City of Denison, Texas
—  City  —
Main Street in Denison Main Street in Denison
Flag
Motto: A jewel at the crossing of a great river!
Location of Denison, Texas
Coordinates: 33°44′59″N 96°33′27″W / 33.74972°N 96.5575°W / 33.74972; -96.5575Coordinates: 33°44′59″N 96°33′27″W / 33.74972°N 96.5575°W / 33.74972; -96.5575
Country	United States
State	Texas
County	Grayson
Founded	1872
Government
• Type	Council-Manager
• City Council	Mayor Robert Brady Chris Gillespie Obie Lee Greenleaf, Sr. Jared Johnson Michael Baecht David Spindle Jim McClure
• City Manager	Robert Hanna
Area
• City	22.9 sq mi (59.3 km2)
• Land	22.6 sq mi (58.5 km2)
• Water	0.3 sq mi (0.8 km2)  1.40%
Elevation	728 ft (222 m)
Population (2009)
• City	24,127
• Density	1,067.5/sq mi (412/km2)
• Metro	120,030
Time zone	Central (CST) (UTC-6)
• Summer (DST)	CDT (UTC-5)
ZIP codes	75020-75021
Area code(s)	903
Twin cities
• Cognac	France
FIPS code	48-19900[1]
GNIS feature ID	1379652[2]
Website	CityOfDenison.com

Denison is a city in Grayson County, Texas, United States. The population was 22,773 at the 2000 census; it is estimated to have grown to 24,127 in 2009.^[3] Denison is one of two principal cities in the Sherman-Denison Metropolitan Statistical Area.

History[link]

The city of Denison was founded in 1872 in conjunction with the Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad (MKT) or "Katy" depot.^[4] It was named after the wealthy Ryan Greenwood vice president George Denison.^[5] Because the town was established at the intersection of the MKT and the Red River (both important conduits of transportation in the industrial era), it came to be an important commercial center in the 19th century American West. In 1875 John Henry "Doc" Holliday had offices in Denison.

Rusk Avenue looking north, Denison, Texas (postcard, circa 1911)

During the phylloxera epidemic of the mid-19th century, which destroyed the vast majority of wine grapes in Europe, Denison horticulturalist T.V. Munson pioneered methods in creating phylloxera resistant vines, and earned induction into the French Legion of Honor, as well as sister city status for Denison and Cognac, France.^[6]

In 1901 the first electric "Interurban" railway in Texas, the Denison and Sherman Railway, was completed between Denison and Sherman, Texas.^[7]

In 1915, the Kentucky-based evangelist Mordecai Ham held a revival meeting in Denison, which resulted in 1,100 professions of faith in Jesus Christ.^[8]

Denison played host to 20th century notables such as the Marx Brothers^[9] and President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was born there in 1890.

Geography[link]

Denison is located at 33°44′59″N 96°33′27″W / 33.74972°N 96.5575°W / 33.74972; -96.5575 (33.749703, -96.557393).^[10]

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 22.9 square miles (59 km²), of which, 22.6 square miles (59 km²) of it is land and 0.3 square miles (0.78 km²) of it (1.40%) is water.

Notable geographic features of Denison include its connection to the Red River and Lake Texoma, its position on the Texas-Oklahoma border, and its centrality to the Texoma vernacular region.

Climate[link]

Denison's considered to be part of the humid subtropical area.

Demographics[link]

Map of the city in 1891

As of the census^[1] of 2000, there were 22,773 people, 9,185 households, and 6,135 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,008.1 people per square mile (389.2/km²). There were 10,309 housing units at an average density of 456.3 per square mile (176.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 84.02% White, 8.62% African American, 1.67% Native American, 0.46% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 2.19% from other races, and 2.98% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.23% of the population.

There were 9,185 households out of which 29.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.1% were married couples living together, 14.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.2% were non-families. 29.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.97.

