muslim University and the Aligarh Movement History 1857 War of Independence Hindi-Urdu controversy Aligarh Movement MAO College Aligarh Muslim University Pakistan movement Pioneers Sir Syed Syed Mahmood Mohsin-ul-Mulk Viqar-ul-Mulk Maulana Hali Sultan Shahjahan Begum Agha Khan Hakim Ajmal Khan Syed Zafarul Hasan more... Alumni Ross Masood Maulana Mohammad Ali Liaquat Ali Khan Khawaja Nazimuddin Zakir Hussain Abdur Rab Nishtar Sheikh Abdullah Ziauddin Ahmed Maulana Shaukat Ali Zafar Ali Khan more...

v t e Pakistan Movement History East India Company Indian Rebellion of 1857 Aligarh Movement Urdu movement Partition of Bengal Lucknow Pact Khilafat Movement Nehru Report Fourteen Points of Jinnah Allahabad Address Now or Never pamphlet Two-Nation Theory Round Table Conferences Lahore Resolution Direct Action Day Indian Muslim nationalism Cabinet Mission Indian Independence Act Partition of India Radcliffe Line Pakistan Objectives Resolution Independence Republic Day Kashmir Freedom Movement Pakistani nationalism Osmanistan Noakhali genocide Organisations Muslim League Unionist Muslim League All India Muslim Students Federation Khaksars Leaders Syed Ahmed Khan Muhammad Iqbal Aga Khan III Muhammad Ali Jinnah Ghulam Bhik Nairang Liaquat Ali Khan Bahadur Yar Jung G. M. Syed Abdur Rab Nishtar Fatima Jinnah Choudhary Rahmat Ali Muhammad Ali Jouhar Shaukat Ali A.K. Fazlul Huq Sikandar Hayat Khan Zafar Ali Khan Khawaja Nazimuddin Abdul Qayyum Khan Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy Ra'ana Liaquat Ali Khan Jogendra Nath Mandal more Activists Z.A. Suleri Hameed Nizami M.A. Zuberi Altaf Husain Yusuf Khattak Shaukat Hayat Khan Muhammad Asad Ziauddin Ahmed more

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Dr. Aslam Abdullah is the director of the Islamic Society of Nevada, the editor of the Muslim Observer and the director of the Muslim Electorates Council of America.

He recently wrote a letter criticizing Muslim extremism in response to the exhortion of a leader of al-Qaida in Iraq, Abu Hamza al-Muhajer to, "Kill at least one American in the next two weeks." In the letter he accused al-Muhajer of, "thriv[ing] on the misery of thousands of Muslim youth and children who are victims of despotism, poverty and ignorance," of "abandon[ing] God and...worshipping your own satanic egos that rejoice at the killing of innocent people", and of being, "an enemy of Islam as much as you are an enemy of America."^[1]

References[link]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2009)

Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Shah
14th Mughal Emperor
Reign	27 September 1719 - 26 April 1748 (&1000000000000002800000028 years, &10000000000000212000000212 days)
Coronation	29 September 1719 at Tajpur
Predecessor	Shah Jahan II
Successor	Ahmad Shah Bahadur
Regent	Syed Brothers (1719 - 1722)
Spouse	Badshah Begam Malika-uz-Zamani Mahal Begum Malika-i-Jahan Udhambai Kudsiya Begum Safiya Sultan Begum
Issue
Shahriyar Shah Bahadur Ahmad Shah Bahadur Taj Muhammad Anwer Ali Badshah Begum Jahan Afruz Banu Begum Hazrat Begum Sahiba-uz-Zamani
Full name
Roshan Akhtar Bahadur
House	Timurid
Father	Khujista Akhtar Jahan Shah
Mother	Qudsiya Begam
Born	17 August 1702 Fatehpur, Mughal Empire
Died	26 April 1748 (aged 45) Delhi, Mughal Empire
Burial	Mausoleum of Muhammad Shah, Nizamuddin Awliya, Delhi
Religion	Islam

Shahanshah Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Shah, Abu Al-Fatah Nasir-ud-Din Roshan Akhtar Muhammad Shah (محمد شاه) (1748 – 1702) also known as Roshan Akhtar, was the Mughal emperor between 1719 and 1748.^[1][2][3] He was son of Khujista Akhtar, the fourth son of Bahadur Shah I. Ascending the throne at 17 with the help of the Sayyid Brothers, he later got rid of them with the help of Asaf Jah I. Muhammad Shah was a great patron of the arts, including musical, cultural and administrative developments, his pen-name was Sada Rangila ("ever joyous")^[4].

Early life[link]

Roshan Akhtar was born in 1702 in Ghazna (in modern day Afghanistan) to Prince Khujista Akhtar, during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. In the year 1707, his grandfather Bahadur Shah I had defeated and eliminated his own brother Muhammad Azam Shah on 19 June 1707 at the Battle of Jajau, during another war of succession that followed after the death of his aged grandfather Bahadur Shah I his father was killed, and the 12-year-old prince and his mother were imprisoned by his uncle Jahandar Shah but spared from death. Handsome and quick to learn, his mother took good care of his education, while his father had enhanced his administrative abilities. Since the overthrow of Farrukhsiyar in 1719 many Mughal Emperors briefly ascended to the throne, but the Sayyid Brothers eventually chose 17-years-old Roshan Akhtar to become the new Mughal Emperor.

