Constructive set theory is an approach to mathematical constructivism following the program of axiomatic set theory. That is, it uses the usual first-order language of classical set theory, and although of course the logic is constructive, there is no explicit use of constructive types. Rather, there are just sets, thus it can look very much like classical mathematics done on the most common foundations, namely the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms (ZFC).

Intuitionistic Zermelo–Fraenkel[link]

In 1973, John Myhill proposed a system of set theory based on intuitionistic logic^[1] taking the most common foundation, ZFC, and throwing away the axiom of choice (AC) and the law of the excluded middle (LEM), leaving everything else as is. However, different forms of some of the ZFC axioms which are equivalent in the classical setting are inequivalent in the constructive setting, and some forms imply LEM.

The system, which has come to be known as IZF, or Intuitionistic Zermelo–Fraenkel (ZF refers to ZFC without the axiom of choice), has the usual axioms of extensionality, pairing, union, infinity, separation and power set. The axiom of regularity is stated in the form of an axiom schema of set induction. Also, while Myhill used the axiom schema of replacement in his system, IZF usually stands for the version with collection

While the axiom of replacement requires the relation φ to be a function over the set A (that is, for every x in A there is associated exactly one y), the axiom of collection does not: it merely requires there be associated at least one y, and it asserts the existence of a set which collects at least one such y for each such x. The axiom of regularity as it is normally stated implies LEM, whereas the form of set induction does not. The formal statements of these two schemata are:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \forall A \; ([\forall x \in A \; \exist y \; \phi(x,y)] \to \exist B \; \forall x \in A \; \exist y \in B \; \phi(x,y))

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): [\forall y \; ([\forall x \in y \; \phi(x)] \to \phi(y))] \to \forall y \; \phi(y)

Adding LEM back to IZF results in ZF, as LEM makes collection equivalent to replacement and set induction equivalent to regularity. Even without LEM, IZF's proof-theoretical power equals that of ZF.

Predicativity[link]

While IZF is based on constructive rather than classical logic, it is considered impredicative. It allows formation of sets using the axiom of separation with any proposition, including ones which contain quantifiers which are not bounded. Thus new sets can be formed in terms of the universe of all sets. Additionally the power set axiom implies the existence of a set of truth values. In the presence of LEM, this set exists and has two elements. In the absence of it, the set of truth values is also considered impredicative.

Myhill's constructive set theory[link]

The subject was begun by John Myhill to provide a formal foundation for Errett Bishop's program of constructive mathematics. As he presented it, Myhill's system CST is a constructive first-order logic with three sorts: natural numbers, functions, and sets. The system is:

• Constructive first-order predicate logic with identity, and basic axioms related to the three sorts.
• The usual Peano axioms for natural numbers.
• The usual axiom of extensionality for sets, as well as one for functions, and the usual axiom of union.
• A form of the axiom of infinity asserting that the collection of natural numbers (for which he introduces a constant N) is in fact a set.
• Axioms asserting that the domain and range of a function are both sets. Additionally, an axiom of non-choice asserts the existence of a choice function in cases where the choice is already made. Together these act like the usual replacement axiom in classical set theory.
• The axiom of exponentiation, asserting that for any two sets, there is a third set which contains all (and only) the functions whose domain is the first set, and whose range is the second set. This is a greatly weakened form of the axiom of power set in classical set theory, to which Myhill, among others, objected on the grounds of its impredicativity.
• The axiom of restricted, or predicative, separation, which is a weakened form of the separation axiom in classical set theory, requiring that any quantifications be bounded to another set.
• An axiom of dependent choice, which is much weaker than the usual axiom of choice.

Aczel's constructive Zermelo–Fraenkel[link]

Peter Aczel's constructive Zermelo-Fraenkel^[2], or CZF, is essentially IZF with its impredicative features removed. It strengthens the collection scheme, and then drops the impredicative power set axiom and replaces it with another collection scheme. Finally the separation axiom is restricted, as in Myhill's CST. This theory has a relatively simple interpretation in a version of constructive type theory and has modest proof theoretic strength as well as a fairly direct constructive and predicative justification, while retaining the language of set theory. Adding LEM to this theory also recovers full ZF.