In the city the population was spread out with 24.6% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 26.7% from 25 to 44, 22.4% from 45 to 64, and 17.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 88.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $31,474, and the median income for a family was $39,820. Males had a median income of $30,459 versus $21,451 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,685. About 11.9% of families and 14.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.8% of those under age 18 and 11.8% of those age 65 or over.

Media[link]

Newspaper[link]

• The Herald Democrat

Television Stations[link]

• KTEN - Channel 10 (NBC)
• KTEN - DT Channel 10.2 (The Texoma CW)
• KTEN - Channel 10.3 (ABC Texoma)
• KXII - Channel 12 (CBS)
• KXII - DT Channel 12.2 (My Texoma)
• KXII - DT Channel 12.3 (Fox Texoma)

Education[link]

The City of Denison is served by the Denison Independent School District. It is also home to Grayson County College, which preserves Denison's viticultural heritage with its T.V. Munson Viticulture & Enology Program.^[6]

High School Football[link]

Munson Stadium seats 5,262 people and is primarily used for American football. It is the home field of Denison High School's football and soccer teams.^[11] The Denison High School football team won the 1984 Texas Class 4A State Championship by beating Tomball 27-13. They also made three straight appearances in the 1995, 1996, and 1997 Class 4A Division II State Championship games, losing each time to La Marque.^[12]

They are also home to the longest high school football rivalry in Texas with Sherman High School called The Battle Of The Ax.^[13]

Transportation[link]

Denison is served by two U.S. Highways: U.S. 69 and U.S. 75 (Katy Mem. Freeway). General aviation service is provided by North Texas Regional Airport. Denison is served by one 24-hour taxicab service provided locally by Yellow Cab.

New Union Depot, Denison Texas (postcard, circa 1909)

Notable people[link]

U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower was born in Denison, and is by far the city's most notable resident. His birthplace was purchased by the city in 1946 (six years before he became President) and is now maintained as Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site. In addition, Eisenhower State Park on Lake Texoma is also named in his honor.^[14]

Other notable people that were either born in or have lived in Denison include:

• Jim Hightower, former commissioner of the Texas Department of Agriculture and a liberal commentator and author, was born in Denision in 1943.
• Thomas Volney Munson, horticulturalist
• Chesley Burnett "Sully" Sullenberger, airline pilot^[15]
• Professional football players, and brothers Aaron Hunt and Reggie Hunt play in the Canadian Football League.
• George McFarland, an actor, appeared as Spanky in 95 Our Gang films between 1932 and 1942.
• John Hillerman, the actor who playhed Higgins on Tom Selleck's Magnum, P.I.
• John Henry "Doc" Holliday - Gunfighter, gambler and western legend. Maintained dental practice in Denison.

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Denison Chamber of Commerce
• Denison Arts Council
• Denison Development Alliance
• Grayson County College
• Denison Independent School District

v t e Municipalities and communities of Grayson County, Texas, United States County seat: Sherman Cities Denison Gunter Sadler Sherman Southmayd Tom Bean Van Alstyne‡ Whitesboro Towns Bells Collinsville Dorchester Howe Pottsboro Tioga Whitewright‡ Village Knollwood Unincorporated communities Gordonville Luella Ghost Town Preston Tattoo Shop Laughing Buddha Social Club Footnotes ‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties

v t e  State of Texas Austin (capital) Topics Architecture Climate Cuisine Geography Government History Languages Literature Sports Texans Transportation Symbols Visitor attractions Society Culture Crime Demographics Economy Education Politics Regions Ark‑La‑Tex Big Bend Blackland Prairies Brazos Valley Central Texas Coastal Bend Cross Timbers Deep East Texas East Texas Edwards Plateau Golden Triangle Hill Country Llano Estacado Northeast Texas North Texas Osage Plains Panhandle Permian Basin Piney Woods Rio Grande Valley Southeast Texas South Plains South Texas Trans-Pecos West Texas Metropolitan areas Abilene Amarillo Austin–Round Rock–San Marcos Beaumont–Port Arthur Brownsville–Harlingen College Station–Bryan Corpus Christi Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington El Paso Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown Killeen–Temple–Fort Hood Laredo Longview Lubbock McAllen–Edinburg–Mission Midland Odessa San Angelo San Antonio–New Braunfels Sherman–Denison Texarkana Tyler Victoria Waco Wichita Falls Counties There are 254 counties in Texas. (See Table of Texas counties or List.)