Reign[link]

Muhammad Amin Khan Turani was the commander and chief of the Mughal Army, his forces dissolved the administration of Sayyid Brothers.

Asaf Jah I was instated as the Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire on 21 February 1722.

The imperial Diwan of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.

The Nawab of Awadh, Saadat Ali Khan commanded and trained most of the Mughal Army.

Alivardi Khan, the wealthy and trustworthy Nawab of Bengal.

On 29 September 1719, Prince Roshan Akhtar was given the title Abu Al-Fatah Nasir-ud-Din Roshan Akhtar Muhammad Shah and enthroned in the Red Fort. His mother was given an allowance of 15 thousand rupees monthly for her needs, but the Sayyid Brothers kept the new emperor under strict supervision.

The Mughal Grand Vizier Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha and his brother the Mughal commander and chief Syed Hussain Ali Khan Barha were very well aware that Asaf Jah I and his companions Qamar-ud-Din Khan Bahadur, Zain ud-din Ahmad Khan intended to dissolve their administration. The Sayyid Brothers quickly nominated an amateur Prince Muhammad Ibrahim, who claimed to be a Mughal Emperor but he was quickly defeated by the new loyalists of the young Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah on 13 November 1720.

In the year 1720, Syed Hussain Ali Khan Barha the commander and chief of the most elite Mughal Army was assassinated in his encampment in Toba Bhim on 9 October 1720, the Mughal Emepror Muhammad Shah took direct command of his forces. Asaf Jah I was then dispatched to gain complete control of 6 Mughal provinces in the Deccan and Muhammad Amin Khan Turani was assigned as the Mansabdar of 8000 he was sent to peruse the Mughal Grand Vizier Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha, who was defeated at the Battle of Hasanpur by Muhammad Amin Khan Turani, Mir Muhammad Amin Irani and Muhammad Haider Beg and was captured by the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah on 15 November, 1720 and was executed 2 years later. Previously the emperor had to fight Muhammad Ibrahim, but young Muhammad Shah defeated him on 13 November 1720. The fall of the Sayyid Brothers marked the beginning of the end of the Mughal Empire's direct control over its dominions in the Deccan.

In the year 1721, young Muhammad Shah married the daughter of the previously deposed Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar.

On 21 February 1722, the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah appointed the wise Asaf Jah I as Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire. He advised the new Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah to be "as cautious as Akbar and as brave as Aurangzeb". He also advised him to help Shah Tahmasp II of Persia; since Shah Tahmasp I had helped Humayun in his time of need. Asaf Jah I resigned his his post as the Grand Vizier when the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah expressed negligence towards his administration. The Mughal Grand Vizier, Asaf Jah I appointed the Mughal commander Ewaz Khan as the master of the garrison at Aurangabad and much of his logistical duties were carried out by Inayatullah Kashmiri^[5]. Asaf Jah I left the imperial court in disgust and appointed his deputy Qamar-ud-Din Khan Bahadur as the next Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire, he the set out on an expedition to the Deccan in 1723. There Asaf Jah I fought Mubariz Khan the Mughal Subedar of the Deccan, who kept the ravaging Marathas at bay. Taking advantage of Mubariz Khan's conventional weaknesses Asaf Jah I defeated and eliminated his opponent during the Battle of Shakarkhelda. Asaf Jah I then established the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1725.

During this time the Mughal-Maratha Wars (1728–1763)^[6] would cause irreparable devastation to the inhabitants of the ill-administered Mughal Empire. Despite efforts to counter the rise of rebellions in 1724, by the Nawab of Awadh Saadat Ali Khan and the Mughal Subedar in Bangalore, Dilawar Khan (r.1726–1756), who established a well-protected bastion in the Malabar Coast. Muhammad Ali Khan the Mughal Faujdar of Rangpur and his stern ally Deena Narayan were ambushed out of Koch Bihar by Upendra Narayan a Hindu Bihari and Mipham Wangpo (r.1729-1736) the ruler of Bhutan. Ali Muhammad Khan Rohilla had established the barons of Rohilakhand. The Nawab of Bhopal Yar Muhammad Khan Bahadur, also ratified by the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah in 1728 countered ceaseless raids by the Marathas in Malwa and nearly began to loose half of his territories in the year 1742.

In Punjab region the Sikhs were at war with Mughal Subedars. In Ajmer, Ajit Singh carved out a vast territory and allied himself with the renegade Marathas. While in Deccan the Marathas had ruined Mughal fortifications and were already on the warpath. All this greatly contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

The Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah, eventually learned the skills of statesmanship after removing of his three incompetent Viziers, namely Koki Jee (his foster sister), Roshan-ud-Daula (his mercantile friend) and Sufi Abdul Ghafur of Thatta (his spiritual teacher).

In the year 1737, the Marathas, under Baji Rao I annexed Gujerat, Malwa and Bundelkhand and malevolently raided the Mughal imperial capitol at Delhi.

In the year 1739, Nadir Shah took advantage of a rebellion on his eastern borders near Kandahar and due to the negligence of the Mughal authorities he initiated a campaign against the Mughal Empire capturing Ghazni, Kabul, Lahore, Sindh, Kashmir he then advanced against the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah and delivered a feral defeat to the Mughal Empire during the Battle of Karnal. Nadir Shah then looted the Mughal capitol at Delhi and hoarded priceless treasures that he then took back to Persia.

