A season is a subdivision of the year, marked by changes in weather, ecology, and hours of daylight. Seasons result from the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of revolution.^[1] In temperate and polar regions, the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, variations of which may cause animals to go into hibernation or to migrate, and plants to be dormant.

During May, June and July, the northern hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the sun. The same is true of the southern hemisphere in November, December and January. It is the tilt of the Earth that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months which increases the solar flux. However, due to seasonal lag, June, July and August are the hottest months in the northern hemisphere and December, January and February are the hottest months in the southern hemisphere.

In temperate and subpolar regions, generally four calendar-based seasons (with their adjectives) are recognized: spring (vernal), summer (estival), autumn (autumnal) and winter (hibernal). However, ecologists mostly use a six season model for temperate climate regions that includes pre-spring (prevernal) and late summer (serotinal) as distinct seasons along with the traditional four (See Ecological Seasons).

In some tropical and subtropical regions it is more common to speak of the rainy (or wet, or monsoon) season versus the dry season, because the amount of precipitation may vary more dramatically than the average temperature. For example, in Nicaragua the dry season (November to April) is called 'summer' and the rainy season (May to October) is called 'winter', even though it is located in the northern hemisphere. In other tropical areas a three-way division into hot, rainy, and cool season is used. In some parts of the world, special "seasons" are loosely defined based on important events such as a hurricane season, tornado season or a wildfire season.

Cool temperate zone seasonal changes on a city road in Manchester, UK:
Spring	Summer	Autumn	Winter

Causes and effects[link]

Illumination of the earth during various seasons

Fig. 1
This is a diagram of the seasons. Regardless of the time of day (i.e. the Earth's rotation on its axis), the North Pole will be dark, and the South Pole will be illuminated; see also arctic winter. In addition to the density of incident light, the dissipation of light in the atmosphere is greater when it falls at a shallow angle.

The seasons result from the Earth's axis being tilted to its orbital plane; it deviates by an angle of approximately 23.5 degrees. Thus, at any given time during summer or winter, one part of the planet is more directly exposed to the rays of the Sun (see Fig. 1). This exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit. Therefore, at any given time, regardless of season, the northern and southern hemispheres experience opposite seasons.

The effect of axis tilt is observable from the change in day length, and altitude of the Sun at noon (the culmination of the Sun), during a year.

Seasonal weather differences between hemispheres are further caused by the elliptical orbit of Earth. Earth reaches perihelion (the point in its orbit closest to the Sun) in January, and it reaches aphelion (farthest point from the Sun) in July. Even though the effect this has on Earth's seasons is minor, it does noticeably soften the northern hemisphere's winters and summers. In the southern hemisphere, the opposite effect is observed.

Seasonal weather fluctuations (changes) also depend on factors such as proximity to oceans or other large bodies of water, currents in those oceans, El Niño/ENSO and other oceanic cycles, and prevailing winds.

In the temperate and polar regions, seasons are marked by changes in the amount of sunlight, which in turn often causes cycles of dormancy in plants and hibernation in animals. These effects vary with latitude and with proximity to bodies of water. For example, the South Pole is in the middle of the continent of Antarctica and therefore a considerable distance from the moderating influence of the southern oceans. The North Pole is in the Arctic Ocean, and thus its temperature extremes are buffered by the water. The result is that the South Pole is consistently colder during the southern winter than the North Pole during the northern winter.

The cycle of seasons in the polar and temperate zones of one hemisphere is opposite to that in the other. When it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere, and vice versa.

In the tropics, there is no noticeable change in the amount of sunlight. However, many regions (such as the northern Indian ocean) are subject to monsoon rain and wind cycles. A study of temperature records over the past 300 years^{[2][page needed]} shows that the climatic seasons, and thus the seasonal year, are governed by the anomalistic year rather than the tropical year.

In meteorological terms, the summer solstice and winter solstice (or the maximum and minimum insolation, respectively) do not fall in the middles of summer and winter. The heights of these seasons occur up to seven weeks later because of seasonal lag. Seasons, though, are not always defined in meteorological terms.

Compared to axial tilt, other factors contribute little to seasonal temperature changes. The seasons are not the result of the variation in Earth’s distance to the sun because of its elliptical orbit.^[3] Orbital eccentricity can influence temperatures, but on Earth, this effect is small and is more than counteracted by other factors; research shows that the Earth as a whole is actually slightly warmer when farther from the sun. This is because the northern hemisphere has more land than the southern, and land warms more readily than sea.^[4] Mars however experiences wide temperature variations and violent dust storms every year at perihelion.^[5]

Polar day and night[link]

Any point north of the Arctic Circle or south of the Antarctic Circle will have one period in the summer when the sun does not set, and one period in the winter when the sun does not rise. At progressively higher latitudes, the maximum periods of "midnight sun" and "polar night" are progressively longer.

For example, at the military and weather station Alert located at 82°30′05″N 062°20′20″W, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island, Canada (about 450 nautical miles or 830 km from the North Pole), the sun begins to peek above the horizon for minutes per day at the end of February and each day it climbs higher and stays up longer; by 21 March, the sun is up for over 12 hours. On 6 April the sun rises at 0522 UTC and remains above the horizon until it sets below the horizon again on 21st of September at 0335 UTC. By October 13 the sun is above the horizon for only 1 hour 30 minutes and on October 14 it does not rise above the horizon at all and remains below the horizon until it rises again on 27 February.^[6]

However, end of February is not first light. The sky has twilight, being a glow on the horizon, for increasing hours each day, for more than a month before the sun first appears with its disc above the horizon. From mid November to mid January, there is no twilight.