State of Texas
Flag Seal
Nickname(s): The Lone Star State
Motto(s): Friendship
Official language(s)	No official language (see Languages spoken in Texas)
Spoken language(s)	English 68.7% Spanish 27.0%[1]
Demonym	Texan Texian (archaic) Tejano
Capital	Austin
Largest city	Houston
Largest metro area	Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex[2]
Area	Ranked 2nd in the U.S.
- Total	268,581[3] sq mi (696,241 km2)
- Width	773[4] miles (1,244 km)
- Length	790 miles (1,270 km)
- % water	2.5
- Latitude	25° 50′ N to 36° 30′ N
- Longitude	93° 31′ W to 106° 39′ W
Population	Ranked 2nd in the U.S.
- Total	25,674,681 (2011 est)[5]
- Density	98.1/sq mi  (37.9/km2) Ranked 26th in the U.S.
Elevation
- Highest point	Guadalupe Peak[6][7][8] 8,751 ft (2667.4 m)
- Mean	1,700 ft  (520 m)
- Lowest point	Gulf of Mexico[7] sea level
Before statehood	Republic of Texas
Admission to Union	December 29, 1845 (28th)
Governor	Rick Perry (R)
Lieutenant Governor	David Dewhurst (R)
Legislature	Texas Legislature
- Upper house	Senate
- Lower house	House of Representatives
U.S. Senators	Kay Bailey Hutchison (R) John Cornyn (R)
U.S. House delegation	23 Republicans, 9 Democrats (list)
Time zones
- most of state	Central: UTC −6/−5
- tip of West Texas	Mountain: UTC −7/−6
Abbreviations	TX Tex. US-TX
Website	www.texas.gov

Texas (ⁱ/ˈtɛksəs/) (Alibamu: Teksi ^[9]) is the second most populous and the second most extensive of the 50 United States, and the most extensive state of the 48 contiguous United States. The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in East Texas.^[10] Located in the South Central United States, Texas shares an international border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south, and borders the US states of New Mexico to the west, Oklahoma to the north, Arkansas to the northeast, and Louisiana to the east. Texas has an area of 268,820 square miles (696,200 km²), and a growing population of 25.7 million residents.^[11]

During the Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas: La Provincia de Texas.^[12] Antonio Margil de Jesús was known to be the first person to use the name in a letter to the Viceroy of Mexico in July 20, 1716. The name was not popularly used in daily speech but often appeared in legal documents until the end of the 1800s.

Houston is the largest city in Texas and the fourth-largest in the United States, while San Antonio is the second largest in the state and seventh largest in the United States. Dallas–Fort Worth and Greater Houston are the fourth and fifth largest United States metropolitan areas, respectively. Other major cities include El Paso and Austin—the state capital. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify Texas as a former independent republic and as a reminder of the state's struggle for independence from Mexico. The "Lone Star" can be found on the Texas state flag and on the Texas state seal today.^[13]

Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, Texas contains diverse landscapes that resemble both the American South and Southwest.^[14] Although Texas is popularly associated with the Southwestern deserts, less than 10% of the land area is desert.^[15] Most of the population centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests, and the coastline. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, and finally the desert and mountains of the Big Bend.

The term "six flags over Texas" came from the several nations that had ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas. France held a short-lived colony in Texas. Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845 it joined the United States as the 28th state. The state's annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state, Texas declared its secession from the United States in early 1861, joining the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. After the war and its restoration to the Union, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation.

One Texas industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle. Due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The state's economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated an economic boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy and high tech industry in the mid-20th century. As of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57.^[16] With a growing base of industry, the state leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace, and biomedical sciences. It leads the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product.

