Name	John Backus
Image width	100px
Birth date	December 03, 1924
Birth place	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Death date	March 17, 2007
Death place	Ashland, Oregon
Field	Computer Science
Work institution	IBM
Known for	SpeedcodingFORTRANALGOLBackus-Naur formFunction-level programming
Prizes	ACM Turing AwardDraper Prize

John Warner Backus (December 3, 1924 – March 17, 2007) was an American computer scientist. He directed the team that invented the first widely used high-level programming language (FORTRAN) and was the inventor of the Backus-Naur form (BNF), the almost universally used notation to define formal language syntax. He also did research in function-level programming and helped to popularize it.

The IEEE awarded Backus the W.W. McDowell Award in 1967 for the development of FORTRAN. He received the National Medal of Science in 1975, and the 1977 ACM Turing Award “for profound, influential, and lasting contributions to the design of practical high-level programming systems, notably through his work on FORTRAN, and for publication of formal procedures for the specification of programming languages.”

Life and career

Backus was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and grew up in nearby Wilmington, Delaware. He studied at the The Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, and was apparently not a diligent student. After entering the University of Virginia to study chemistry, he quit and was conscripted into the U.S. Army.

After moving to New York City he trained initially as a radio technician and became interested in mathematics. He graduated from Columbia University with a Master's degree in mathematics during 1949, and joined IBM in 1950. During his first three years, he worked on the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC); his first major project was to write a program to calculate positions of the Moon. During 1953, John Backus also developed the language Speedcoding, the first higher-order language created for an IBM computer.

Programming was very difficult, and during 1954 Backus assembled a team to define and develop Fortran for the IBM 704 computer. Fortran was the first high level programming language to be put to broad use.

Backus made another, critical contribution to early computer science: during the latter part of the 1950s Backus served on the international committees which developed ALGOL 58 and the very influential ALGOL 60, which quickly became the de facto worldwide standard for publishing algorithms. Backus developed the Backus-Naur Form (BNF), in the UNESCO report on ALGOL 58. This was a formal notation with which one could describe any context-free programming language and was important in the development of compilers. This contribution helped Backus win the Turing Award.

He later worked on a "function-level" programming language known as FP which was described in his Turing Award lecture "Can Programming be Liberated from the von Neumann Style?". Sometimes viewed as Backus's apology for creating FORTRAN, this paper did less to garner interest in the FP language than to spark research into functional programming in general. An FP interpreter was distributed with the 4.2BSD Unix operating system. FP was strongly inspired by Kenneth E. Iverson’s APL, even using a non-standard character set. Backus spent the latter part of his career developing FL (from "Function Level"), a successor to FP. FL was an internal IBM research project, and development of the language essentially stopped when the project was finished (only a few papers documenting it remain), but many of the language's innovative, arguably important ideas have now been implemented in Iverson’s J programming language.

Backus was named an IBM Fellow in 1963, and was awarded a degree honoris causa from the Henri Poincaré University in Nancy (France) in 1989 and a Draper Prize in 1993. He retired in 1991 and died at his home in Ashland, Oregon on March 17, 2007. Asteroid 6830 Johnbackus named in his honor (June 1, 2007)

References

External links

Biography at School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland

Biography at The History of Computing Project

Can Programming Be Liberated From the von Neumann Style? 1977 Turing Award Lecture

The FL project

New York Times obituary for John W. Backus

IBM Archives

About BNF

Hall of Fellows Computer History Museum

Obituary: John Backus (1924–2007):Inventor of science's most widespread programming language, Fortran, by Martin Campbell-Kelly, Nature journal, Volume 446 Number 7139, p. 998, April 2007.

Memorial delivered at the 2007 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation

Category:1924 births Category:2007 deaths Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:American mathematicians Category:Computer pioneers Category:Fortran Category:IBM Fellows Category:National Medal of Science laureates Category:People from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Category:People from Wilmington, Delaware Category:Programming language designers Category:Programming language researchers Category:Turing Award laureates Category:Columbia University alumni Category:People from Ashland, Oregon Category:University of Virginia alumni

Name	Scott Brady
Birthdate	September 13, 1924
Birthplace	Brooklyn, New York
Deathdate	April 16, 1985
Deathplace	Los Angeles, California

Scott Brady (September 13, 1924 – April 16, 1985) was an American film and television actor.

Born as Gerard Kenneth Tierney, he was the younger brother of fellow actor Lawrence Tierney. Brady served in the Navy during World War II, where he was a boxing champ. After being discharged, he supported himself as a lumberjack, and began taking acting classes; he began his film career soon afterward.