In the weeks surrounding 21 June, in the northern hemisphere, the sun is at its highest elevation, appearing to circle the sky there without going below the horizon. Eventually, it does go below the horizon, for progressively longer periods each day until around the middle of October, when it disappears for the last time until the following February. For a few more weeks, "day" is marked by decreasing periods of twilight. Eventually, from mid November to mid January, there is no twilight and it is continuously dark. In mid January twilight returns the first faint wash of twilight briefly touches the horizon (for just minutes per day), and then twilight increases in duration with pre-dawn brightness each day until sunrise at end of February and on 6 April the sun remains above the horizon until mid October.

Reckoning[link]

Meteorological[link]

Animation of seasonal differences especially snow cover through the year

Meteorological seasons are reckoned by temperature, with summer being the hottest quarter of the year and winter the coldest quarter of the year. Using this reckoning, the Roman calendar began the year and the spring season on the first of March, with each season occupying three months. In 1780 the Societas Meteorologica Palatina, an early international organization for meteorology, defined seasons as groupings of three whole months. Ever since, professional meteorologists all over the world have used this definition.^[7] Therefore, in meteorology for the Northern hemisphere, spring begins on 1 March, summer on 1 June, autumn on 1 September, and winter on 1 December.

In Sweden and Finland, meteorologists use a definition for the seasons based on the temperature. Spring begins when the daily averaged temperature permanently rises above 0°C, summer begins when the temperature permanently rises above +10°C, summer ends when the temperature permanently falls below +10°C and winter begins when the temperature permanently falls below 0°C. "Permanently" here means that the daily averaged temperature has remained above or below the limit for seven consecutive days. This implies two things: first, the seasons do not begin at fixed dates but must be determined by observation and are known only after the fact; and second, a new season begins at different dates in different parts of the country.

Surface air temperature
Diagram was calculated (Abscisse: 21. of each month) Calculation based on data published by Jones et al. [8]	The picture shows Figure 7 as published by Jones et al.[8]

Astronomical[link]

The precise timing of the seasons as viewed by astronomers is determined by the exact times of transit of the sun over the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn for the solstices and the times of the sun's transit over the equator for the equinoxes. ^[9] For 2012 these times are:

The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse (with eccentricity exaggerated for effect) goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis—nearest point to the sun) on anywhere from 2 January to 5 January, the point of March equinox on 20 or 21 March, the point of June solstice on 20 or 21 June, the aphelion (apoapsis—farthest point from the sun) on anywhere from 4 July to 7 July, the September equinox on 22 or 23 September, and the December solstice on 21 or 22 December.

In astronomical reckoning, the solstices and equinoxes ought to be the middle of the respective seasons, but, because of thermal lag, regions with a continental climate often consider these four dates to be the start of the seasons as in the diagram, with the cross-quarter days considered seasonal midpoints. The length of these seasons is not uniform because of the elliptical orbit of the earth and its different speeds along that orbit.^[10]

From the March equinox it takes 92.75 days until the June solstice, then 93.65 days until the September equinox, 89.85 days until the December solstice and finally 88.99 days until the March equinox.

Because of the differences in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, it is no longer considered appropriate to use the northern-seasonal designations for the astronomical quarter days. The modern convention for them is: March Equinox, June Solstice, September Equinox and December Solstice. The oceanic climate of the Southern Hemisphere produces a shorter temperature lag, so the start of each season is usually considered to be several weeks before the respective solstice or equinox in this hemisphere, in other countries with oceanic climates, and in cultures with Celtic roots.

Ecological seasons[link]

Seasonal changes regarding a tree over a year

Ecologically speaking, a season is a period of the year in which only certain types of floral and animal events happen (e.g.: flowers bloom—spring; hedgehogs hibernate—winter). So, if we can observe a change in daily floral/animal events, the season is changing.

Hot regions[link]

Hot regions have two seasons:

• Rainy season
• Dry season

Temperate areas[link]

Six seasons can be distinguished.^[11] Mild temperate regions tend to experience the beginning of the hibernal season up to a month later than cool temperate areas, while the prevernal and vernal seasons begin up to a month earlier. For example, prevernal crocus blooms typically appear as early as February in mild coastal areas of British Columbia, the British Isles, and western and southern Europe. The actual dates for each season vary by climate region and can shift from one year to the next. Average dates listed here are for cool temperate climate zones in the Northern Hemisphere:

• Prevernal (ca.1 March–1 May)
• Vernal (ca.1 May–15 June)
• Estival (ca.15 June–15 August)
• Serotinal (ca.15 August–15 September)
• Autumnal (ca.15 September–1 November)
• Hibernal (ca.1 November–1 March)

Cold regions[link]

There are again only two seasons:

• Polar Day (spring and summer)
• Polar Night (autumn and winter)

Traditional season divisions[link]

Traditional seasons are reckoned by insolation, with summer being the quarter of the year with the greatest insolation and winter the quarter with the least. These seasons begin about four weeks earlier than the meteorological seasons and 7 weeks earlier than the astronomical seasons.

In traditional reckoning, the seasons begin at the cross-quarter days. The solstices and equinoxes are the midpoints of these seasons. For example, the days of greatest and least insolation are considered the "midsummer" and "midwinter" respectively.

This reckoning is used by various traditional cultures in the Northern Hemisphere, including East Asian and Irish cultures.^{[citation needed]} In Iran, Afghanistan and some other parts of Middle East the beginning of the astronomical spring is the beginning of the new year which is called Nowruz.

