Bottles of wine aging in an underground cellar

The aging of wine, and its ability to potentially improve wine quality, distinguishes wine from most other consumable goods. While wine is perishable and capable of deteriorating, complex chemical reactions involving a wine's sugars, acids and phenolic compounds (such as tannins) can alter the aroma, color, mouthfeel and taste of the wine in a way that may be more pleasing to the taster. The ability of a wine to age is influenced by many factors including grape variety, vintage, viticultural practices, wine region and winemaking style. The condition that the wine is kept in after bottling can also influence how well a wine ages and may require significant time and financial investment.

History[link]

The development of glass bottles with cork closure made it possible to more consistently age wine.

The Ancient Greeks and Romans were aware of the potential of aged wines. In Greece, early examples of dried "straw wines" were noted for their ability to age due to their high sugar contents. These wines were stored in sealed earthenware amphorae and kept for many years. In Rome, the most sought after wines—Falernian and Surrentine—were prized for their ability to age for decades. In the Book of Luke, it is noted that "old wine" was valued over "new wine" (Luke 5:39). The Greek physician Galen wrote that the "taste" of aged wine was desirable and that this could be accomplished by heating or smoking the wine, though, in Galen's opinion, these artificially aged wines were not as healthy to consume as naturally aged wines.^[1]

Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, appreciation for aged wine was virtually non-existent. Most of the wines produced in northern Europe were light bodied, pale in color and with low alcohol. These wines did not have much aging potential and barely lasted a few months before they rapidly deteriorated into vinegar. The older a wine got the cheaper its price became as merchants eagerly sought to rid themselves of aging wine. By the 16th century, sweeter and more alcoholic wines (like Malmsey and Sack) were being made in the Mediterranean and gaining attention for their aging ability. Similarly, Riesling from Germany with its combination of acidity and sugar were also demonstrating their ability to age. In 17th century two innovations occurred that radically changed the wine industry's view on aging. One was the development of the cork and bottle which allowed producers to package and store wine in a virtually air-tight environment. The second was the growing popularity of fortifying wines such as Port, Madeira and Sherries. The added alcohol was found to act as a preservative, allowing wines to survive long sea voyages to England, The Americas and the East Indies. The English, in particular, were growing in their appreciation of aged wines like Port and Claret from Bordeaux. Demand for matured wines had a pronounced effect on the wine trade. For producers, the cost and space of storing barrels or bottles of wine was prohibitive so a merchant class evolved with warehouses and the finances to facilitate aging wines for a longer period of time. In regions like Bordeaux, Oporto and Burgundy, this situation dramatically increased the balance of power towards the merchant classes.^[1]

Aging potential[link]

The Italian wine Tignanello is a blend of Sangiovese, Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet franc—varieties which usually have aging potential.

Only a few wines have the ability to significantly improve with age. Master of Wine Jancis Robinson notes that only around the top 10% of all red wine and top 5% of all white wines can improve significantly enough with age to make drinking more enjoyable at 5 years of age than at 1 year of age. Additionally, Robinson estimates, only the top 1% of all wine has the ability to improve significantly after more than a decade. It is her belief that more wine is consumed too old, rather than too young, and that the great majority of wines start to lose appeal and fruitiness after 6 months in the bottle.^[2]

In general, wines with a low pH (such as Pinot noir and Sangiovese) have a greater capability of aging. With red wines, a high level of flavor compounds, such as phenolics (most notably tannins), will increase the likelihood that a wine will be able to age. Wines with high levels of phenols include Cabernet Sauvignon, Nebbiolo and Syrah.^[1] The white wines with the longest aging potential tend to be those with a high amount of extract and acidity. The acidity in white wines plays a similar role that tannins have with red wines in acting as a preservative. The process of making white wines, which includes little to no skin contact, means that white wines have a significantly lower amount of phenolic compounds, though barrel fermentation and oak aging can impart some phenols. Similarly, the minimal skin contact with rosé wine limits their aging potential.^[2]