Brady specialized in tough-guy roles in films like He Walked by Night, Canon City and Johnny Guitar. He appeared twice on the long running TV western The Virginian in the 1960s. He appeared regularly on the 1970s cop show, Police Story. He played lead to Clint Eastwood's third billing in Ambush at Cimarron Pass, which Eastwood is quoted as saying was "probably the lousiest western ever made."

His last film role was in the 1984 movie Gremlins. He played Shirley Feeney's father Jack Feeney in episode 32 of Laverne & Shirley which aired on February 15, 1977. He also starred in the western TV show Shotgun Slade from 1959-61.

Brady died from pulmonary fibrosis at the age of 60. Other sources have the cause as emphysema.

Sources

Scott Brady tribute website

Category:1924 births Category:1985 deaths Category:American film actors Category:American television actors Category:People from Brooklyn Category:American people of Irish descent Category:Deaths from emphysema Category:Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery

Name	Majora Carter
Alt	Portrait photo of an African-American woman with her dog.
Caption	Majora Carter and her dog Xena
Birth date	October 27, 1966
Birth place	South Bronx, New York, United States
Residence	South Bronx, NY
Nationality	USA
Education	Bronx High School of ScienceWesleyan University
Occupation	Economic Consultant, Public Radio Host and Environmental Equality Advocate
Title	President, Majora Carter Group, LLC
Website	http://www.majoracartergroup.com/

Majora Carter (born October 27, 1966) is an economic consultant, public radio host, and environmental justice advocate from the South Bronx area of New York City. Carter founded the non-profit environmental justice solutions corporation Sustainable South Bronx before entering the private sector.

Early life

Carter attended primary schools in the South Bronx. After graduating from the Bronx High School of Science, she entered Wesleyan University in 1984 to study acting and film and obtain a Bachelor of Arts. In 1997, she received a Master of Fine Arts from New York University (NYU). While at NYU, she returned to her family's home in Hunts Point, Carter was "pulled by her dog into a weedy vacant lot strewn with trash at the dead end of Lafayette Avenue. As the pair plowed through the site they ended up, much to Carter’s surprise, on the banks of the Bronx River."

Career

Activism

.]] In August 2001, after an unsuccessful campaign for City Council, until July 2008. During that time, SSBx advocated the development of the Hunt's Point Riverside Park which had been an illegal garbage dump. SSBx has also been involved in other restoration projects on the Bronx River waterfront. This was one of the nation's first urban green collar training and placement systems. Other SSBx projects have centered around fitness, food choices (including the creation of a community market), and air quality.

Carter was a torch-bearer for a portion of the San Francisco leg of the torch relay of the 2008 Summer Olympics. Many portions of the torch relay, including the San Francisco leg, were met with protests concerning the policies of the Chinese government toward Tibet. Although Carter had signed a contract pledging not to use an Olympic venue for political or religious causes, when she and John Caldera were passed the torch during their part of the relay, she pulled out a small Tibetan flag that she had concealed in her shirt sleeve.

Members of the Chinese torch security escort team pulled her out of the relay and San Francisco police officers pushed her into the crowd on the side of the street. Fellow torch-bearer, retired NYFD firefighter Richard Doran, who was honoring the firefighters who died in the September 11 attacks, called Carter's actions "disgusting and appalling" and said that he thought "she dishonored herself and her family". Another torch-bearer, retired NYPD police officer Jim Dolan, agreed with Doran. American Public Media's Market Place, and PRX's This I Believe series and has contributed a piece on urban sustainability with Discovery Communications' Science Channel. Since 2007 Carter has appeared on The Green, a television segment dedicated to the environment, shown on the Sundance Channel. The first season consisted of a series of 90 second op-eds shot in studio. The second season consisted of a series of short interview pieces with people who are taking uncommon approaches to environmental problems.

In 2008, Carter and Marge Ostroushko co-produced the pilot episode of the public radio show, The Promised Land, which won a 3-way competition for a Corporation for Public Broadcasting Talent Quest grant. The one-hour program debuted on over 180 public radio stations across the US on January 19, 2009.

Carter has co-authored two papers, Urban Heat Island Mitigation and Elemental carbon and PM(2.5)levels in an urban community heavily impacted by truck traffic.

Consulting

Since leaving Sustainable South Bronx, Carter has been president of a private, for-profit "green" economic consulting firm, The Majora Carter Group, LLC. The New York Times reported that her consulting firm charges $25,000 for some of her speaking appearances.