So, according to traditional reckoning, winter begins between 5 November and 10 November, Samhain, 立冬 (lìdōng or rittou); spring between 2 February and 7 February, Imbolc, 立春 (lìchūn or risshun); summer between 4 May and 10 May, Beltane, 立夏 (lìxià or rikka); and autumn between 3 August and 10 August, Lughnasadh, 立秋 (lìqiū or risshū). The middle of each season is considered Mid-winter, between 20 December and 23 December, 冬至 (dōngzhì or touji); Mid-spring, between 19 March and 22 March, 春分 (chūnfēn or shunbun); Mid-summer, between 19 June and 23 June, 夏至 (xiàzhì or geshi); and Mid-autumn, between 21 September and 24 September, 秋分 (qiūfēn or shūbun).

Australia[link]

The indigenous people of Australia defined the seasons by what was happening to the plants, animals and weather around them. This led to each separate tribal group having different seasons, some with up to eight seasons each year. However, most modern Aboriginal Australians follow either four or six meteorological seasons, as do non-Aboriginal Australians.

The commonly followed dates are as follows: 1st day of March, June, September and December for the start of Autumn, Winter, Spring and Summer, respectively.

Celts[link]

The ancient Celts used a solar calendar, with the four Pagan agricultural festivals, Imbolc, Beltaine, Lughnasa and Samhain occurring on the cross-quarter days. Today, those festivals are celebrated on 1 February, May, August and November respectively.

China[link]

Chinese seasons are traditionally based on 24 periods known as solar terms, and begin at the midpoint of solstices and equinoxes.^[12]

India[link]

In the Hindu calendar, there are six seasons or Ritu: Vasanta (Spring), Greeshma (Summer), Varsha (Monsoon) and Sharad (Autumn), Hemanta (pre-hibernal), Shishira (Winter).

The six seasons are ascribed to two months each of the twelve months in the Hindu calendar. The rough correspondences are:

See also[link]

• Geocentric view of the seasons
• Indian Summer
• Perennial tea ceremony
• Months
• Persephone
• Risks and benefits of sun exposure
• Indigenous Australian seasons

References[link]

• Maris, Mihaela, St. Luchian School, Bacau, Romania, Seasonal Variations of the Bird Species, ref. ecological seasons pp. 195–196 incl. and pp. 207–209 incl.

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Seasons

• Australian Weather and Seasons
• When do the Seasons Begin? (from the Bad Astronomer)
• Solstice does not signal season's start (from The Straight Dope)
• Why the Earth has seasons article on h2g2.
• Aboriginal seasons of Kakadu
• Indigenous seasons (Australian Bureau of Meteorology)
• Mt Stirling Seasons
• The Lost Seasons
• Melbourne's six seasons
• The Lengths of the Seasons (numerical integration analysis)
• Earth distance vs tilt
• Tutorial on Earth/Sun Relations and Seasons

v t e Seasons Temperate seasons Spring · Summer · Autumn · Winter Science portal Tropical climate seasons Wet season · Dry season Specific Fog season · Hurricane season · Monsoon season

lez:Йисан вахтар

Chris Cornell (born Christopher John Boyle; July 20, 1964) is an American rock musician best known as the lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist for Soundgarden and as the former lead vocalist for Audioslave. He is also known for his numerous solo works and soundtrack contributions since 1991. He is known for his wide vocal range, spanning B1-G5 in full-voice, and up to E6 in falsetto,^[1][2] as well as his powerful vocal belting technique. He was the founder and frontman for Temple of the Dog, the one-off tribute band dedicated to his former roommate, Andrew Wood. He has released three solo studio albums, Euphoria Morning (1999), Carry On (2007), and Scream (2009). Cornell was ranked 4th in the list of "Heavy Metal's All-Time Top 100 Vocalists" by Hit Parader.^[3] He performed the theme song to the James Bond film Casino Royale (2006), "You Know My Name." Chris Cornell also released his first live solo album entitled "Songbook" in November, 2011.

Childhood and early life[link]

Cornell was born and raised in Seattle, Washington and attended Christ the King, Catholic elementary school^[4] and Shorewood High School. His parents are Ed Boyle (a pharmacist from an Irish Catholic background) and Karen Cornell (an accountant from a Jewish background).^[5][6] He has five siblings: older brothers Peter and Patrick, and younger sisters Katy, Suzy, and Maggie. Peter, Katy and Suzy all performed in the band Inflatable Soule in the 1990s. Peter is currently the frontman for the New York-based rock band Black Market Radio. Katy performs as lead vocalist for the Seattle band Happy Hour Hero.

Cornell spent a two-year period between the ages of nine and eleven solidly listening to The Beatles after finding a large collection of Beatles records abandoned in the basement of a neighbor's house. Cornell was a loner; however, he was able to deal with his anxiety around other people through rock music.^[7] Before becoming a successful musician, he worked at a seafood wholesaler and was a sous-chef at a restaurant named Ray's Boathouse.^[8]

In the early 1980s, Cornell was a member of a cover band called The Shemps that performed around Seattle.^[9] The Shemps also featured bassist Hiro Yamamoto. Following Yamamoto's departure from The Shemps, the band recruited guitarist Kim Thayil as its new bassist.^[9] Cornell and Yamamoto stayed in contact, and after The Shemps broke up Cornell and Yamamoto started jamming together, eventually bringing in Thayil to join them.^[9]

Recording career[link]

1984–1997: Soundgarden[link]

Soundgarden was formed in 1984 by Cornell, Thayil and Yamamoto with Cornell originally on drums and vocals. In 1985, the band enlisted Scott Sundquist as the drummer to allow Cornell to concentrate on vocals.^[10] The band's first recordings were three songs that appeared on a compilation for C/Z Records called Deep Six. In 1986, Sundquist, who by that point had a wife and a child, decided to leave the band and spend time with his family.^[9] He was replaced by Matt Cameron, the drummer for Skin Yard, who became Soundgarden's permanent drummer.