Geography[link]

Guadalupe Mountains

Texas is the second largest U.S. state, behind Alaska, with an area of 268,820 square miles (696,200 km²). It is 10% larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, though it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were a country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile and Zambia.

Texas is in the south-central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers. The Rio Grande river forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south. The Red River forms a natural border with Oklahoma and Arkansas to the north. The Sabine River forms a natural border with Louisiana to the east. The Texas Panhandle has an eastern border with Oklahoma at 100° W, a northern border with Oklahoma at 36°30' N and a western border with New Mexico at 103° W. El Paso lies on the state's western tip at 32° N and the Rio Grande.^[17]

Hill Country

With 10 climatic regions, 14 soil regions, and 11 distinct ecological regions, regional classification becomes problematic with differences in soils, topography, geology, rainfall, and plant and animal communities.^[18] One classification system divides Texas, in order from southeast to west, into the following: Gulf Coastal Plains, Interior Lowlands, Great Plains, and Basin and Range Province. The Gulf Coastal Plains region wraps around the Gulf of Mexico on the southeast section of the state. Vegetation in this region consists of thick piney woods. The Interior Lowlands region consists of gently rolling to hilly forested land and is part of a larger pine-hardwood forest. The Great Plains region in central Texas is located in spans through the state's panhandle and Llano Estacado to the state's hill country near Austin. This region is dominated by prairie and steppe. "Far West Texas" or the "Trans-Pecos" region is the state's Basin and Range Province. The most varied of the regions, this area includes Sand Hills, the Stockton Plateau, desert valleys, wooded mountain slopes and desert grasslands.

Texas has 3,700 named streams and 15 major rivers.^[19][20] The largest of these rivers is the Rio Grande. Other major rivers include the Pecos, the Brazos, Colorado, and Red River, which forms the border with Oklahoma. While Texas has few natural lakes, Texans have built over 100 artificial reservoirs.^[21]

The size and unique history of Texas make its regional affiliation debatable: it can be fairly considered a Southern or a Southwestern state, or both. The vast geographic, economic, and cultural diversity within the state itself prohibits easy categorization of the whole state into a recognized region of the United States. Notable extremes range from East Texas which is often considered an extension of the Deep South, to Far West Texas which is generally acknowledged to be part of the interior Southwest.

Geology[link]

Shaded Relief Map of the Llano Estacado

Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. The continental crust forms a stable Mesoproterozoic craton which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true oceanic crust of the Gulf of Mexico. The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1,600 million years old. These Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie most of the state, and are exposed in three places: Llano uplift, Van Horn, and the Franklin Mountains, near El Paso. Sedimentary rocks overlay most of these ancient rocks. The oldest sediments were deposited on the flanks of a rifted continental margin, or passive margin that developed during Cambrian time. This margin existed until Laurasia and Gondwana collided in the Pennsylvanian subperiod to form Pangea. This is the buried crest of the Appalachian Mountains–Ouachita Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision. This orogenic crest is today buried beneath the Dallas–Waco—Austin–San Antonio trend.

The late Paleozoic mountains collapsed as rifting in the Jurassic period began to open the Gulf of Mexico. Pangea began to break up in the Triassic, but seafloor spreading to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid and late Jurassic. The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico passive margin began to form.

Palo Duro Canyon

Today 9 miles (14 km) to 12 miles (19 km) of sediments are buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US oil reserves are located here. At the start of its formation, the incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick evaporite deposits of Jurassic age. These salt deposits formed salt dome diapirs, and are found in East Texas along the Gulf coast.^[22]

East Texas outcrops consist of Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments which contain important deposits of Eocene lignite. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments in the north; Permian sediments in the west; and Cretaceous sediments in the east, along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf contain oil. Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas in the Big Bend area. A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer.^[23] Located far from an active plate tectonic boundary, Texas has no volcanoes and few earthquakes.^[24]

Climate[link]

Damage from the 1915 Galveston hurricane.