Alivardi Khan emerged as the new Nawab of Bengal in the year 1740 and delivered 10 million silver coins annually to the imperial court.

In 1748, Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded India. Heir apparent Ahmad Shah Bahadur, Grand Vizier Qamar-ud-Din Khan Bahadur and his son Muin-ul-Mulk, Intizam-ud-Daula and Safdarjung were sent with 75,000 men after the defeat of Shahnawaz Khan in Lahore. At the Battle of Manipur, Durrani's 12,000 men were defeated and he was forced to retreat. There was a great rejoicing for this event throughout the Mughal Empire.

Administrative and Cultural developments[link]

A Mughal scribe and a miniaturist at work in the Diwan of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.

Urdu language had already been invented before Muhammad Shah's reign. However, during his reign it became a common language among the people and the Emperor installed it as Court language.But many writers say it was British who made Urdu the Official Language and that Urdu was never court language during Mughal Rule. During the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah's reign Qawwali was reintroduced into the Mughal imperial court and it quickly spread throughout South Asia faster than ever before, incorporating many newly patronized instruments such as Sarod, Surbahar, Sitar and Sursingar that bolstered the traditional Tambura, Veena and Tabla^[7]. Muhammad Shah is also known to have introduced religious institutions for education such as Maktabs. During his reign, the Quran was translated for the first time in simple Persian and Urdu. Also, during his reign, the formal Turkic dress, normally worn by the high Mughal nobility since Mughals originally hailed from Samarqand, was replaced by the Sherwani.

It is said that Mohammad Shah promoted arts like Dance and Music with great passion, almost at the cost of administrative priorities, paving the way for the disintegration of governance. While Mughal political power did decline in his reign, the emperor was a discerning patron of the arts, employing master artists such as Nidha Mal (active 1735–75) and Chitarman, whose vivacious paintings depict scenes of court life, such as Holi celebrations, hunting and hawking^[8]. The Mughal court of the time had musicians such as Niyamat Khan, also known as Sadarang, and his nephew Firoz Khan (Adarang), whose compositions popularized the musical form of Khyal and Tappa. This key component of Indian classical music evolved, ascended and received princely patronage at the court of Muhammad Shah.^[9]

Maratha onslaught[link]

After Asaf Jah I left Delhi, the Marathas had already expanded up to river Narmada.Therefore early in 1723 they invaded the rich province of Malwa. The Mughal Emperor entrusted its defence to its governor, who failed him. Thus by winter of the same year, they reached Ujjain, the capital of Malwa.

In 1725, the governorship of Gujarat was transferred to Sarbuland Khan. Enraged by the authority of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah the Marathas invaded Gujarat but were routed by Sarbuland Khan and his forces. This was mainly because most of the Maratha forces, including their leader Baji Rao I, were at the time fighting the Asaf Jah I in Hyderabad. The war with Hyderabad, however, proceeded favourably for the Marathas. In 1728, during February, the Asaf Jah I was decisively defeated at the Battle of Palkhed.

In the year 1728, the Marathas led by Baji Rao I and his brother Chimnaji Appa invaded the Mughal province of Malwa and challenged the Mughal Subedar Girdihar Bahadur, who led a fairly large Mughal Army during the Battle of Amjhera. Both Girdihar Bahadur and hic trusted cousin Daya Bahadur defeated an killed. On 29 November, Chimnaji Appa went on to besiege the remnants of the Mughal Army of Malwa during a failed Siege of Ujjain.^[10]

In the year 1731, Asaf Jah I the Nizam of Hyderabad had managed to secure the defections of influential Maratha leaders such as Trimbak Rao Dabhade and Sanbhoji who threatened to abandon the Marathas and join the forces with the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah instead. This move was considered unacceptable by Baji Rao I and his brother Chimnaji Appa who led a large well armed brigand of Marathas to intercepted Trimbak Rao Dabhade and Sanbhoji during the Battle of Dabhoi, where the defecting factions were all defeated, overrun and killed^[11]. Baji Rao I then attacked Gujarat with full force and finally drove out Sarbuland Khan by 1735.

A Mahout and its rider in service of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.

In the year 1736, Siddi's of Murud-Janjira set out to recapture Raigarh from the ravaging forces of Baji Rao, on 19th April 1736, Chimnaji attacked the gathering forces in the encampments of the Siddi's during the Battle of Riwas near Riwas, when the confrontation ended 1500 Siddi's including their leader Siddi Sat were killed. Peace was concluded in September 1736, but the Siddi's were confined to Janjira, Gowalkot and Anjanwel.

In the year 1737, Asaf Jah I the Nizam of Hyderabad led a large Mughal Army to assist the Nawab of Bhopal Yar Muhammad Khan Bahadur but was instead besieged inside the city of Bhopal by 80,000 Marathas led by Baji Rao I. The Siege of Bhopal continued until Safdarjung and his relief forces were driven away by Malhar Rao Holkar, during negotiations for peace Asaf Jah I agreed to the peace treaty ratified by the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah that granted Malwa to the Marathas.^[12]

In the year 1737 the Maratha chieftain Baji Rao I attacked the Mughal imperial capitol at Delhi and defeated a well trained Mughal Army led by Amir Khan Bahadur, but was forced to withdraw when the Mughal Grand Vizier Qamar-ud-Din Khan Bahadur and his substantially well armed reinforcements. Baji Rao I and his Marathas fled southeast to Badshshpur, where he corresponded with the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah, who ratified peace by agreeing the handover of Malwa to the Marathas.^[13]

Among the loyal tributaries of the Mughal Empire was Meenakshi, the queen of the Madurai Nayaks in Dindigul Fort, she had assisted Mughal forces in the Carnatic several times against the Marathas.