Awards and honors

2010 Star Award: International Interior Design Association (IIDA) 2009 Fellow: Post Carbon Institute 2008 Named a "visionary" as one of Utne Reader magazine's "50 Visionaries Who Are Changing the World." 2008 Appointed to America's Climate Choices: Panel on Limiting the Magnitude of Future Climate Change: National Academy of Sciences 2008 Liberty Medal for Lifetime Achievement: The New York Post 2008 The Eleanor Roosevelt Val-Kill Medal: Eleanor Roosevelt Society 2008 Hollister Award: United Nations Temple of Understanding 2008 Paul Wellstone Award: Campaign for America's Future 2007 Rachel Carson Award: National Audubon Society 2007 New York State Women of Excellence Award: Lt. Gov. David Paterson 2007 Honorary PhD: Mercy College 2007 Martin Luther King Jr. Award for Community Service: NYU 2007 Lawrence Enersen Award: National Arbor Day Society 2005 Fellow: John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation

Notes

External links

The Majora Carter Group

The Promised Land Public Radio Specials

TED Talks: Majora Carter's tale of urban renewal at TED in 2006

Majora Carter on the Struggle for Environmental Justice - video report by Democracy Now!

Category:Living people Category:1966 births Category:People from the Bronx Category:Bronx High School of Science alumni Category:Wesleyan University alumni Category:New York University alumni Category:MacArthur Fellows Category:American businesspeople Category:Corporate directors Category:American activists Category:21st-century African-American activists

Name	José Nápoles
Realname	José Ángel Nápoles
Nickname	Mantequilla
Weight	Welterweight
Height	5′ 7½″ / 171cm
Reach	72″ / 183cm
Nationality	Cuban Mexican
Birth date	April 13, 1940
Birth place	Santiago, Cuba
Style	Orthodox
Total	86
Wins	79
Losses	7
Draws	0
No contests	0
Ko	55

José Ángel Nápoles, nicknamed Mantequilla ("Butter") (born April 13, 1940), is a Cuban-Mexican boxer and former world welterweight champion, who is frequently ranked as one of the greatest fighters of all time in that division. Nápoles fought out of Mexico where he was adopted as a national hero and is a member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame.

He debuted as a professional boxer on August 2, 1958 in Cuba, knocking out Julio Rojas in the first round. Nápoles' first 18 bouts were in Cuba, against mostly unknown competition. He did beat Ángel García and Leslie Grant, but lost to Hilton Smith (in his first defeat).

After beating Enrique Carabeo in March 1961, Nápoles found himself a new challenge, outside of the ring; Cuban president Fidel Castro banned professional boxing in Cuba, and Nápoles soon found his career in jeopardy.

Mexico

He found asylum in Mexico, where he soon found himself back inside the ring, beating Enrique Camarena by a knockout in two rounds on July 21, 1962. He won all four of his fights that year.

In 1963, he won seven bouts and lost two. He was defeated by Tony Perez and Alfredo Urbina, both by decision, but he beat JC Morgan, by knockout in seven rounds, in Venezuela.

1964 was a successful year for Nápoles. He travelled to Japan, where he beat Taketeru Yoshimoto by knockout in round one, and he beat future world champion Carlos Morocho Hernandez by knockout in round seven, this time back in Venezuela. In addition to those wins, he avenged his loss to Urbina by knocking him out twice, the first time in the first round and the second time in the third.

He won three more fights in 1965, including another win against Morgan, before seeing a raise in opposition quality when he faced the former world Junior Welterweight champion Eddie Perkins, beating him by decision in ten rounds. For his next fight, he met his own future world title challenger, Adolph Pruitt, beating him by knockout in round three.

In 1966, he won five fights, all by knockout, and lost one, to arch-rival Morgan, who knocked him out in round four. This would be his last loss in four years.

Welterweight champion

Nápoles began a streak of 20 wins in a row, 13 of them before challenging for the world's welterweight title. These included avenging the loss to Morgan with a two round knockout. During this period, Nápoles also became a fan favorite in southern California, and, after beating Fate Davis, on February 15 of 1969 in Mexico, he was given an opportunity to win the world championship when he faced the current champion Curtis Cokes in Inglewood, on April 18. Nápoles beat Cokes by a knockout in round 13 to become world welterweight champion, and, as was becoming common place for him, he wore a Sombrero after the fight. On June 29, he retained the title in a rematch with Cokes by a knockout in round 10 in his hometown of Mexico City, and on October 12, he outpointed former world champion Emile Griffith in 15, also retaining the title.

Loss of title

Nápoles began the 1970s, by defeating Ernie "Indian Red" Lopez by a knockout in round 15 in front of an audience that included former world champion Sugar Ray Robinson on February 14, 1970. But after winning two non title bouts, he suffered an upset when he was stopped due to be cut in four rounds by Carmen Basilio's nephew Billy Backus, who took the world's Welterweight title from Nápoles on December 3 at Syracuse.