	"Flower" noicon "Flower" was the only single released from Ultramega OK. The song's intro features Kim Thayil blowing across his guitar strings.
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Soundgarden signed to Sub Pop, releasing the Screaming Life EP in 1987 and the Fopp EP in 1988 (a combination of the two was issued as Screaming Life/Fopp in 1990). Though the band was being courted by major labels, in 1988 they signed to SST Records to release their debut album, Ultramega OK (1988), for which they earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Metal Performance in 1990.^[11] The band subsequently signed with A&M Records, becoming the first grunge band to sign to a major label. In 1989, the band released their second effort, and their first for a major label, Louder Than Love. Following the release of Louder Than Love, Yamamoto left the band to finish his Master's degree in Physical Chemistry at Western Washington University. He was replaced by former Nirvana guitarist Jason Everman. Everman was fired following Soundgarden's tour supporting Louder Than Love. In 1990, the band was joined by a new bassist, Ben Shepherd.

Thayil, Cornell, Shepherd and Cameron displayed on the disc of the Soundgarden album Down on the Upside (1996).

Along with Alice in Chains, Nirvana, and Pearl Jam, Soundgarden became one of the most successful bands from Seattle's emerging grunge scene in the early 1990s. With Shepherd, the new line-up recorded Badmotorfinger in 1991. The album brought the band to a new level of commercial success, and Soundgarden found itself amidst the sudden popularity and attention given to the Seattle music scene. Badmotorfinger included the singles "Jesus Christ Pose", "Outshined", and "Rusty Cage". The three singles gained considerable airtime on alternative rock radio stations, while the videos for "Outshined" and "Rusty Cage" gained considerable airtime on MTV. The song "Jesus Christ Pose" and its music video was the subject of widespread controversy in 1991, and the video was removed from MTV's playlist. "Rusty Cage" was later covered by Johnny Cash on his 1996 album, Unchained. It also appeared on the fictional radio station Radio X on the video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas and in the 32-bit version of Road Rash. "Room a Thousand Years Wide" was released previously as a single in 1990, but not to promote the album. It was released (with the song "HIV Baby") as a 7" through Sub Pop's Single of the Month club a full year before the release of Badmotorfinger. The song was re-recorded for this album. Badmotorfinger was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1992.^[11] It was also ranked number 45 in the October 2006 issue of Guitar World on the magazine's list of the 100 greatest guitar albums of all time.^[12]

Superunknown became the band's breakthrough album. Upon its release in March 1994, Superunknown debuted at number one on the Billboard 200.^[13] The album launched several successful singles, including "Spoonman" and "Black Hole Sun", and granted Soundgarden international recognition. Superunknown achieved quintuple platinum status in the United States,^[14] triple platinum status in Canada,^[15] and gold status in the United Kingdom,^[16] Sweden,^[17] and the Netherlands.^[18] Rolling Stone gave Superunknown four out of five stars. Reviewer J.D. Considine said Superunknown "demonstrates far greater range than many bands manage in an entire career." Considine criticized "Black Hole Sun" and "Half", stating that the former is "not a very good song" while the latter "is the virtual definition of a B-side."^[19] Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that "Superunknown actually tries to broaden its audience by breaking heavy-metal genre barriers that Soundgarden used to accept." He added that "Soundgarden...want[s] something different from standard heavy metal."^[20] David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album an A. He said, "Soundgarden is pumped and primed on Superunknown, and they deliver the goods." He praised it as a "hard-rock milestone-a boiling vat of volcanic power, record-making smarts, and '90s anomie and anxiety that sets a new standard for anything called metal."^[21] The album was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album in 1995.^[22] Two singles from Superunknown, "Black Hole Sun" and "Spoonman", won Grammy Awards, and the music video for "Black Hole Sun" won a MTV Video Music Award and a Clio Award.^[11][23] Superunknown was ranked number 336 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time,^[24] and "Black Hole Sun" was ranked number 25 on VH1's list of the 100 greatest songs of the '90s.^[25]

	"Burden in My Hand" noicon "Burden in My Hand" was the second single released from Down on the Upside. The song was written by Cornell and blends acoustic and electric instrumentation.
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The band's final album was 1996's self-produced Down on the Upside. The album spawned several singles, including "Pretty Noose", "Burden in My Hand", and "Blow Up the Outside World". The album was notably less heavy than the group's preceding albums, and marked a further departure from the band's grunge roots. Soundgarden explained at the time that it wanted to experiment with other sounds.^[26] David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said, "Few bands since Led Zeppelin have so crisply mixed instruments both acoustic and electric."^[27] However, tensions within the group arose during the sessions, with Thayil and Cornell reportedly clashing over Cornell's desire to shift away from the heavy guitar riffing that had become the band's trademark.^[28] Despite favorable reviews, the album did not match the sales of Superunknown.^[14] In 1997, Soundgarden received another Grammy nomination, for the lead single "Pretty Noose".^[29] Due to tensions within the band, reportedly due to internal strife over its creative direction, Soundgarden announced it was disbanding on April 9, 1997. In a 1998 interview, Thayil said, "It was pretty obvious from everybody's general attitude over the course of the previous half year that there was some dissatisfaction."^[30]

1998–2000: Solo career[link]

In 1998, Cornell began working on material for a solo album on which he collaborated with Alain Johannes and Natasha Shneider of the band Eleven. The album, entitled Euphoria Morning, was released on September 21, 1999. The album proved commercially unsuccessful although the album's single "Can't Change Me" was nominated for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance at the 2000 Grammy Awards.^[31] Euphoria Morning includes "Wave Goodbye", Cornell's tribute to his late friend Jeff Buckley. It has been noted that Euphoria Morning is influenced by Buckley's songwriting and distinctive vocal style. He also contributed the song "Sunshower" (a bonus track on the Japanese release of Euphoria Morning) to the soundtrack of the 1998 film, Great Expectations, and a reworked version of the track "Mission", retitled "Mission 2000", was used on the soundtrack to the 2000 film, Mission: Impossible II. In 2000, Cornell embarked on a tour in support of the album.