In the year 1740, Dost Ali Khan to Nawab of the Carnatic and Chanda Sahib faced the daunting task of expelling the ravaging Marathas under Raghoji I Bhonsle, authorized by Shahu. Dost Ali Khan lost his life on 20 May 1740 at the Battle of Damalcherry in defence of Arcot and its populace, which was eventually looted and plundered. Chanda Sahib along with his garrison was captured and imprisoned in Satara. Chanda Sahib and his forces ferociously defended their rightful reams during the Siege of Trichinopoly and almost all the territories of the Nawab of the Carnatic despite being outnumbered substantially by the Marathas, their daunting efforts soon attracted the attention of the curious French East India Company official named Joseph François Dupleix^[14]. outraged by the Maratha occupation of the territories of the Nawab of the Carnatic, Asaf Jah I led an expedition to liberate the Carnatic he was joined by Sadatullah Khan II and Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan together they recaptured Arcot and initiated the Siege of Trichinopoly (1743), which lasted five months and forced the Marathas led by Murari Rao Ghorpade to evacuate the Carnatic^[15].

In the year 1747, the Marathas led by Raghoji I Bhonsle, began to raid, pillage and annex the territories of the Nawab of Bengal Alivardi Khan. During the Maratha invasion of Orissa, its Subedar Mir Jafar completely withdrew all forces until the arrival of Alivardi Khan and the Mughal Army at the Battle of Burdwan where Raghoji I Bhonsle and his Maratha forces were completely routed. The enraged Nawab of Bengal Alivardi Khan then dismissed the shamed Mir Jafar. However, four years later Orissa was ceded over to the Marathas by the Mughal Emperor.^[16]

Invasion of Nadir Shah[link]

Nadir Shah defeats the Mughal Army during the Battle of Karnal.

Koh-i-Noor

On February 13, 1739 the Persians under Nadir Shah the commander of the Afsharids, who had deposed the Safavid dynasty and defeated the Ottoman Empire several times his forces even killed the Ottoman Grand Vizier, Topal Osman Pasha. In the year 1739, Nadir Shah invaded the Mughal Empire and defeated the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah during the Battle of Karnal, then occupied and looted Delhi and much of the northern regions of the Mughal Empire.

Causes[link]

Nader Shah wanted to subdue Afghan rebels led by the Ghilzai tribe particularly in the region around Kandahar.^{[17][verification needed]} He therefore requested the assistance of the Muhammad Shah to close the frontiers around Kabul and the Indus Valley so that the rebels may not flee or seek refuge. Muhammad Shah gave a confirming reply to Nadir Shah but didn't do any thing practically, because the local Subedars and Faujdars sympathized with the Afghan and rejected Persian rule. Outraged by this, Nadir Shah sent an ambassador to Muhammad Shah. The Mughal Emperor did not provide a positive response and kept the Persians marginalized from Delhi for an entire year. Thus Nadir Shah became furious with the Muhammad Shah; he knew that the Mughals had become weak and decided to capture the rich treasures of the Mughal Empire in Delhi and Agra.

Invasion of the Mughal Empire[link]

On the basis of the above reasons, Nadir Shah invaded India and decided to attack from Afghanistan. In May, 1738 he attacked Northern Afghanistan. In the same month, he captured Ghazni, in June he captured Kabul and in September Jalalabad also fell to him. In November he surrounded the fortress of Peshawar and razed it to the ground. Finally in January 1739, he captured Lahore, after completely subduing the forces of the Mughal viceroy, Zakariya Khan Bahadur and his 25,000 elite Sowars^[18], by the river Chenab the Afsharid forces soon encountered bands of Sikh rebels whom Nadir Shah predicted would clearly benefit after his invasion^[19].

Afsharid forces of Nadir Shah negotiate with a Mughal Nawab.

Now Nadir Shah had captured territory up to Attock and Muhammad Shah and his courtiers could not close their eyes from further danger. They finally understood that Persian Emperor was not the sort of enemy that could be bought off with the loot of a province. Furthermore he had devastated the area he just conquered. The cities of Wazirabad, Emanabad and Gujrat were not only sacked but razed to the ground. Near Larkana the Afsharid forces completely routed the Mughal Army of the Nawab of Sindh, Main Noor Mohammad Kalhoro and later captured him and his two sons.

Darya-e-Noor

In February 1739, Nadir Shah captured Sirhind and moved towards the field of Karnal, a battle destined to be fateful to the Mughal rulers. On 13 February, the battle of Karnal was fought. Emperor Muhammad Shah had over a hundred thousand force against Nadir Shah's 55,000 men but was still decisively defeated. In the event, the Khan Douran died and wrote a will that the Mughal and Afsharid emperors should not meet but Nadir Shah should be turned back from there at all costs. But the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah believed that he had no other choice but to surrender to Nadir Shah on 26 February in the Afsharid encampments, thirteen days after the Battle of Karnal. The Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah handed over the keys of the Delhi gate and marched as a captive with Nadir Shah to Delhi, which was then plundered.