The collection axioms are:

Strong collection schema: This is the constructive replacement for the axiom schema of replacement. It states that if φ is a binary relation between sets which is total over a certain domain set (that is, it has at least one image of every element in the domain), then there exists a set which contains at least one image under φ of every element of the domain, and only images of elements of the domain. Formally, for any formula φ:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \forall a ((\forall x \in a \; \exist y \; \phi(x,y)) \to \exist b \; (\forall x \in a \; \exist y \in b \; \phi(x,y)) \wedge (\forall y \in b \; \exist x \in a \; \phi(x,y)))

Subset collection schema: This is the constructive version of the power set axiom. Formally, for any formula φ:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \forall a,b \; \exist u \; \forall z ((\forall x \in a \; \exist y \in b \; \phi(x,y,z)) \to \exist v \in u \; (\forall x \in a \; \exist y \in v \; \phi(x,y,z)) \wedge (\forall y \in v \; \exist x \in a \; \phi(x,y,z)))

This is equivalent to a single and somewhat clearer axiom of fullness: between any two sets a and b, there is a set c which contains a total subrelation of any total relation between a and b that can be encoded as a set of ordered pairs. Formally:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \forall a,b \; \exist c \subseteq P(a,b) \; \forall R \in P(a,b) \; \exist S \in c \; S \subseteq R

where the references to P(a,b) are defined by:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): R \in P(a,b) \iff (\forall u \in R \; \exist x \in a \; \exist y \in b \; \langle x,y \rangle = u) \wedge (\forall x \in a \; \exist y \in b \; \langle x,y \rangle \in R)

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): c \subseteq P(a,b) \iff \forall R \in c \; R \in P(a,b)

and some set-encoding of the ordered pair <x,y> is assumed.

The axiom of fullness implies CST's axiom of exponentiation: given two sets, the collection of all total functions from one to the other is also in fact a set.

The remaining axioms of CZF are: the axioms of extensionality, pairing, union, and infinity are the same as in ZF; and set induction and predicative separation are the same as above.

Interpretability in type theory[link]

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Further reading[link]

• Troelstra, Anne; van Dalen, Dirk (1988). Constructivism in Mathematics, Vol. 2. Studies in Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics. p. 619. ISBN 0-444-70358-6. 

References[link]

A Venn diagram illustrating the intersection of two sets.

Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections of objects. Although any type of object can be collected into a set, set theory is applied most often to objects that are relevant to mathematics. The language of set theory can be used in the definitions of nearly all mathematical objects.

The modern study of set theory was initiated by Georg Cantor and Richard Dedekind in the 1870s. After the discovery of paradoxes in naive set theory, numerous axiom systems were proposed in the early twentieth century, of which the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms, with the axiom of choice, are the best-known.

Set theory is commonly employed as a foundational system for mathematics, particularly in the form of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice. Beyond its foundational role, set theory is a branch of mathematics in its own right, with an active research community. Contemporary research into set theory includes a diverse collection of topics, ranging from the structure of the real number line to the study of the consistency of large cardinals.

History[link]

Georg Cantor

Mathematical topics typically emerge and evolve through interactions among many researchers. Set theory, however, was founded by a single paper in 1874 by Georg Cantor: "On a Characteristic Property of All Real Algebraic Numbers".^[1][2]

Since the 5th century BC, beginning with Greek mathematician Zeno of Elea in the West and early Indian mathematicians in the East, mathematicians had struggled with the concept of infinity. Especially notable is the work of Bernard Bolzano in the first half of the 19th century.^[3] Modern understanding of infinity began in 1867-71, with Cantor's work on number theory. An 1872 meeting between Cantor and Richard Dedekind influenced Cantor's thinking and culminated in Cantor's 1874 paper.