2001–2007: Audioslave[link]

Cornell performing with Audioslave at the 2005 Montreux Jazz Festival.

Audioslave was formed after Zack de la Rocha left Rage Against the Machine and the remaining members were searching for another vocalist. Producer and friend Rick Rubin suggested that they contact Cornell. Rubin played the remaining Rage Against the Machine band members the Soundgarden song "Slaves & Bulldozers" to showcase his ability. Cornell was in the writing process of a second solo album, but decided to shelve that and pursue the opportunity to work with Tom Morello, Tim Commerford and Brad Wilk when they approached him. Morello described Cornell: "He stepped to the microphone and sang the song and I couldn't believe it. It didn't just sound good. It didn't sound great. It sounded transcendent. And... when there is an irreplaceable chemistry from the first moment, you can't deny it."^[32] The quartet wrote 21 songs during 19 days of rehearsal and began working in the studio in late May 2001.^[33][34]

Their debut album, Audioslave, released in November 2002, spawned hits such as "Cochise", "Like a Stone" and "Show Me How to Live", and has reached triple platinum status in the United States. The band was nearly derailed before the album's release; Cornell was going through alcohol problems and a slot on the Ozzfest tour was canceled.^[8] During this time, there was a rumor that Cornell had checked himself into drug rehabilitation. He later confirmed it in an interview with Metal Hammer that was conducted from a clinic payphone.^[35] In a San Diego CityBeat article, Cornell explained that he went through "a horrible personal crisis" during the making of the first record, staying in rehab for two months and separating from his wife.^[36] The problems were ironed out and he has remained sober since this time. The band toured through 2003, before resting in 2004 to record their second album.

Audioslave's second album, Out of Exile, was released in May 2005 and debuted at number one on the U.S. charts. The album has since gone on to achieve platinum status. The album features the singles "Out of Exile", "Be Yourself", "Your Time Has Come", and "Doesn't Remind Me". Cornell admitted to writing his most personal songs ever on this album, influenced by the positive changes in his life since 2002.^[37] He also described the album as more varied than the debut and relying less on heavy guitar riffs.^[36] Critics initially described Audioslave as an amalgamation of Rage Against the Machine and Soundgarden,^[38] but by the band's second album, Out of Exile, noted that they had established a separate identity. The album was received more favorably than Audioslave's debut; critics noted Cornell's stronger vocals, likely the result of quitting smoking and drinking,^[39] and pointed out that Out of Exile is "the sound of a band coming into its own."^[40] Allmusic praised the album as "lean, hard, strong, and memorable."^[41] The lyrics, however, were still a common complaint; musicOMH.com wrote that Cornell's lyrics "continue to border on the ridiculous."^[42] On May 6, 2005, Audioslave played a free show in Havana, Cuba.^[43] Audioslave became the first American rock group to perform a concert in Cuba, playing in front of an audience of 70,000.^[44] The band traveled to Havana on May 4 to interact with Cuban musicians.^[45] Cornell commented: "Hopefully, this concert will help to open the musical borders between our two countries." The 26-song set concert was the longest the band had ever played.^[46]

In early 2006 the band returned, recording their third album as they had written most of the material during the tour. The band released the album, titled Revelations, in September 2006. Revelations was influenced by 1960s and 70s funk and R&B music.^[47] The first two singles were "Original Fire" and "Revelations". Two of the songs from the third album, "Shape of Things to Come" and "Wide Awake" were also prominently featured in Michael Mann's 2006 film, Miami Vice, prior to the release of the album. Despite the exposure to other forms of media and the positive critical buzz for their third album, Audioslave did not tour behind the release. They went into hiatus to allow Cornell to complete "You Know My Name", the theme song for the 2006 James Bond film, Casino Royale, and Morello to pursue his own solo work under the moniker of The Nightwatchman.^[48]

All of Audioslave's lyrics were written by Cornell, while all four members were credited with writing the music. Their songwriting process was described by Wilk as "more collaborative" and "satisfying" than Rage Against the Machine's, which was "a battle creatively." Cornell, for his part, saw Soundgarden's songwriting method as inferior to Audioslave's.^[49][50] Cornell's lyrics were mostly apolitical; Audioslave's Morello referred to them as "haunted, existential poetry."^[51] They were characterized by his cryptic approach, often dealing with themes of existentialism,^[52] love, hedonism,^[53] spirituality and Christianity.^[51] Cornell's battle with addiction to prescription drugs and alcoholism was a defining factor in the writing and recording process. Even though the singer admitted that he was "never able to write effectively" while drinking,^[54] and attended rehab after recording the debut album, Morello stated that Revelations was "the first record [Cornell] didn't smoke, drink or take drugs through the recording."^[55] However, Morello said: "Chris was stone sober during the making of our Out of Exile album. Chris was also sober during the making of Revelations and prior to recording he gave up smoking as well. I apologize for any confusion or concern that was stirred up by the original article. Sobriety can be a matter of life or death and Chris' courage in maintaining his health for years has been an inspiration."^[56]