After entering Delhi, Nadir Shah claimed to occupy the Mughal Empire out of religious devotion and that if "the wretched Marathas of the Deccan" moved towards Delhi, he might "send an army of victorious Qizilbash to drive them to the abyss of Hell". In fact Nadir Shah had delivered catastrophe from which the Mughal Empire itself never recovered and the subjects of the emperor were outraged by the ascendancy of the Afsharids.^[20][21]

At first every thing was cordial among the two emperors. However rumours spread throughout Delhi that Nadir Shah was assassinated. The masses attacked the Persian force and slaughtered 900 Persian soldiers. At this Nadir Shah massacred the populace, and at least 30,000 people died. The Emperor, Asaf Jah I and Grand Vizier Qamar-ud-Din Khan Bahadur went to Nadir Shah to plead for mercy and thus he stopped the massacre and turned into looting the Mughal treasury. The famous Peacock throne, the Darya-e-Noor diamond and unimaginable wealth was looted. In addition, elephants, horses and every thing that was liked was taken. Muhammad Shah also had to hand over his daughter Jahan Afruz Banu Begum as a bride for Nadir Shah's youngest son. Asaf Jah I retired to Deccan after installing his eldest son Intizam-ud-Daula as a major commander in the Mughal Army and a trustworthy follower Qamar-ud-Din Khan Bahadur as the Grand Vizier of Muhammad Shah^[22]

Now Muhammad Shah was crowned as emperor by Nadir Shah himself on 12 May, and Muhammad Shah ceded the area west of river Indus to Nadir Shah, although the Kalhora Nawabs of Sindh continued to fight the invading Afsharids. Nadir Shah then looted the Koh-i-Noor diamond and other famous treasures. And later Nadir Shah and his Afsharid forces returned to Persia.

Aftermath[link]

Jaivana Cannon - World's largest Cannon on wheels, was cast during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah by his Qiladar Jai Singh II.

Nadir Shah's invasion emboldened the Sikhs and the Marathas, this invasion destroyed what was left of the Mughal Empire and neared it to its end. The weakness of the Mughal Army was clearly elaborated after this invasion. The Nawabs clearly could not even relieve their captured city of Delhi, which was the seat of their authority. The Mughals were completely looted of their wealth, and rebellions and disloyalty became commonplace.

However, Nadir Shah's campaign against the Mughal Empire, caused void in the western regios of Persia that the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud I quickly exploited in order to initiate the Otttoman-Persian War (1743–1746), which aimed to regain territories that the Ottomans had lost to Nadir Shah. During that period Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah closely observed the successes of the Ottomans and also cooperated with the Ottoman ambassador Haji Yusuf Agha until the emperor's death in 1748 after the victory of the Mughal Army at the Battle of Manipur.^[17]

Imperial family[link]

A silver coin minted during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.

Malika-uz-Zamani, seated on her throne

Emperor Muhammad Shah had four wives, but his most favourite was Badshah Begum, daughter of Emperor Farrukhsiyar. He married her on 8 December 1721 at Delhi, and gave her the title Malika-uz-Zamani (Queen of the Era). On this occasion there was a great ceremony lasting for weeks. She bore him his first son, Shahriyar Shah Bahadur, who died young on 19 July 1724. She was the most influential of all wives of the Emperor and exercised her opinions on him. Muhammad Shah married Mahal Begum on the same day as the first one and gave her the title Malika-i-Jahan (Queen of the World). She was also his most favourite. His third wife was Udhambai, also called Kudsiya Begum, who bore him his future successor, Ahmad Shah Bahadur on 23 December 1725. She was a formerly dancing girl and also a Mansabdar of 50,000. He married his fourth wife Sufiya Sultan Begum later on. For some time during his early reign, her mother, Qudsiya Begum, also exercised power of the Empire. Muhammad Shah had three sons and three daughters, of which Badshah Begum died on 14 December 1724.

Death[link]

The Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah with his Falcon visits the imperial garden at sunset on a palanquin.

The victory of the Mughal Army during the Battle of Manipur came with a heavy price the Grand Vizier Qamar-ud-Din Khan Bahadur fell in battle after being struck by a stray artillery shell on the battlefield. Initially this was kept a secret. However, when the news reached the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah, he could not speak, suddenly became sick and did not come out of his apartments for three days. During this course he fasted. His guards could hear him crying out loud and saying: "How could I bring about anyone as faithful as he Qamar-ud-Din". He died due to grief on 26 April 1748, his funeral was attended by visiting Imams from Mecca.^[23][24]

See also[link]

• Mughal Empire
• Battle of Karnal
• Koh-i-Noor
• Peacock Throne

References[link]

Muhajir people
مہاجر

75px 75px75px
1st row: Liaqat Ali Khan · Abdul Qadeer Khan · Pervez Musharraf 2nd row: Nawabzada Shahryar Khan · I.I Chundrigar · Shaukat Aziz 3rd row:Shoaib Mansoor · Sajjad Ali
Total population
12-13 million[1]
Regions with significant populations
Pakistan
Languages
Urdu
Religion
Sunni and Shia Islam

This article contains Urdu text, written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support, you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead of Urdu script.