Cantor's work initially polarized the mathematicians of his day. While Karl Weierstrass and Dedekind supported Cantor, Leopold Kronecker, now seen as a founder of mathematical constructivism, did not. Cantorian set theory eventually became widespread, due to the utility of Cantorian concepts, such as one-to-one correspondence among sets, his proof that there are more real numbers than integers, and the "infinity of infinities" ("Cantor's paradise") resulting from the power set operation. This utility of set theory led to the article "Mengenlehre" contributed in 1898 by Arthur Schoenflies to Klein's encyclopedia.

The next wave of excitement in set theory came around 1900, when it was discovered that Cantorian set theory gave rise to several contradictions, called antinomies or paradoxes. Bertrand Russell and Ernst Zermelo independently found the simplest and best known paradox, now called Russell's paradox: consider "the set of all sets that are not members of themselves", which leads to a contradiction since it must be a member of itself, and not a member of itself. In 1899 Cantor had himself posed the question "What is the cardinal number of the set of all sets?", and obtained a related paradox. Russell used his paradox as a theme in his 1903 review of continental mathematics in his Principles of Mathematics.

The momentum of set theory was such that debate on the paradoxes did not lead to its abandonment. The work of Zermelo in 1908 and Abraham Fraenkel in 1922 resulted in the set of axioms ZFC, which became the canonical^{[dubious – discuss]} axioms for set theory. The work of analysts such as Henri Lebesgue demonstrated the great mathematical utility of set theory, which has since become woven into the fabric of modern mathematics. Set theory is commonly used as a foundational system, although in some areas category theory is thought to be a preferred foundation.

Basic concepts[link]

Set theory begins with a fundamental binary relation between an object o and a set A. If o is a member (or element) of A, write o ∈ A. Since sets are objects, the membership relation can relate sets as well.

A derived binary relation between two sets is the subset relation, also called set inclusion. If all the members of set A are also members of set B, then A is a subset of B, denoted A ⊆ B. For example, {1,2} is a subset of {1,2,3} , but {1,4} is not. From this definition, it is clear that a set is a subset of itself; in cases where one wishes to avoid this, the term proper subset is defined to exclude this possibility.

Just as arithmetic features binary operations on numbers, set theory features binary operations on sets. The:

• Union of the sets A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set of all objects that are a member of A, or B, or both. The union of {1, 2, 3} and {2, 3, 4} is the set {1, 2, 3, 4} .
• Intersection of the sets A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set of all objects that are members of both A and B. The intersection of {1, 2, 3} and {2, 3, 4} is the set {2, 3} .
• Set difference of U and A, denoted U \ A is the set of all members of U that are not members of A. The set difference {1,2,3} \ {2,3,4} is {1} , while, conversely, the set difference {2,3,4} \ {1,2,3} is {4} . When A is a subset of U, the set difference U \ A is also called the complement of A in U. In this case, if the choice of U is clear from the context, the notation A^c is sometimes used instead of U \ A, particularly if U is a universal set as in the study of Venn diagrams.
• Symmetric difference of sets A and B is the set of all objects that are a member of exactly one of A and B (elements which are in one of the sets, but not in both). For instance, for the sets {1,2,3} and {2,3,4} , the symmetric difference set is {1,4} . It is the set difference of the union and the intersection, (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B).
• Cartesian product of A and B, denoted A × B, is the set whose members are all possible ordered pairs (a,b) where a is a member of A and b is a member of B. The cartesian product of {1, 2} and {red, white} is {(1, red), (1, white), (2, red), (2, white)}.
• Power set of a set A is the set whose members are all possible subsets of A. For example, the power set of {1, 2} is { {}, {1}, {2}, {1,2} } .

Some basic sets of central importance are the empty set (the unique set containing no elements), the set of natural numbers, and the set of real numbers.

Some ontology[link]

An initial segment of the von Neumann hierarchy.