After aging at the winery most wood-aged Ports, Sherries, Vins doux naturels, Vins de liqueur, basic level Ice wines and sparkling wines are bottled when the producer feels that they are ready to be consumed. These wines are ready to drink upon release and will not benefit much from aging. Vintage Ports and other bottled-aged Ports & Sherries will benefit from some additional aging, as can vintage Champagne.^[1] In 2009, a 184-year-old bottle of Perrier-Jouët was opened and tasted, still drinkable, with notes of "truffles and caramel", according to the experts.^[3]

Little to no aging potential[link]

A guideline provided by Master of Wine Jancis Robinson^[2]

• German QBAs
• Asti and Moscato Spumante
• Rosé and blush wines like White Zinfandel
• Branded wines like Yellow Tail, Mouton Cadet, etc.
• European table wine
• American jug & box wine
• Inexpensive varietals (with the possible exception of Cabernet Sauvignon)
• The majority of Vin de pays
• All Nouveau wines
• Vermouth
• Basic Sherry
• Tawny Ports

Good aging potential[link]

Classified Bordeaux like this 1982 Château Ducru-Beaucaillou have aging potential.

A guideline provided by Master of Wine Jancis Robinson. Note that vintage, wine region and winemaking style can influence a wine's aging potential so Robinson's suggestion of years are very rough estimates of the most common examples of these wines.^[2]

• Botrytized wines (5–25 yrs)
• Chardonnay (2–6 yrs)
• Riesling (2–30 yrs)
• Hungarian Furmint (3–25 yrs)
• Loire Valley Chenin blanc (4–30 yrs)
• Hunter Valley Semillon (6–15 yrs)
• Cabernet Sauvignon (4–20 yrs)
• Merlot (2–10 yrs)
• Nebbiolo (4–20 yrs)
• Pinot noir (2–8 yrs)
• Sangiovese (2–8 yrs)
• Syrah (4–16 yrs)
• Zinfandel (2–6 yrs)
• Classified Bordeaux (8–25 yrs)
• Grand Cru Burgundy (8–25 yrs)
• Aglianico from Taurasi (4–15 yrs)
• Baga from Bairrada (4–8 yrs)
• Hungarian Kadarka (3–7 yrs)
• Bulgarian Melnik (3–7 yrs)
• Croatian Plavac Mali (4–8 yrs)
• Georgian Saperavi (3–10 yrs)
• Madiran Tannat (4–12 yrs)
• Spanish Tempranillo (2–8 yrs)
• Greek Xynomavro (4–10 yrs)
• Vintage Ports (20–50yrs) ^[4]

Factors and influences[link]

Wine constituents[link]

The ratio of sugars, acids and phenolics to water is a key determination of how well a wine can age. The less water in the grapes prior to harvest, the more likely the resulting wine will have some aging potential. Grape variety, climate, vintage and viticultural practice come into play here. Grape varieties with thicker skins, from a dry growing season where little irrigation was used and yields were kept low will have less water and a higher ratio of sugar, acids and phenolics. The process of making Eisweins, where water is removed from the grape during pressing as frozen ice crystals, has a similar effect of decreasing the amount of water and increasing aging potential.^[2]

In winemaking, the duration of maceration or skin contact will influence how much phenolic compounds are leached from skins into the wine. Pigmented tannins, anthocyanins, colloids, tannin-polysaccharides and tannin-proteins not only influence a wine's resulting color but also act as preservatives. During fermentation adjustment to a wine's acid levels can be made with wines with lower pH having more aging potential. Exposure to oak either during fermentation or after during barrel aging will introduce more phenolic compounds to the wines. Prior to bottling, excessive fining or filtering of the wine could strip the wine of some phenolic solids and may lessen a wine's ability to age.^[1]

Storage conditions can influence a wine's aging ability.

Storage factors[link]

The storage condition of the bottled wine will influence a wine's aging. Vibrations and heat fluctuations can hasten a wine's deterioration and cause adverse effect on the wines. In general, a wine has a greater potential to develop complexity and more aromatic bouquet if it is allowed to age slowly in a relatively cool environment. The lower the temperature, the more slowly a wine develops.^[1] On average, the rate of chemical reactions in wine double with each 18 °F (8 °C) increase in temperature. Wine expert Karen MacNeil, recommends keeping wine intended for aging in a cool area with a constant temperature around 55°F (13°C). Wine can be stored at temperatures as high as 69°F (20°C) without long term negative effect. Professor Cornelius Ough of the University of California, Davis believes that wine could be exposed to temperatures as high as 120 °F (49 °C) for a few hours and not be damaged. However, most experts believe that extreme temperature fluctuations (such as repeated transferring a wine from a warm room to a cool refrigerator) would be detrimental to the wine. The ultra-violet rays of direct sunlight should also be avoided because of the free radicals that can develop in the wine and result in oxidation.^[5]