News about Cornell's departure emerged in July 2006, when insiders stated that after the third album he would split for a solo career. The singer immediately denied the rumors, stating: "We hear rumors that Audioslave is breaking up all the time. ... I always just ignore [them]."^[48] On February 15, 2007, Cornell officially announced his departure from Audioslave, stating that "Due to irresolvable personality conflicts as well as musical differences, I am permanently leaving the band Audioslave. I wish the other three members nothing but the best in all of their future endeavors."^[57] As the other three members were busy with the Rage Against the Machine reunion, and Morello and Cornell had each released solo albums in 2007, Audioslave was officially disbanded.^[58]

2007: Solo revival[link]

Cornell and composer David Arnold collaborated on the song "You Know My Name", which Cornell co-wrote and performed and which accompanies the opening titles for the 2006 James Bond film, Casino Royale.^[59] "You Know My Name" is the first theme song since 1983's Octopussy to use a different title than the film, the first ever sung by a male American, and the first ever title theme song that did not appear on the soundtrack album. Cornell is the first male performer since a-ha in 1987's The Living Daylights. It is the fourth title theme after Dr. No, On Her Majesty's Secret Service and Octopussy, that does not make any reference to the title of the film.^[60] "You Know My Name" won a 2006 Satellite Award in the category of Best Original Song,^[61] and a 2007 World Soundtrack Award in the category of Best Original Song Written Directly for a Film.^[62] The song was also nominated for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media at the 2008 Grammy Awards.^[63] This song became the first song recorded for his solo album, which he began work on in 2007.

Cornell has done a number of meet and greet showings with his fanbase. On April 18, 2009, it was announced on his official website that he would be doing a meet and greet appearance at the "Electric Fetus" record store in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Fans who caught on to the message were able to meet Cornell for pictures and autographs before the concert at the "Myth" in Maplewood, Minnesota.

	"Billie Jean" unplugged noicon From the live album Chris Cornell: Unplugged in Sweden
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Though not officially released onto CD, an hour-long acoustic concert Cornell performed on September 7, 2006 at O-Baren in Stockholm, is widely available for download under the title Chris Cornell: Unplugged in Sweden. A promotional CD for his solo album, Carry On, was released in March 2007, entitled The Roads We Choose - A Retrospective. The 17-song CD included songs from Soundgarden, Temple of the Dog, Audioslave and Cornell's solo work.

On June 5, 2007, Cornell released his second solo album, Carry On, produced by Steve Lillywhite. It debuted at number 17 on the American Billboard charts. Among the artists who accompanied him on his second solo release was friend Gary Lucas, who contributed acoustic guitar to some of the tracks. Cornell has stated that he is always writing, and that there are some songs that he was not able to put onto an Audioslave album.^[64] While recording his second solo album, Cornell was involved in a motorcycle accident.^[65] He was apparently "rear-ended by a truck in L.A.'s Studio City while riding his motorcycle" and "catapulted 20 feet into the air." He was able to walk away from the accident, but had severe cuts and bruises. He returned to the studio later that day.

Cornell performing live in Melkweg in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

In 2007, Cornell appeared as support to Aerosmith on at least two legs of their 2007 world tour^[66]—Dublin, London, and Hyde Park—and to Linkin Park in Australia and New Zealand.^[67] These shows formed part of his own ongoing world tour which began in April 2007 and continued into 2008 and 2009. Cornell has described his touring band—comprising guitarists Yogi Lonich and Peter Thorn, bassist Corey McCormick and drummer Jason Sutter—as "musicians that could get the whole picture" playing music by Soundgarden and Audioslave, as well as his solo material.^[68]

In 2008, Cornell was featured on the Main Stage of Linkin Park's Projekt Revolution tour. Joining Linkin Park and Cornell on the Main Stage were Busta Rhymes, The Bravery, and Ashes Divide. The Revolution Stage featured Atreyu, 10 Years, Hawthorne Heights, Armor for Sleep, and Street Drum Corps. During this tour, Cornell has stated that he plans to "jump on stage" with other artists as the opportunity arises; this may set the stage for future Cornell collaborations, outside his work with Timbaland. Throughout the tour, Cornell collaborated with Chester Bennington from Linkin Park while performing "Hunger Strike", and with Street Drum Corps for a number of his Soundgarden tracks. While Linkin Park would perform their Grammy-winning song "Crawling", he would appear on stage singing the second verse of the song, the outro, and harmonies Aaron Lewis provided for the Reanimation version.

Cornell worked with producer Timbaland on his most recent album, Scream, which was released on March 10, 2009.^[69] Timbaland has referred to the recording sessions as "The best work I've done in my career," and predicted that Cornell will be the "first rock star in the club." Cornell called the new album "a highlight of my career." The album was largely panned by critics,^[70][71][72] but was the highest charting album of Cornell's solo career, reaching # 10 on the Billboard 200.

On April 2, 2009, Cornell took over Atlanta Rock station, Project 961, WKLS-FM. For 24 hours the station became "Chris-FM" and included a two hour special of Cornell DJing and playing his favorite songs of his career with the stories behind them leading up to a rebroadcast of his solo show from the previous night.^[73] On September 11, 2009, Cornell performed John Lennon's "Imagine" on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien. On October 30, 2009 it was reported that Cornell is working with Jordan Zadorozny and Michael Friedman to rework the Scream album, which was completely untrue. Never Far Away and Long Gone were the only songs that were reworked and not the full album.^[74] Cornell's voice is also sampled on the song "Mister Dirt" from Joshua David's album Good. Night. Melody. which was released on November 17, 2009.