A set is pure if all of its members are sets, all members of its members are sets, and so on. For example, the set {{}} containing only the empty set is a nonempty pure set. In modern set theory, it is common to restrict attention to the von Neumann universe of pure sets, and many systems of axiomatic set theory are designed to axiomatize the pure sets only. There are many technical advantages to this restriction, and little generality is lost, since essentially all mathematical concepts can be modeled by pure sets. Sets in the von Neumann universe are organized into a cumulative hierarchy, based on how deeply their members, members of members, etc. are nested. Each set in this hierarchy is assigned (by transfinite recursion) an ordinal number α, known as its rank. The rank of a pure set X is defined to be one more than the least upper bound of the ranks of all members of X. For example, the empty set is assigned rank 0, while the set {{}} containing only the empty set is assigned rank 1. For each ordinal α, the set V_α is defined to consist of all pure sets with rank less than α. The entire von Neumann universe is denoted V.

Axiomatic set theory[link]

Elementary set theory can be studied informally and intuitively, and so can be taught in primary schools using Venn diagrams. The intuitive approach tacitly assumes that a set may be formed from the class of all objects satisfying any particular defining condition. This assumption gives rise to paradoxes, the simplest and best known of which are Russell's paradox and the Burali-Forti paradox. Axiomatic set theory was originally devised to rid set theory of such paradoxes.^[4]

The most widely studied systems of axiomatic set theory imply that all sets form a cumulative hierarchy. Such systems come in two flavors, those whose ontology consists of:

• Sets alone. This includes the most common axiomatic set theory, Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZFC), which includes the axiom of choice. Fragments of ZFC include:
  • Zermelo set theory, which replaces the axiom schema of replacement with that of separation;
  • General set theory, a small fragment of Zermelo set theory sufficient for the Peano axioms and finite sets;
  • Kripke-Platek set theory, which omits the axioms of infinity, powerset, and choice, and weakens the axiom schemata of separation and replacement.
• Sets and proper classes. This includes Von Neumann-Bernays-Gödel set theory, which has the same strength as ZFC for theorems about sets alone, and Morse-Kelley set theory, which is stronger than ZFC.

The above systems can be modified to allow urelements, objects that can be members of sets but that are not themselves sets and do not have any members.

The systems of New Foundations NFU (allowing urelements) and NF (lacking them) are not based on a cumulative hierarchy. NF and NFU include a "set of everything," relative to which every set has a complement. In these systems urelements matter, because NF, but not NFU, produces sets for which the axiom of choice does not hold.

Systems of constructive set theory, such as CST, CZF, and IZF, embed their set axioms in intuitionistic logic instead of first order logic. Yet other systems accept standard first order logic but feature a nonstandard membership relation. These include rough set theory and fuzzy set theory, in which the value of an atomic formula embodying the membership relation is not simply True or False. The Boolean-valued models of ZFC are a related subject.

An enrichment of ZFC called Internal Set Theory was proposed by Edward Nelson in 1977.

Applications[link]

Many mathematical concepts can be defined precisely using only set theoretic concepts. For example, mathematical structures as diverse as graphs, manifolds, rings, and vector spaces can all be defined as sets satisfying various (axiomatic) properties. Equivalence and order relations are ubiquitous in mathematics, and the theory of mathematical relations can be described in set theory.

Set theory is also a promising foundational system for much of mathematics. Since the publication of the first volume of Principia Mathematica, it has been claimed that most or even all mathematical theorems can be derived using an aptly designed set of axioms for set theory, augmented with many definitions, using first or second order logic. For example, properties of the natural and real numbers can be derived within set theory, as each number system can be identified with a set of equivalence classes under a suitable equivalence relation whose field is some infinite set.

Set theory as a foundation for mathematical analysis, topology, abstract algebra, and discrete mathematics is likewise uncontroversial; mathematicians accept that (in principle) theorems in these areas can be derived from the relevant definitions and the axioms of set theory. Few full derivations of complex mathematical theorems from set theory have been formally verified, however, because such formal derivations are often much longer than the natural language proofs mathematicians commonly present. One verification project, Metamath, includes derivations of more than 10,000 theorems starting from the ZFC axioms and using first order logic.