Wines packaged in large format bottles, such as magnums and 3 liter Jeroboams, seem to age more slowly than wines packaged in regular 750 ml bottles or half bottles. This may be because of the greater proportion of oxygen exposed to the wine during the bottle process. The advent of alternative wine closures to cork, such as screw caps and synthetic corks have opened up recent discussions on the aging potential of wines sealed with these alternative closures. Currently there are no conclusive results and the topic is the subject of ongoing research.^[1]

Bottling factors[link]

Bottle shock[link]

One of the short-term aging needs of wine is a period where the wine is considered "sick" due to the trauma and volatility of the bottling experience. During bottling some oxygen is exposed to the wine, causing a domino effect of chemical reaction with various components of the wine. The time it takes for the wine to settle down and have the oxygen fully dissolve and integrate with the wine is considered its period of "bottle shock". During this time the wine could taste drastically different than it did prior to bottling or how it will taste after the wine has settled. While many modern bottling lines try to treat the wine as gently as possible and utilize inert gases to minimize the amount of oxygen exposure, all wine goes through some period of bottle shock. The length of this period will vary with each individual wine.^[2]

Cork taint[link]

The transfer of off-flavours in the cork used to bottle a wine during prolonged aging can be detrimental to the quality of the bottle. The formation of cork taint is a complex process which may result from a wide range of factors ranging from the growing conditions of the cork oak, the processing of the cork into stoppers, or the molds growing on the cork itself.

Dumb phase[link]

During the course of aging a wine may slip into a "dumb phase" where its aromas and flavors are very muted. In Bordeaux this phase is called the age ingrat or "difficult age" and is likened to a teenager going through adolescence. The cause or length of time that this "dumb phase" will last is not yet fully understood and seems to vary from bottle to bottle.^[5]

Effects on wine[link]

As vintage Port matures, sediments develop in the wine that are often left in the bottle when the wine is decanted.

As red wine ages, the harsh tannins of its youth gradually give way to a softer mouthfeel. An inky dark color will eventually fade to a light brick red. These changes occur due to the complex chemical reactions of the phenolic compounds of the wine. In processes that begin during fermentation and continue after bottling, these compounds bind together and aggregate. Eventually these particles reach a certain size where they are too large to stay suspended in the solution and precipitate out. The presence of visible sediment in a bottle will usually indicate a mature wine. The resulting wine, with this loss of tannins and pigment, will have a paler color and taste softer, less astringent. The sediment, while harmless, can have an unpleasant taste and is often separated from the wine by decanting.^[2]

During the aging process, the perception of a wine's acidity may change even though the total measurable amount of acidity is more or less constant throughout a wine's life. This is due to the esterification of the acids, combining with alcohols in complex array to form esters. In addition to making a wine taste less acidic, these esters introduce a range of possible aromas. Eventually the wine may age to a point where other components of the wine (such as a tannins and fruit) are less noticeable themselves, which will then bring back a heightened perception of wine acidity. Other chemical processes that occur during aging include the hydrolysis of flavor precursors which detach themselves from glucose molecules and introduce new flavor notes in the older wine and aldehydes become oxidized. The interaction of certain phenolics develop what is known as tertiary aromas which are different from the primary aromas that are derived from the grape and during fermentation.^[1]

An aged Malmsey Madeira shows the color change that white wines goes through as they age.