Muhajir (also known as Urdu-speaking people) (Urdu: مہاجر) [literally – migrants] is a term vaguely used by some Pakistanis to describe the immigrants, and especially their descendants, who chose to settle in Pakistan and shifted their domicile after partition of British India to Pakistan. Some had participated in the movement for creation of Pakistan in 1947. Most migrants migrated from the Muslim minority provinces to Muslim majority provinces within British India. Their principal language is Urdu but over time their second and third generations have now been assimilated especially in Punjab, Pakistan and now identify themselves as Punjabis with local cultures and traditions and some of them still speak Urdu as Urdu is widely spoken in almost every city of Punjab, Pakistan. The situation is not same in Sindh where successful integration was not possible overtime mainly due to political strife and still many Migrants identify themselves as Muhajirs or Urdu Speakers in Sindh.^[2]

Etymology[link]

The Urdu term muhajir (Urdu: مہاجر) comes from the Arabic muhājir (Arabic: مهاجر‎), meaning a "migrant", and the term is associated in early Islamic history to the migration of Muslims from Makkah to Madinah. As a result of the partition of India, a significant number of Muslims emigrated or were expelled from territory that became India.^[3] A large portion of these migrants came from East Punjab, and settled in Pakistani Punjab, where sharing a common culture, and where many had tribal linkages, assimilated within a generation. However, the majority of the Muslim migrants who moved to Sindh hailed from what then the British Indian provinces of Bombay, Bihar, Central Provinces and Berar, Delhi, and the United Provinces as well as the princely states of Hyderabad, Baroda, Kutch and the Rajputana Agency. Most of these refugees settled in the towns and cities of Sindh, such as Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur and Mirpurkhas. Many spoke Urdu, or dialects of the language such as Dakhani, Khari boli, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Mewati and Marwari. Over a period of a few decades, these disparate groups sharing the common experience of partition, and political opposition to the military regime of Ayub Khan and his civilian successor Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto evolved into a distinct ethnic grouping.^[4]

Reasons for immigration[link]

The reasons for immigration of Urdu speaking people toward Pakistan needs to be put in context with the occurrences of the time. While for many Muhajirs, particularly the noble and aristocratic class, settling in Pakistan was strongly associated with the independence movement based on the Two-Nation Theory. For the vast majority however, fleeing to Pakistan was the only choice they had after suffering from communal riots in various parts of South Asia where the Muslim populations were small minorities and at the mercy of the majority community. Many had lost their properties and homes and arrived in Pakistan on foot especially from East Punjab after the Punjab was partitioned into two, and in result of the out-break of riots in Eastern part of that province. That resulted in harrowing tales of violence and atrocities that Punjab's Muslims had to undergo. The movement to constitute a separate state comprising the Muslim majority provinces of South Asia, Pakistan movement was pioneered by the Muslim elite of the region and many notables of the Aligarh Movement. It was initiated in 19th century when Sir Syed Ahmed Khan expounded the Two-Nation Theory in Aligarh. Many Muslim nobles, Nawabs (aristocrats and landed gentry) supported the idea. As the idea spread it gained great support amongst the Muslim population of South Asia and in particular the rising middle and upper classes. The Muslims had launched the movement under the banner of the All India Muslim League and Delhi was its main centre where the headquarters of All India Muslim League (the founding party of Pakistan) based since its creation in 1906 and remained there up to August 1947. The participation in the movement on ideological grounds and supporting its Muslim cause with approximately half of the entire mandate in 1945–46 elections.^[5]

Origin and ancestral roots[link]

Muhajirs are a heterogeneous, multi-ethnic group of people which can be sub-divided into smaller more specific groups but who are bound by the Urdu language. For example, there are still important and distinct sub-groups such as the Hyderabadi Muslims still keep many of their unique cultural traditions, such as the unique Hyderabadi cuisine.^[6] Muslims from what is now the states of Delhi, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh were themselves of heterogeneous origin, and were roughly divided into two groupings, the Ashrafiya, roughly ten percent of the population, and the Nau-Muslim, literally new Muslims, on account of the fact that they were converts to Islam from Hinduism. The ashrafiya were further divided into four groupings, the Sayyid and Shaikh, who claimed Arab ancestry, and the Pathan who were Pashtun and the Mughal who claimed to be Central Asian. While the so-called Nau-Muslim were further divided into the castes such as the Rajput, Jat, Tyagi, Kamboh and Dogar, who were traditionally landowners and cultivators, and the so called occupational castes such as the Manihar, Saifi and Ansari, who were associated with crafts and trades.^[7] People of Pashtun origin, according to 1931 Census of India made just over 6% of the UP Muslim population.^[8] However, these two divisions are of historic importance only, as 6 decades of intermarriage between the two groupings has erased the distinction. What defines a Muhajir now is education, urbanism and the Urdu language. This seen by the fact that many Urdu speakers settled in rural Punjab such as the Ranghar and Meo are no longer considered Muhajir. While Gujratis, Burmese, Bengalis, Rajastani people, Konkani Muslims,people from Goa,people from Bombay State and Malwaris were and are also counted as Muhajirs in Pakistan due to the fact that they migrated to Pakistan after or during independence, despite the fact that they speak their own native languages and have their own distinct cultures, on account of their urban lifestyle.

Demographics and distribution within Pakistan[link]

^[9]

Muhajir diaspora[link]

In addition to those in Pakistan, a significant number of Muhajirs have left Pakistan and settled outside.

Regions with significant populations:

•  United States 150,000
•  Saudi Arabia 120,000
•  Canada 80,000
•  United Arab Emirates 50,000
•  United Kingdom 25,000

In recent years a large numbers of muhajir businessman have migrated to Malaysia, UAE, Qatar and Canada mostly involved in the shipping, textile, garment and real estate industries.