In January 2011 Cornell announced his solo acoustic 'Songbook' tour, following on from a series of acclaimed solo acoustic shows in Los Angeles during 2009 and 2010. The first leg of the sold-out tour began on April 1, 2011 and continued through the US and Canada until May 6, resuming in October and visiting New Zealand, Australia, South America and the US, ending December 17. The tour received universally positive reviews.^[75]

In August 2011 Cornell released “The Keeper”, an original song written for the Marc Forster directed 2011 film Machine Gun Preacher. For the first 24 hours of release, the song was exclusively available as part of the "Donate to Download" campaign for Sam Childers' Angels of East Africa children's charity. The song will also be the lead track on the film’s soundtrack album.^[76]

2010: Soundgarden reunion[link]

Cornell, Cameron and Shepherd performing with Soundgarden at Lollapalooza 2010.

On January 1, 2010, Cornell alluded to a Soundgarden reunion via his Twitter account, writing: "The 12-year break is over and school is back in session. Sign up now. Knights of the Soundtable ride again!" The message linked to a website that features a picture of the group performing live and a place for fans to enter their e-mail address to get updates on the reunion. Entering that information unlocks an archival video for the song "Get on the Snake", from Soundgarden's second studio album, 1989's Louder Than Love.^[77]

In April 2010, Soundgarden announced their plans to headline Lollapalooza 2010. Soundgarden made the announcement through their website and email list. On April 16, 2010, Soundgarden held a secret show at the Showbox Theater on First Avenue in downtown Seattle, Washington, publicized via the band's mailing list. The show was billed as Nudedragons, an anagram for Soundgarden.^[78] Asked in August 2010 if Soundgarden will record new material, Cornell replied, "it would be exciting to record one song, to hear how Soundgarden-ish that might be this much time later. But for me, it's been more of a trip relearning the songs and playing them together. Some of the songs we're approaching we've never played live."^[79]

Soundgarden made their first television appearance since their reunion on Conan O'Brien's second episode of Conan November 9, 2010 on TBS and toured North America in summer 2011.

In mid/late September 2011 Chris Cornell stopped by Rolling Stone to perform a few acoustic songs & conducted an interview where he spoke about what it's like being back with Soundgarden and revealed that in early 2012 a new Soundgarden album consisting of new material would be released. The album would pick up exactly where the Down on the Upside album, released in 1996, left off.

Other musical projects[link]

Center for Disease Control Boys[link]

From 1986 to 1987, Cornell was also a member of the satirical Western swing band Center for Disease Control Boys.

Temple of the Dog[link]

	"Hunger Strike" noicon "Hunger Strike" was the first single released from Temple of the Dog. The song was written by Cornell and features a duet between Cornell and Eddie Vedder.
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While still in Soundgarden, Cornell recorded an album with members of what would become Pearl Jam. This collaboration went under the name Temple of the Dog, and the self-titled album was released in 1991. The album is a tribute to their mutual friend, and Cornell's former roommate, Andrew Wood. Wood, the former lead singer of Mother Love Bone, died of a heroin overdose the year before. Jeff Ament and Stone Gossard of Mother Love Bone teamed up with Mike McCready, Dave Krusen, and new vocalist Eddie Vedder in 1990, forming Pearl Jam. Temple of the Dog has gone on to sell more than a million copies, thanks in large part to the singles "Say Hello 2 Heaven" and "Hunger Strike", the latter of which features a duet between Cornell and Vedder. This was the first time Vedder was recorded professionally. During a 2003 Pearl Jam show at the Santa Barbara Bowl, Cornell appeared as a surprise guest. After playing a short acoustic set, Cornell joined Vedder and the rest of the band to perform "Hunger Strike" and "Reach Down". On October 6, 2009, Cornell made a surprise appearance during a Pearl Jam concert at the Gibson Amphitheater in Los Angeles. The reunited Temple of the Dog played Hunger Strike. At the end of the concert, Cornell took a bow with the band along with Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains.

Alice Mudgarden[link]

Cornell, together with Mark Arm of Mudhoney, contributed vocals on the Alice in Chains song "Right Turn" from the 1992 EP, Sap, although the band given credit for this song is Alice Mudgarden.

M.A.C.C.[link]

In 1992, Cornell and three other former members of Temple of the Dog played under the name M.A.C.C., recording the song "Hey Baby (New Rising Sun)" for the 1993 album, Stone Free: A Tribute to Jimi Hendrix.

Collaborations[link]

Cornell worked as a co-producer and backing vocalist on the Screaming Trees' 1991 album, Uncle Anesthesia. He acted in a cameo role and an onstage performance in Cameron Crowe's 1992 Seattle-based film, Singles. He also contributed his solo song "Seasons", and Soundgarden's song "Birth Ritual", to the Singles soundtrack. Cornell contributed vocals on Alice Cooper's "Stolen Prayer" and "Unholy War" (which he also wrote) from the 1994 album, The Last Temptation. In 1997, Cornell collaborated with Eleven on a rendition of the song, "Ave Maria", for the Christmas compilation album, A Very Special Christmas 3. Cornell has also performed live with the band Linkin Park.

It was incorrectly believed (for many years) that Cornell had written the Eleven song "Someone to Die For" on the 2004 Spider-Man 2 soundtrack, but this was corrected in an interview in April 2007. The song is performed by Jimmy Gnecco of Ours and Brian May of Queen. Cornell had recorded a demo of the song some time earlier, which was released only to members of the Eleven street team.