As a wine starts to mature, its bouquet will become more developed and multi-layered. While a taster may be able to pick out a few fruit notes in a young wine, a more complex wine will have several distinct fruit, floral, earthy, mineral and oak derived notes. The lingering finish of a wine will lengthen. Eventually the wine will reach a point of maturity, when it is said to be at its "peak". This is the point when the wine has the maximum amount of complexity, most pleasing mouthfeel and softening of tannins and has not yet started to decay. When this point will occur is not yet predictable and can vary from bottle to bottle. If a wine is aged for too long, it will start to descend into decrepitude where the fruit tastes hollow and weak while the wine's acidity becomes dominant.^[1]

The natural esterification that takes place in wines and other alcoholic beverages during the aging process is an example of acid-catalysed esterification. Over time, the acidity of the acetic acid and tannins in an aging wine will catalytically protonate other organic acids (including acetic acid itself), encouraging ethanol to react as a nucleophile. As a result, ethyl acetate – the ester of ethanol and acetic acid—is the most abundant ester in wines. Other combinations of organic alcohols (such as phenol-containing compounds) and organic acids lead to a variety of different esters in wines, contributing to their different flavours, smells and tastes. Of course, when compared to sulfuric acid conditions, the acid conditions in a wine are mild, so yield is low (often in tenths or hundredths of a percentage point by volume) and take years for ester to accumulate.

Artificial aging[link]

There is a long history of man using artificial means to try to accelerate the natural aging process. In Ancient Rome a smoke chamber known as a fumarium was used to enhance the flavor of wine through artificial aging. Amphorae were placed in the chamber, which was built on top of a heated hearth, in order to impart a smoky flavor in the wine that also seemed to sharpen the acidity. The wine would sometimes come out of the fumarium with a paler color just like aged wine.^[6] Modern winemaking techniques like micro-oxygenation can have the side effect of artificially aging the wine. In the production of Madeira and rancio wines, the wines are deliberately exposed to excessive temperatures to accelerate the maturation of the wine. Other techniques used to artificially age wine (with inconclusive results on their effectiveness) include shaking the wine, exposing it to radiation, magnetism or ultra-sonic waves.^[1] More recently, experiments with artificial aging through high-voltage electricity have produced results above the remaining techniques, as assessed by a panel of wine tasters.^[7] Other artificial wine-aging gadgets include the "Clef du Vin", which is a metallic object that is dipped into wine and purportedly ages the wine one year for every second of dipping. The product has received mixed reviews from wine commentators.^[8]

See also[link]

• Coates Law of Maturity
• Ullage (wine)
• Storage of wine
• Premature oxidation

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Suriano, Matthew, "A Fresh Reading for 'Aged Wine' in the Samaria Ostraca," Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 139,1 (2007), 27-33.

External links[link]

• Felicien Breton (2008). "Storage conditions for keeping wine". http://www.frenchscout.com/wine-storage. 

• Alexander J. Pandell, Ph. D (1996). "How storage temperature affects the aging of wines". http://www.wineperspective.com/STORAGE%20TEMPERATURE%20&%20AGING.htm. 

• "Wine Storage and Wine Aging Temperature Calculator". http://www.winecellarscoolers.com/calculator/wine-storage-wine-aging-temperature-calculator.aspx. 

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012)

Mark Harmon
Born	Thomas Mark Harmon (1951-09-02) September 2, 1951 (age 60) Burbank, California, U.S.
Occupation	Actor
Years active	1973–present
Spouse	Pam Dawber (m. March 21, 1987 – present)[1]
Children	Two sons (Sean and Ty)
Mark Harmon UCLA Bruins — No. 7 Quarterback 1972–1973 Major: Communications Date of birth: (1951-09-02) September 2, 1951 (age 60) Place of birth: Burbank, California Height: 6 ft 0 in (1.83 m) Weight: 185 lb (84 kg) Career history High school: Harvard School for Boys Los Angeles, California  College(s): UCLA (1972–1973) Pierce College (1970–1971) Career highlights and awards 1971 National Junior College Athletic Association All-American 1973 National Football Foundation Award for All-Round Excellence 2010 Pierce College Athletic Hall of Fame

Mark Harmon (born September 2, 1951) is an American actor. Since the mid 1970s, he has appeared in a variety of television, film and stage roles following a brief career as a collegiate football player with the UCLA Bruins. Since 2003, Harmon has starred as Leroy Jethro Gibbs in the hit CBS series NCIS.