The large size of Texas and its location at the intersection of multiple climate zones gives the state highly variable weather. The Panhandle of the state has colder winters than North Texas, while the Gulf Coast has mild winters. Texas has wide variations in precipitation patterns. El Paso, on the western end of the state, averages 8.7 inches (220 mm) of annual rainfall,^[25] while parts of southeast Texas average as much as 64 inches (1,600 mm) per year.^[26] Dallas in the North Central region averages a more moderate 37 inches (940 mm) per year.

Snow falls multiple times each winter in the Panhandle and mountainous areas of West Texas, once or twice a year in North Texas, and once every few years in Central and East Texas. Snow rarely falls south of San Antonio or on the coast except in rare circumstances. Of note is the 2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm, when 6 inches (150 mm) of snow fell as far south as Kingsville, where the average high temperature in December is 65 °F.^[27]

Maximum temperatures in the summer months average from the 80s °F (26 °C) in the mountains of West Texas and on Galveston Island to around 100 °F (38 °C) in the Rio Grande Valley, but most areas of Texas see consistent summer high temperatures in the 90 °F (32 °C) range.

Night-time summer temperatures range from the upper 50s °F (14 °C) in the West Texas mountains^[28] to 80 °F (27 °C) in Galveston.^[29]

Thunderstorms strike Texas often, especially the eastern and northern portions of the state. Tornado Alley covers the northern section of Texas. The state experiences the most tornadoes in the United States, an average of 139 a year. These strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle.^[30] Tornadoes in Texas generally occur in the months of April, May, and June.^[31]

Some of the most destructive hurricanes in U.S. history have impacted Texas. A hurricane in 1875 killed approximately 400 people in Indianola, followed by another hurricane in 1886 that destroyed the town. These events allowed Galveston to take over as the chief port city. The Galveston hurricane of 1900 subsequently devastated that city, killing approximately 8,000 people (possibly as many as 12,000), making it the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history. Other devastating Texas hurricanes include the 1915 Galveston Hurricane, Hurricane Audrey in 1957 which killed over 600 people, Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Beulah in 1967, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, Hurricane Rita in 2005, and Hurricane Ike in 2008.^[32] Tropical storms have also caused their share of damage: Allison in 1989 and again during 2001, and Claudette in 1979 among them.

Texas emits the most greenhouse gases in the U.S.^[33][34][35] The state emits nearly 1.5 trillion pounds (680 billion kg) of carbon dioxide annually. As an independent nation, Texas would rank as the world's seventh-largest producer of greenhouse gases.^[34] Causes of the state's vast greenhouse gas emissions include the state's large number of coal power plants and the state's refining and manufacturing industries.^[34]

History[link]

History of Texas
This article is part of a series
Timeline
French Texas (1684–1689)
Spanish Texas (1690–1821)
Mexican Texas (1821–1836)
Republic of Texas (1836–1845)
Statehood (1845–1860)
Civil War Era (1861–1865)
Reconstruction and Gilded Age (1865–1899)
State of Texas
Texas Portal v t e

Pre-European era[link]

Texas lies between two major cultural spheres of Pre-Columbian North America: the Southwestern and the Plains areas. Archaeologists have found that three major indigenous cultures lived in this territory, and reached their developmental peak before the first European contact. These were:^[36]

• the Pueblo from the upper Rio Grande region, centered west of Texas;
• the Mississippian culture, also known as Mound Builder, which extended along the Mississippi River Valley east of Texas; and
• the civilizations of Mesoamerica, centered south of Texas. Influence of Teotihuacan in northern Mexico peaked around AD 500 and declined over the 8th to 10th centuries.