Note: These figures are likely to include 2nd and 3rd generations who have been born overseas and are considered residents of their respective countries.

Culture and lifestyle[link]

After independence, when the Muslims arrived in Pakistan, the values the migrants brought with them varied from region to region, depending on their origin. The rich heritage brought by migrants from the urban centres of India, such as Lucknow, Delhi, and Madras and Hyderabad which had been seats of Islamic culture and learning for centuries, were to have a major influence on the cities of Pakistan, especially Karachi. The notable 20th century Islamic scholar/author Muhammad Hamidullah who was involved in formulating the first constitution of Pakistan, left because he did not find the life and values in Pakistanis conducive to his background from Hyderabad Deccan, settling in Paris as a refugee.^{[citation needed]}

Politics[link]

Upon arrival in Pakistan, the Muhajirs did not assert themselves as a separate ethnic identity but were at the forefront of trying to a construct an Islamic Pakistani identity, Muhajirs were a key vote-bank for the anti-hardline elements. Muhajirs dominated the bureaucracy of the early Pakistani state, largely due to their higher levels of educational attainment, gradually as education became more widespread, Punjabis and Pashtuns as well as other native Pakistanis started to take their fair share of the pool and all groups are more balanced as per their national percentage. However, the critical early years was facilitated by the experience many Muhajir had both in politics and in higher education and was appreciated by all Pakistanis especially during the tenious early years after independence.

As previously mentioned, this situation changed by the 1970s when other ethnic groups began to assert themselves more strongly and demand more rights fuelled by the widespread introduction of education and rising literacy rates particularly amongst the country's two largest ethnic groups, the Punjabis and the Pashtuns. This included the right to use local languages rather than Urdu (leading to language riots in Sindh), and quotas in Pakistan for underprivileged ethnic groups in government and educational institutions. Seeing their privileged status threatened, the Muhajirs also began to assert themselves as a separate ethnic group and began to organise themselves politically. The most notable manifestations of this were the creations of the All Pakistan Muhajir Student Organization and the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (formerly the Muhajir National Movement) as a secular progressive ethnic movement. Since then, the MQM has dominated politics in the Muhajir areas of Karachi, Hyderabad, and other urban centres in Sindh. In saying this, it should be mentioned that not all Muhajirs support the MQM. Even though the MQM has sought to convert itself from an ethnic movement to a nationwide political movement, its political stronghold is still largely restricted to its Muhajir base.

Language[link]

The phrase Zaban-e Urdu-e Mualla ("The language of the exalted") written in Nastaʿlīq script.

The original language of the Mughals had been Turkish, but after their arrival in South Asia, they came to adopt Persian and later Urdu. Urdu is a Indo-European language, and in the Indo-Aryan subdivision. The word Urdu is believed to be derived from the Turkish word 'Ordu', which means camp. It was initially called Zaban-e-Ordu or language of the army and later just Urdu. The word 'Ordu' was later Anglicised as 'Horde'. Urdu, though of South Asian origin, came to be heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic and somewhat by Turkish however, its grammatical structure is based on old Parakrit or Sanskrit. Urdu speakers have

Autograph and a couplet of Last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, dated 29 April 1844

adopted this language as their mother tongue for several centuries having lost their own native tongues from the respective regions they originated from. Urdu has been the medium of the literature, history and journalism of South Asian Muslims during the last 200 years. Most of the work was complemented by ancestors of native Urdu speakers in South Asia. The Persian language, which was the official language during and after the reign of the Mughals, was then slowly starting to lose ground to Urdu during the reign of Aali Gohar Shah Alam II. Subsequently, Urdu developed rapidly as the medium of literature, history and journalism of South Asian Muslims. Most of the literatory and poetic work was complemented by various historic poets of mughal and subsequent era among which Mir Taqi Mir, Khwaja Mir Dard, Mir Amman Dehalvi, Mirza Ghalib, Bahadur Shah II Sir Syed Khan and Maulana Hali are the most notable ones. The Persian language which had its roots during the time of Moguls was then replaced later by Urdu to which Mogul kings like Shah Jahan rendered patronage as well as support. Many poets in Pakistan such as Zafar Iqbal, Sir Mohammed Iqbal, Faiz Ahmad Faraz, Munir Niazi and Saifuddin Saif contributed their efforts for the Urdu language.

Contribution in literature[link]

Ghalib poem in Nastaliq

Poetry[link]

Muhajirs brought their rich poetic culture along with them which they held in their original states centuries ago prior to independence. Some of the most notable ones historic poets are Mirza Ghalib, Mir Taqi Mir, Mir Aman Dehalwi, Khawaja Mir Dard, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Jigar Muradabad etc. Subsequent to independence, many notable Urdu poets migrated to Pakistan, besides a large number of less famous poets, authors, linguists and amateurs. Consequently, Mushaira and Bait Bazi became a part of the national culture in Pakistan. Josh Malihabadi, Jigar Moradabadi, Akhtar Sheerani, Tabish Dehlvi, and Nasir Kazmi are a few of the noteworthy poets. Later, Jon Elia, Parveen Shakir, Mustafa Zaidi, Dilawar Figar, Iftikhar Arif, Rafi Uddin Raaz and Raees Warsi became noted for their distinction.