Cornell co-wrote (with Brian Howes) David Cook's first post-American Idol album single, "Light On", released in 2008. And in 2009, he contributed vocals on the song, "Mister Dirt", from the album, Good.Night.Melody, by Joshua David. Cornell sang one song (which he co-wrote) on Slash, Slash's solo record released in April 2010.^[80] The song is called "Promise" and it was premiered at amazon.com on March 26, 2010.^[81] He contributed vocals on the song, "Lies", on the 2010 album, Third and Double, by Gabin which was subsequently released as a single in October 2010. Cornell appears on the Carlos Santana album Guitar Heaven: The Greatest Guitar Classics of All Time, where he sings on the cover of Led Zeppelin's "Whole Lotta Love".

In September 2011, he joined members of Pearl Jam for a Temple Of The Dog live reunion at the 2-day PJ20 Festival in Alpine Valley, WI.^[82]

On May 5th 2012, Soundgarden performed as the surprise guest at K-ROQ's Weenie Roast and Fiesta.

Musical style[link]

Chris Cornell's songwriting often features non-standard chord progressions and melodies that do not conform with one diatonic scale. A prominent example is Black Hole Sun, which not only involves many kinds of open chords and several key changes in short sequences, but also very unique melody phrases with large-interval jumps.^[83]

A recurrent characteristic is the usage of major-only chord sequences (Sweet Euphoria,^[84] Pretty Noose^[85]), which also leads to more subtle key changes.

While a most intensive concentration of Chris Cornell's songwriting style can still be found on the Euphoria Morning album,^[86] later works, with Audioslave or on the later solo albums, tend to be more conventional, only sometimes containing short but inventive interlude parts (e.g. Like a stone,^[87] Disappearing Act, No Such Thing^[88]).

Other work[link]

Chris Cornell made a cameo in the 1992 movie Singles. Cornell was the face of fashion producer John Varvatos' 2006 ad campaign. He recently^[when?] became a restaurateur with the opening of his restaurant, Black Calavados, in Paris. He is also the owner of the music publishing company You Make Me Sick I Make Music.

Cornell has optioned Phil Carlo's true crime book The Night Stalker: The Life and Crimes of Richard Ramirez, with plans to turn it into a movie. Cornell is collaborating with Carlo to produce the screenplay.^[89]

Personal life[link]

Cornell was previously married to Susan Silver, the manager of Alice in Chains and Soundgarden. He had a daughter with Silver, Lillian Jean, in June 2000. He and Silver divorced in 2004. In December 2008, Cornell reported via his official website that he had finally won back his collection of 15 guitars after a four-year court battle with Silver.^[90]

He is currently married to Vicky Karayiannis (Βίκυ Καραγιάννη),^[91] a Paris-based American publicist of Greek heritage. She gave birth to his second daughter, Toni, in September 2004, and his third child, Christopher Nicholas, in December 2005.^[92]

When asked how Cornell beat all his addictions he stated, "It was a long period of coming to the realization that this way (sober) is better. Going through rehab, honestly, did help, and I'm not....it got me away from just the daily drudgery of depression and either trying to not drink or do drugs or doing them and you know, they give you such a simple message that any idiot can get and it's just over and over, but the bottom line is really, and this is the part that is scary for everyone, the individual kinda has to want it...not kinda, you have to want it and to not do that crap anymore or you will never stop and it will just kill you."^[93]

In a 2011 interview,^[94] Chris Cornell said the major change with the reformed Soundgarden is a lack of alcohol: "The biggest difference I noticed.. and we haven't even really talked about it: There are no bottles of Jack Daniels around or beers. And we never talked about.. it's just not there."

Discography[link]

Chris Cornell has released four solo albums. His first band Soundgarden, produced five albums, five EPs and two greatest hits compilations. He released three albums with Audioslave and one album with Temple of the Dog. Despite this large discography he has only released one retrospective compilation which was given a limited release. Cornell has also produced an album for Screaming Trees and had his music featured on one mixtape.

Solo releases[link]

• Euphoria Morning (1999)
• Carry On (2007)
• Scream (2009)
• Songbook (2011)

Soundgarden[link]

Temple of the Dog[link]

• Temple of the Dog (1991)

Audioslave[link]

Other appearances[link]

Vocals

• 1992: Alice in Chains - Sap (Co-lead Vocals on "Right Turn")
• 1994: Alice Cooper - The Last Temptation (Backing Vocals on "Stolen Prayer" and "Unholy War")
• 1997: A Very Special Christmas 3 (Vocals on "Ave Maria" featuring Eleven)
• 2004: Axis of Justice - Axis Of Justice: Concert Series, Vol. 1 (vocals on (What's So Funny 'Bout) Peace, Love and Understanding?)
• 2008: Linkin Park - Songs From The Underground (Lead Vocals on "Hunger Strike")
• 2009: Joshua David - Good.Night.Melody (Vocals on "Mister Dirt")
• 2010: Slash - Slash (Vocals on "Promise")
• 2010: Gabin - Third and Double (Vocals on "Lies")
• 2010: Carlos Santana - Guitar Heaven: The Greatest Guitar Classics of All Time ( Vocals on "Whole Lotta Love")
• 2012: Rita Wilson - AM/FM ( Vocals on "All I Have To Do Is Dream")

Producer

• 1991: Uncle Anesthesia by Screaming Trees

Mixtapes

• 2009: Chris Cornell and Prophet – Scream: The Mixtape – presented by DJ Skee

Awards and nominations[link]

References[link]