Areas of study[link]

Set theory is a major area of research in mathematics, with many interrelated subfields.

Combinatorial set theory[link]

Combinatorial set theory concerns extensions of finite combinatorics to infinite sets. This includes the study of cardinal arithmetic and the study of extensions of Ramsey's theorem such as the Erdős–Rado theorem.

Descriptive set theory[link]

Descriptive set theory is the study of subsets of the real line and, more generally, subsets of Polish spaces. It begins with the study of pointclasses in the Borel hierarchy and extends to the study of more complex hierarchies such as the projective hierarchy and the Wadge hierarchy. Many properties of Borel sets can be established in ZFC, but proving these properties hold for more complicated sets requires additional axioms related to determinacy and large cardinals.

The field of effective descriptive set theory is between set theory and recursion theory. It includes the study of lightface pointclasses, and is closely related to hyperarithmetical theory. In many cases, results of classical descriptive set theory have effective versions; in some cases, new results are obtained by proving the effective version first and then extending ("relativizing") it to make it more broadly applicable.

A recent area of research concerns Borel equivalence relations and more complicated definable equivalence relations. This has important applications to the study of invariants in many fields of mathematics.

Fuzzy set theory[link]

In set theory as Cantor defined and Zermelo and Fraenkel axiomatized, an object is either a member of a set or not. In fuzzy set theory this condition was relaxed by Lotfi A. Zadeh so an object has a degree of membership in a set, as number between 0 and 1. For example, the degree of membership of a person in the set of "tall people" is more flexible than a simple yes or no answer and can be a real number such as 0.75.

Inner model theory[link]

An inner model of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF) is a transitive class that includes all the ordinals and satisfies all the axioms of ZF. The canonical example is the constructible universe L developed by Gödel. One reason that the study of inner models is of interest is that it can be used to prove consistency results. For example, it can be shown that regardless whether a model V of ZF satisfies the continuum hypothesis or the axiom of choice, the inner model L constructed inside the original model will satisfy both the generalized continuum hypothesis and the axiom of choice. Thus the assumption that ZF is consistent (has any model whatsoever) implies that ZF together with these two principles is consistent.

The study of inner models is common in the study of determinacy and large cardinals, especially when considering axioms such as the axiom of determinacy that contradict the axiom of choice. Even if a fixed model of set theory satisfies the axiom of choice, it is possible for an inner model to fail to satisfy the axiom of choice. For example, the existence of sufficiently large cardinals implies that there is an inner model satisfying the axiom of determinacy (and thus not satisfying the axiom of choice).^[5]

Large cardinals[link]

A large cardinal is a cardinal number with an extra property. Many such properties are studied, including inaccessible cardinals, measurable cardinals, and many more. These properties typically imply the cardinal number must be very large, with the existence of a cardinal with the specified property unprovable in Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory.

Determinacy[link]

Determinacy refers to the fact that, under appropriate assumptions, certain two-player games of perfect information are determined from the start in the sense that one player must have a winning strategy. The existence of these strategies has important consequences in descriptive set theory, as the assumption that a broader class of games is determined often implies that a broader class of sets will have a topological property. The axiom of determinacy (AD) is an important object of study; although incompatible with the axiom of choice, AD implies that all subsets of the real line are well behaved (in particular, measurable and with the perfect set property). AD can be used to prove that the Wadge degrees have an elegant structure.

Forcing[link]

Paul Cohen invented the method of forcing while searching for a model of ZFC in which the axiom of choice or the continuum hypothesis fails. Forcing adjoins to some given model of set theory additional sets in order to create a larger model with properties determined (i.e. "forced") by the construction and the original model. For example, Cohen's construction adjoins additional subsets of the natural numbers without changing any of the cardinal numbers of the original model. Forcing is also one of two methods for proving relative consistency by finitistic methods, the other method being Boolean-valued models.