No culture was dominant in the present-day Texas region, and many peoples inhabited the area.^[36] Native American tribes that lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include the Alabama, Apache, Atakapan, Bidai, Caddo, Coahuiltecan, Comanche, Choctaw, Coushatta, Hasinai, Jumano, Karankawa, Kickapoo, Kiowa, Tonkawa, and Wichita.^[37][38] The name Texas derives from táyshaʔ, a word in the Caddoan language of the Hasinai, which means "friends" or "allies".^{[3][39][40][41][42]}

Whether a Native American tribe was friendly or warlike was critical to the fates of European explorers and settlers in that land.^[43] Friendly tribes taught newcomers how to grow indigenous crops, prepare foods, and hunt wild game. Warlike tribes made life difficult and dangerous for Europeans through their attacks and resistance to the newcomers.^[44]

Colonization[link]

Flag of the six nations that have had sovereignty over some or all of the current territory of Texas

Texas in 1718, Guillaume de L'Isle map, approximate state area highlighted, northern areas indefinite

Stephen F. Austin was the first American empresario given permission to operate a colony within Mexican Texas.

The first historical document related to Texas was a map of the Gulf Coast, created in 1519 by Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda.^[45][46] Nine years later, shipwrecked Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his cohort became the first Europeans in Texas.^[47][48] Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528, when the Spanish landed in Texas, “half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us.”^[49] European powers ignored Texas until accidentally settling there in 1685. Miscalculations by René Robert Cavelier de La Salle resulted in his establishing the colony of Fort Saint Louis at Matagorda Bay rather than along the Mississippi River.^[50] The colony lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives.^[51]

In 1690 Spanish authorities, concerned that France posed competitive threat, constructed several missions in East Texas.^[52] After Native American resistance, the Spanish missionaries returned to Mexico.^[53] When France began settling Louisiana, mostly in the southern part of the state, in 1716 Spanish authorities responded by founding a new series of missions in East Texas.^[54][55] Two years later, they created San Antonio as the first Spanish civilian settlement in Texas.^[56]

Hostile native tribes and distance from nearby Spanish colonies discouraged settlers from moving to Texas. It was one of New Spain's least populated provinces.^[57] In 1749, the Spanish peace treaty with the Lipan Apache^[58] angered many tribes, including the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai.^[59] The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785^[60] and later helped to defeat the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes.^[61][62] With more numerous missions being established, priests led a peaceful conversion of most tribes. By the end of the 18th century only a few nomadic tribes had not converted to Christianity.^[63]

When the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803, American authorities insisted that the agreement also included Texas. The boundary between New Spain and the United States was finally set at the Sabine River in 1819.^[64] Eager for new land, many United States settlers refused to recognize the agreement. Several filibusters raised armies to invade Texas.^[65] In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence included the Texas territory, which became part of Mexico.^[66] Due to its low population, Mexico made the area part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas.^[67]

Hoping that more settlers would reduce the near-constant Comanche raids, Mexican Texas liberalized its immigration policies to permit immigrants from outside Mexico and Spain.^[68] Under the Mexican immigration system, large swathes of land were allotted to empresarios, who recruited settlers from the United States, Europe, and the Mexican interior. The first grant, to Moses Austin, was passed to his son Stephen F. Austin after his death.

Austin's settlers, the Old Three Hundred, made places along the Brazos River in 1822.^[69] Twenty-three other empresarios brought settlers to the state, the majority of whom were from the United States.^[69][70] The population of Texas grew rapidly. In 1825, Texas had a population of approximately 3,500, with most of Mexican descent.^[71] By 1834, Texas had grown to approximately 37,800 people, with only 7,800 of Mexican descent.^[72]

Many immigrants openly flouted Mexican law, especially the prohibition against slavery. Combined with United States' attempts to purchase Texas, Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit continued immigration from the United States.^[73] New laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties angering both native Mexican citizens (Tejanos) and recent immigrants.^[74]

The Anahuac Disturbances in 1832 were the first open revolt against Mexican rule and they coincided with a revolt in Mexico against the nation's president.^[75] Texians sided with the federalists against the current government and drove all Mexican soldiers out of East Texas.^[76] They took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom. Texians met at the Convention of 1832 to discuss requesting independent statehood, among other issues.^[77] The following year, Texians reiterated their demands at the Convention of 1833.