Prose[link]

With the emergence of Muhajirs in urban areas of Pakistan, Urdu virtually became the lingua franca. The country's first Urdu Conference took place in Karachi in April 1951, under the auspices of the Anjuman Taraqqi-i-Urdu. The Anjuman, headed by Maulvi Abdul Haq not only published the scattered works of classical and modern writers, but also provided a platform for linguists, researchers and authors. Among them Shan-ul-Haq Haqqee, Shahid Ahmed Dehlvi, Josh Malihabadi, Qudrat Naqvi, Mahir-ul-Qadri, Hasan Askari, Jameel Jalibi and Intizar Hussain are significant names. Whereas Akhtar Hussain Raipuri, Sibte Hassan and Sajjad Zaheer were more inclined to produce left-winged literature. Among women writers, Qurratulain Hyder, Khadija Mastoor, Altaf Fatima and Fatima Surayya Bajia became the pioneer female writers on feminist issues.

Contribution in science and technology[link]

Muhajirs have played an extremely important and influential role in science and technology in Pakistan. Scientists such as Ziauddin Ahmed, Raziuddin Siddiqui and Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, gave birth to Pakistan Science and later built the integrated weapons program, on request of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Muhajir later forwarded to developed the Pakistan's space program and other scientific and strategic programs of Pakistan. Many prominent scientists come from the Muhajir class including Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad, Ghulam Murtaza, Raziuddin Siddiqui, Dr. Pervez Hoodbhoy, Dr. Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, and Atta ur Rahman to name a few.

Contribution in art and music[link]

The Muhajir community brings a rich culture with it. Muhajirs have and continue to play an essential role in defining and enriching Pakistani culture and more significantly, music. Some famous Muhajir Pakistani musicians include: Nazia Hassan, Mehdi Hassan, Munni Begum, and Ahmed Jahanzeb. Muhajirs contribution has not been limited to pop but has spanned various music genres, from traditional Ghazal singing to rock. Muhajirs in Pakistan are also famous for their contribution towards the art of painting.

Contribution in business and industry[link]

The initial business elites of Pakistan were Muhajirs. Prominents example of businesses started by them include Habib Bank Limited, Hyesons, M. M. Ispahani Limited, Schon group etc. Nationalization proved to be catastrphpic for Muhajir-owned businesses, and the final blow was delivered as a result of discriminatory policies during the dictatorship of Gen. Zia-ul-Haq. In recent years, many Muhajirs have established their businesses in Pakistan, with a focus on textile, garment, leather, food prodcts, cosmetics and personal goods industries. Many of Pakistan's largest financial institutions were founded or headed by Muhajirs, including the State Bank of Pakistan, EOBI, Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation, United Bank Limited Pakistan, First Women Bank et cetera.

Contribution in sports[link]

Muhajir are active in many sports in Pakistan. Muhajir are playing in the Pakistani cricket team with well-known players such as Javed Miandad, Saeed Anwar, Mohsin Khan, Sikhander Bakht and Moin Khan. There are now younger players like Asad Shafiq, Fawad Alam, Khurram Manzoor playing for the international side. Muhajirs are notably involved hockey, tennis, squash and badminton. Bodybuilding and weightlifting are increasing in popularity among younger members of the Muhajir community.

Cuisine[link]

• 

  Nihari, the national dish of Pakistan was brought to Pakistan by the Muhajir people from India^[10]

• 

  Boti Kebab

• 

  Thali with naan, sultani dal, raita, and shahi paneer^{[dubious – discuss]}

• 

  Kebabs are an important part of the ancient Muslim cuisine.

• 

  Faluda, an ancient Hyderabadi dessert.

• 

  Paan Shop

• 

  Haleem

• 

  The samosa

• 

  Traditional cuisine originated from the Old Lukhnow Nawab dynasties.

• 

  Old Hyderabadi Biryani.

• 

  Korma, a traditional cuisine originated from ancient Lukhnow royals.

• 

  Bihari Kabab, a traditional cuisine originated from bihar.

• 

  Chilli Sauce and Yougurt chutney – Biryani Accompaniments

Muhajirs clung to their old established habits and tastes, including a numerous desserts, savoury dishes and beverages. The Mughal and Indo-Iranian heritage played an influential role in the making of their cuisine. In comparison to other native Pakistani dishes, Muhajir cuisine tends to use traditional royal cuisine specific to the old royal dynasties of now defunct states of ancient India. Most of a dastarkhawan dining table include chapatti, rice, dal, vegetable and meat curry. Special dishes include biryani, qorma, kofta, seekh kabab, Nihari and Haleem, Nargisi Koftay, Roghani Naan, Naan, sheer-qurma (sweet), qourma, chai (sweet, milky tea), paan and Hyderabadi cuisine, and other delicacies associated with Muhajir culture.

Intermarriages[link]

Since Pakistan's independence in 1947, there has been a steady rise in intermarriages that have taken place between Punjabis, Kashmiris, Sindhis, Balochs, Pashtuns, Brahuis and Muhajirs. However, majority of Muhajirs like any other community in the country, still prefer marriage within their communities.

See also[link]

• List of Muhajirs in Pakistan
• Bangladeshis in Pakistan
• Burmese people in Pakistan

References[link]

• Pakistan (Archived 2009-11-01) at Encarta
• Pakistan: The Sindhi-Muhajir confliict
• Muhajir diaspora

External links[link]

• Quotas and Karachi^{[clarification needed]}