Cardinal invariants[link]

A cardinal invariant is a property of the real line measured by a cardinal number. For example, a well-studied invariant is the smallest cardinality of a collection of meagre sets of reals whose union is the entire real line. These are invariants in the sense that any two isomorphic models of set theory must give the same cardinal for each invariant. Many cardinal invariants have been studied, and the relationships between them are often complex and related to axioms of set theory.

Set-theoretic topology[link]

Set-theoretic topology studies questions of general topology that are set-theoretic in nature or that require advanced methods of set theory for their solution. Many of these theorems are independent of ZFC, requiring stronger axioms for their proof. A famous problem is the normal Moore space question, a question in general topology that was the subject of intense research. The answer to the normal Moore space question was eventually proved to be independent of ZFC.

Objections to set theory as a foundation for mathematics[link]

From set theory's inception, some mathematicians objected to it as a foundation for mathematics. The most common objection to set theory, one Kronecker voiced in set theory's earliest years, starts from the constructivist view that mathematics is loosely related to computation. If this view is granted, then the treatment of infinite sets, both in naive and in axiomatic set theory, introduces into mathematics methods and objects that are not computable even in principle. Ludwig Wittgenstein questioned the way Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory handled infinities.^{[citation needed]} Wittgenstein's views about the foundations of mathematics were later criticised by Georg Kreisel and Paul Bernays, and closely investigated by Crispin Wright, among others.

Category theorists have proposed topos theory as an alternative to traditional axiomatic set theory. Topos theory can interpret various alternatives to that theory, such as constructivism, finite set theory, and computable set theory.^[6]

See also[link]

	Set theory portal
	Mathematics portal

• Category theory
• List of set theory topics
• Musical set theory concerns the application of combinatorics and group theory to music; beyond the fact that it uses finite sets it has nothing to do with mathematical set theory of any kind. In the last two decades, transformational theory in music has taken the concepts of mathematical set theory more rigorously (see Lewin 1987).
• Relational model - Borrows from Set Theory.

Notes[link]

Further reading[link]

• Devlin, Keith, (2nd ed.) 1993. The Joy of Sets. Springer Verlag, ISBN 0-387-94094-4
• Ferreirós, Jose, 2007 (1999). Labyrinth of Thought: A history of set theory and its role in modern mathematics. Basel, Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-3-7643-8349-7
• Johnson, Philip, 1972. A History of Set Theory. Prindle, Weber & Schmidt ISBN 0-87150-154-6
• Kunen, Kenneth, 1980. Set Theory: An Introduction to Independence Proofs. North-Holland, ISBN 0-444-85401-0.
• Tiles, Mary, 2004 (1989). The Philosophy of Set Theory: An Historical Introduction to Cantor's Paradise. Dover Publications.

External links[link]

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Set Theory

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Discrete mathematics/Set theory

• Foreman, M., Akihiro Kanamori, eds. Handbook of Set Theory. 3 vols., 2010. Each chapter surveys some aspect of contemporary research in set theory. Does not cover established elementary set theory, on which see Devlin (1993).
• Arthur Schoenflies (1898) Mengenlehre in Klein's encyclopedia.

Mario Szegedy
File:Mario Szegedy at Rutgers 2008.jpg
Residence	U.S.
Fields	Computer Science
Institutions	Rutgers University
Alma mater	University of Chicago
Doctoral advisor	László Babai, Janos Simon

Mario Szegedy (born October 23, 1960) is a Hungarian computer scientist, professor of computer science at Rutgers University. He received his Ph.D. in computer science in 1989 from the University of Chicago.^[1] He held a Lady Davis Fellowship (Postdoctoral) at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem (1989-90), a postdoc at the University of Chicago, 1991-92, and a postdoc at Bell Laboratories (1992).

Szegedy's research areas include computational complexity theory and quantum computing.

He was awarded the Gödel Prize twice, in 2001 and 2005, for his work on probabilistically checkable proofs and on the space complexity of approximating the frequency moments in streamed data.^[2]

References[link]

1. ^ Mario Szegedy at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
2. ^ Gödel Prize website with list of winners

External links[link]

• Home page