Republic[link]

Republic of Texas. The present-day outlines of the U.S. states superimposed on the boundaries of 1836–1845

The surrender of Mexican General Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto

Proposals of 1850 for Texas northwestern boundary

Within Mexico, tensions continued between federalists and centralists. In early 1835, wary Texians formed Committees of Correspondence and Safety.^[78] The unrest erupted into armed conflict in late 1835 at the Battle of Gonzales.^[79] This launched the Texas Revolution, and over the next two months, the Texians successfully defeated all Mexican troops in the region.^[80] Texians elected delegates to the Consultation, which created a provisional government.^[81] The provisional government soon collapsed from infighting, and Texas was without clear governance for the first two months of 1836.^[82][83]

During this time of political turmoil, Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna personally led an army to end the revolt.^[84] The Mexican expedition was initially successful. General Jose de Urrea defeated all the Texian resistance along the coast culminating in the Goliad Massacre.^[85] Santa Anna's forces, after a thirteen-day siege, overwhelmed Texian defenders at the Battle of the Alamo. News of the defeats sparked panic amongst Texas settlers.^[86] The newly elected Texian delegates to the Convention of 1836 quickly signed a Declaration of Independence on March 2, forming the Republic of Texas. After electing interim officers, the Convention disbanded.^[87] The new government joined the other settlers in Texas in the Runaway Scrape, fleeing from the approaching Mexican army.^[86] After several weeks of retreat, the Texian Army commanded by Sam Houston attacked and defeated Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto.^[88] Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco, ending the war.^[89]

While Texas had won their independence, political battles raged between two factions of the new Republic. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans, and the expansion of the Republic to the Pacific Ocean. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans. The conflict between the factions was typified by an incident known as the Texas Archive War.^[90] Mexico launched two small expeditions into Texas in 1842. The town of San Antonio was captured twice and Texans were defeated in battle in the Dawson Massacre. Despite these successes, Mexico did not keep an occupying force in Texas, and the republic survived.^[91] The republic's inability to defend itself added momentum to Texas's eventual annexation into the United States.

Statehood[link]

As early as 1837, the Republic made several attempts to negotiate annexation with the United States.^[92] Opposition within the republic from the nationalist faction, along with strong abolitionist opposition within the United States, slowed Texas's admission into the Union. Texas was finally annexed when the expansionist James K. Polk won the election of 1844.^[93] On December 29, 1845, Congress admitted Texas to the U.S. as a constituent state of the Union.^[94]

After Texas's annexation, Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the United States. While the United States claimed that Texas's border stretched to the Rio Grande, Mexico claimed it was the Nueces River. While the former Republic of Texas could not enforce its border claims, the United States had the military strength and the political will to do so. President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor south to the Rio Grande on January 13, 1846. A few months later Mexican troops routed an American cavalry patrol in the disputed area in the Thornton Affair starting the Mexican-American War. The first battles of the war were fought in Texas: the Siege of Fort Texas, Battle of Palo Alto and Battle of Resaca de la Palma. After these decisive victories, the United States invaded Mexican territory ending the fighting in Texas.^[95]

After a series of United States victories, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the two year war. In return, for US$18,250,000, Mexico gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, ceded the Mexican Cession in 1848, most of which today is called the American Southwest, and Texas's borders were established at the Rio Grande.^[95]

The Compromise of 1850 set Texas's boundaries at their present form. Texas ceded its claims to land which later became half of present day New Mexico, a third of Colorado, and small portions of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming to the federal government, in return for the assumption of $10 million of the old republic's debt.^[17] Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state.^[96]

Civil War and Reconstruction[link]