Early life[link]

Harmon was born Thomas Mark Harmon in Burbank, California. His father was University of Michigan football All-American and Heisman Trophy winner, Tom Harmon. His mother was actress and artist, Elyse Knox (née Elsie Lillian Kornbrath).^[2] Harmon has two older sisters, actress and painter Kristin Nelson, the former wife of singer Ricky Nelson, and actress-model Kelly Harmon, who was once married to car magnate John DeLorean.

After attending Los Angeles Pierce College as a student and quarterback, Harmon transferred to the University of California, Los Angeles, and following in his father's athletic footsteps was the starting quarterback for the UCLA Bruins football team in 1972 and 1973.^[3][4] In UCLA's 1972 season he engineered a stunning upset of the two-time defending national champion, Nebraska Cornhuskers.^[5][6] He received the National Football Foundation Award for All-Round Excellence in 1973.^[3][7] In his two years as quarterback in coach Pepper Rodgers' wishbone offense, UCLA won 17 games and lost only 5. He graduated from UCLA with a B.A. in Communication cum laude in 1974.

Career[link]

Mark Harmon in 2009 portraying Special Agent Gibbs in NCIS

Even though he considered "advertising or law" as careers after college,^[8] Harmon became an actor and has spent much of his career portraying law enforcement and medical personnel. Other than athletics/sports appearances, one of his first national TV appearances was with his father Tom Harmon, in a commercial for Kellogg's Product 19 cereal, for which the latter was the longtime TV spokesman. As an actor, his first credit came courtesy of his sister Kristen's in-laws, Ozzie Nelson and Harriet Nelson, in an episode of Ozzie's Girls. This was followed by guest-starring roles on episodes of Adam-12, Police Woman, and Emergency! in mid-1975 ("905-Wild" centered on two L.A. County Animal Control Officers and was a backdoor pilot episode for a series, but did not sell). Producer/creator Jack Webb, who was the packager of both series, later cast Harmon in Sam, a short-lived 1977 series about an LAPD officer and his K-9 partner. Also in 1977, Harmon received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for his performance as Robert Dunlap in the TV movie Eleanor and Franklin: The White House Years.^[9]

During the mid 1970s, Harmon made guest appearances on shows such as Laverne & Shirley and The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries and had supporting roles in the feature films Comes a Horseman (1978) and Beyond the Poseidon Adventure (1979). He then landed a co-starring role on the 1979 action series 240-Robert as Deputy Dwayne Thibideaux. The series centered around the missions of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department Emergency Services Detail, but was also short-lived.

In 1980, Harmon gained a regular role in the primetime soap opera Flamingo Road, in which he played Fielding Carlisle, the husband of Morgan Fairchild's character. Despite initially good ratings, the series was canceled after two seasons. Following its cancellation, he landed the role of Dr. Robert Caldwell on the prestigious NBC Emmy-winning series St. Elsewhere in 1983. Harmon appeared in the show for almost three seasons before leaving in early 1986 when his character contracted HIV through unprotected heterosexual intercourse, one of the first instances where a major recurring television character contracted the virus (the character's subsequent off-screen death from AIDS would be mentioned two years later). In the mid 1980s, Harmon also became the spokesperson for Coors Regular beer, appearing in television commercials for them.^[10]

Harmon's career reached several other high points in 1986. In January, he was named People magazine's Sexiest Man Alive. Following his departure from St. Elsewhere in February, he played the lead in the TV movies Prince of Bel Air and The Deliberate Stranger (in which he played serial killer Ted Bundy). With his career blossoming, he gained a role in the 1986 theatrical film Let's Get Harry and the lead role in the 1987 comedy Summer School (co-starring Kirstie Alley). Returning briefly to episodic television in 1987, Harmon had a limited engagement on the series Moonlighting, playing Cybill Shepherd's love interest Sam Crawford for four episodes. He then starred in the 1987 TV movie After The Promise. In 1988, he co-starred with Sean Connery and Meg Ryan in the 1988 feature film The Presidio, and also opposite Jodie Foster in the film Stealing Home. Despite several high profile roles, Harmon's film career never gathered momentum and, after a muted reception to his 1989 comedy Worth Winning, he returned to television, appearing in various television movies.

Harmon's next regular television role would be as Chicago police detective Dickie Cobb for two seasons (1991–1993) on the NBC series Reasonable Doubts. In 1993, he appeared in one episode in the role of a rodeo clown on the CBS comedy/western series Harts of the West with future cast mate Sean Murray, who plays McGee on NCIS.