Civil war monument in Galveston, Texas

Texas was at war again after the election of 1860. Abraham Lincoln's election triggered South Carolina's declaration of secession from the Union, which was quickly followed by that of five other Lower South states. A State Convention considering secession opened in Austin on January 28, 1861. On February 1, by a vote of 166–8, the Convention adopted an Ordinance of Secession from the United States. Texas voters approved this Ordinance on February 23, 1861. Texas joined the Confederate States of America, ratifying the permanent C.S. Constitution on March 23, 1861.^[3][97] Not all Texans favored secession initially, although many of the same would later support the Southern cause. Texas's most notable unionist was the state Governor, Sam Houston. Not wanting to aggravate the situation, Houston refused two offers from President Lincoln for Union troops to keep him in office. After refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy, Houston was deposed as governor.^[98]

While far from the major battlefields of the American Civil War, Texas contributed large numbers of men and equipment to the rest of the Confederacy.^[99] Union troops briefly occupied the state's primary port, Galveston. Texas's border with Mexico was known as the "backdoor of the Confederacy" because trade occurred at the border, bypassing the Union blockade.^[100] The Confederacy repulsed all Union attempts to shut down this route,^[99] but Texas's role as a supply state was marginalized in mid-1863 after the Union capture of the Mississippi River. The final battle of the Civil War was fought near Brownsville, Texas at Palmito Ranch^[101] with a Confederate victory.

Texas descended into anarchy for two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger. Violence marked the early months of Reconstruction.^[102] Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Galveston by General Gordon Granger, over two and a half years after the original announcement.^[103][104] President Johnson, in 1866, declared the civilian government restored in Texas.^[105] Despite not meeting reconstruction requirements, Congress readmitted Texas into the Union in 1870. Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues.^[106]

20th century to present[link]

Spindletop

On January 10, 1901, the first major oil well in Texas, Spindletop, was found south of Beaumont. Other fields were later discovered nearby in East Texas, West Texas, and under the Gulf of Mexico. The resulting "Oil Boom" transformed Texas.^[107] Oil production eventually averaged three million barrels per day at its peak in 1972.^[108]

The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl dealt a double blow to the state's economy, which had significantly improved since the Civil War. Migrants abandoned the worst hit sections of Texas during the Dust Bowl years. Especially from this period on, blacks left Texas in the Great Migration to get work in the Northern United States or California and to escape the oppression of segregation.^[109] In 1940, Texas was 74% Anglo, 14.4% black, and 11.5% Hispanic.^[110]

World War II had a dramatic impact on Texas, as federal money poured in to build military bases, munitions factories, POW detention camps and Army hospitals; 750,000 young men left for service; the cities exploded with new industry; the colleges took on new roles; and hundreds of thousands of poor farmers left for much better paying war jobs, never to return to agriculture.^[111][112]

Texas modernized and expanded its system of higher education through the 1960s. The state created a comprehensive plan for higher education, funded in large part by oil revenues, and a central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently. These changes helped Texas universities receive federal research funds.^[113]

On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.^[114]

Government and politics[link]

The current Texas Constitution was adopted in 1876. Like many states, it explicitly provides for a separation of powers. The state's Bill of Rights is much larger than its federal counterpart, and has provisions unique to Texas.^[115]

State government[link]

Texas State Capitol at night.

Texas has a plural executive branch system limiting the power of the Governor. Except for the Secretary of State, voters elect executive officers independently; thus candidates are directly answerable to the public, not the Governor.^[116] This election system has led to some executive branches split between parties. When Republican President George W. Bush served as Texas's governor, the state had a Democratic Lieutenant Governor, Bob Bullock. The executive branch positions consist of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three-member Texas Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State.^[116]

The bicameral Texas Legislature consists of the House of Representatives, with 150 members, and a Senate, with 31 members. The Speaker of the House leads the House, and the Lieutenant Governor, the Senate.^[117] The Legislature meets in regular session biennially, but the Governor can call for special sessions as often as desired.^[118] The state's fiscal year spans from the previous calendar year's September 1 to the current year's August 31. Thus, the FY 2012 dates from September 1, 2011 through August 31, 2012.