In 1995, Harmon starred in the ABC series Charlie Grace, in which he portrayed a private investigator. The series lasted only one season, after which he returned to ensemble medical shows on the series Chicago Hope, in which he played Dr. Jack McNeil from 1996-2000. He also portrayed astronaut Wally Schirra in one episode of the 1998 mini-series From the Earth to the Moon.

In May 2002, he portrayed Secret Service Special Agent Simon Donovan on The West Wing in a four-episode story arc. The role gained him his second Emmy Award nomination, exactly 25 years after his first nomination.^[9] Harmon appeared in a guest starring role in two episodes of JAG in April 2003, which introduced the character of NCIS agent Leroy Jethro Gibbs; since 2003, Harmon has starred as Gibbs in the CBS drama NCIS. During his time on the show, he was reunited with three of his former Chicago Hope co-stars, Rocky Carroll, Lauren Holly, and Jayne Brook. Also in 2003, Harmon had a supporting role in the remake of the comedy film Freaky Friday.

Harmon also starred in several stage productions in Los Angeles and Toronto. At the Cast Theatre in Los Angeles he performed in Wrestlers and The Wager. In the late eighties he was part of the cast of the Canadian premier of Key Exchange. Several productions of Love Letters provided him the opportunity to play alongside wife Pam Dawber.^[1]

Awards and nominations[link]

Primetime Emmy Awards

• 1977: Nominated, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie - Eleanor and Franklin: The White House Years
• 2002: Nominated, Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series - The West Wing

Golden Globe Awards

• 1986: Nominated, Best Actor in a Miniseries or Television Film - The Deliberate Stranger
• 1987: Nominated, Best Actor in a Miniseries or Television Film - After The Promise
• 1991: Nominated, Best Actor in a Television Series Drama - Reasonable Doubts
• 1992: Nominated, Best Actor in a Television Series Drama - Reasonable Doubts

Screen Actors Guild Awards

• 1996: Nominated, Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series - Chicago Hope
• 1997: Nominated, Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series - Chicago Hope

People's Choice Awards

• 2010: Nominated, Favorite TV Drama Actor - NCIS
• 2011: Nominated, Favorite TV Crime Fighter - NCIS

Personal life[link]

He worked as a carpenter before making a success of his acting career.^[11] On NCIS, his carpentry skills are alluded to through Gibbs' (his character) hobby of building boats in his basement.

Harmon has been married to actress Pam Dawber since March 21, 1987. The couple have two sons; Sean Thomas Harmon (born April 25, 1988, who played a young Gibbs in NCIS Season 6 Episode 4 and Episode 15, Season 7 Episode 16, Season 9 Episode 8 and 15), and Ty Christian Harmon (born June 25, 1992).^[12] Harmon was the brother-in-law of Ricky Nelson and is the uncle of actress Tracy Nelson and singers Matthew and Gunnar Nelson of the pop duo Nelson. Harmon dated singer Karen Carpenter in the 1970s.^[13]

In 1987, Harmon filed for custody of his nephew Sam based on grounds that his sister Kris was incapable of good parenting. Sam's psychiatrist testified the thirteen-year-old boy depicted his mother as a dragon, complained about her mood swings and how she prevented him from being with his siblings. Harmon later dropped the custody bid.^[14][15]

In 1996, Harmon saved two teenage boys involved in a car accident outside of his home. Harmon used a sledge hammer from his garage to break the window of their burning car, then pulled them free from the flames.^[16]

Filmography[link]

References[link]

Notes

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mark Harmon

• Mark Harmon at the Internet Movie Database
• Mark Harmon at TV Guide
• CBS profile
• Mark Harmon at Emmys.com

This article is an orphan, as few or no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; suggestions may be available. (May 2010)

Konris Maynard, or King Konris born 8 July 1983 on the island of St. Kitts, is most notable for having won the Saint Kitts and Nevis National Calypso Show four times in succession, a record only he holds. Maynard also won a fifth crown, to celebrate the Silver Jubilee of the Independence of Saint Kitts and Nevis.^[1][2][3][4]

External links[link]

• Festival biography

Notes[link]

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