Regaining the title

After winning one more fight, he and Backus fought again, for the world welterweight title now in Backus' hands. This time, it was held in Los Angeles, and Nápoles recovered the world championship via an 8th round stoppage. After three non-title wins, including one over Jean Josselin, he faced Hedgemon Lewis on December 14, retaining the world title with a decision in 15 rounds, but Nápoles' training habits were suffering; he was alleged to be coming into the gym stinking of alcohol with an attitude torwards his seconds.

In 1972, he retained the title knocking out Ralph Charles in seven in England, and then, Pruitt resurfaced again, this time with the world Welterweight title on the line. Nápoles retained his crown by knockout in round two.

World traveller Nápoles began 1973 by retaining the title against Lopez again, by knockout in seven, then he visited Grenoble, France, where he retained the crown with a 15 round decision over Roger Menetrey, and Toronto, where he beat Clyde Gray, once again retaining the world title with a 15 round decision.

Middleweight

After this, many boxing fans were asking for a fight between Nápoles and world middleweight champion Carlos Monzón. The fight was made possible when Nápoles moved in weight to challenge Monzon for Monzon's title, so the two dueled on February 9, 1974 at a parking lot in Paris. This would be Nápoles' only bout at the Middleweight division, as he was defeated by quitting the match. Nápoles then went back to the Welterweight division, and retained the title twice before the year ended, with a knockout in nine over Lewis, and with a knockout in three over Horacio Saldaño.

In 1975, Nápoles had two wins over Armando Muniz, both times to retain his world title. The first time, a technical decision win in 12 rounds at Acapulco was a controversial win, so a return match was fought in Los Angeles, where Nápoles prevailed by decision.

Retirement

On December 6 of that year, however, Nápoles lost his title to British boxing teacher John H. Stracey, who won over Nápoles by a technical knockout (due to cuts) in round six at Mexico City despite being floored by Nápoles in round one. After this fight, Nápoles announced his retirement. Remarkably, he was able to stay away from the temptation of a comeback, much like Marvin Hagler.

Napoles had a final record of 78 wins and 7 losses, with 55 wins by knockout, which makes him a member of the exclusive group of boxers that won 50 or more fights by knockout in their careers.

Honors

In 1985, Nápoles was inducted into the old, The Ring boxing hall of fame, which had its offices at the Madison Square Garden.

In 1990, Nápoles was inducted as a member of the original group of members of the modern, International Boxing Hall of Fame in Canastota.

See also

List of WBC world champions

List of undisputed boxing champions

Ring Magazine's list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years

References

External links

Category:1940 births Category:Cuban boxers Category:Mexican boxers Category:Mexican people of Cuban descent Category:International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees Category:Living people Category:Middleweights Category:Welterweights Category:World boxing champions

Name	John Arnold
Birth date	1736
Birth place	Bodmin, Cornwall, England
Death date	11 August 1799
Death place	Eltham, Kent, England
Occupation	Watchmaker
Children	John Roger

:This article is about the watchmaker and inventor, and his son. For others of the same name, see John Arnold (disambiguation).

John Arnold (born 1736 probably in Bodmin, Cornwall – died 1799 in London) was an English watchmaker and inventor.

John Arnold was the first to design a watch that was both practical and accurate, and also brought the term "Chronometer" in to use in its modern sense, meaning a precision timekeeper. His technical advances enabled the quantity production of Marine Chronometers for use on board ships from around 1782. The basic design of these, with a few modifications unchanged until the late twentieth century. With regard to his legacy one can say that both he and Abraham-Louis Breguet largely invented the modern mechanical watch. Certainly one of his most important inventions, the Overcoil balance spring is still to be found in most mechanical wrist watches to this day.

It can be said that, from around 1770, Arnold continued the development of portable precision timekeepers almost from the point at which the development of John Harrison's precision timekeeper had ended. Compared to Harrison's watch, the basic design of Arnold's was very simple whilst being both consistently accurate and mechanically reliable. Importantly, the relatively conventional design of the movement facilitated its production in quantity at a reasonable price, also at the same time enabling easier maintenance.

Three elements were essential to this achievement:

A detached escapement, which gave minimal interference with the vibrating balance and balance spring

A balance design that enabled compensation for the effect of temperature on the balance spring

A method for adjusting the balance spring, so that the balance oscillates in equal time periods even through different degrees of balance arc. (isochronism)

Early life and work

John Arnold was apprenticed to his father, also a clockmaker, in Bodmin. He probably also worked with his uncle, a gunsmith. Around 1755, when he was 19, he left England and worked as a watchmaker in the Hague, Holland, returning to England around 1757.

In 1762, whilst at St Albans, Hertfordshire, he encountered William McGuire for whom he repaired a repeating watch. Arnold made a sufficient impression so that McGuire gave him a loan, enabling him to set up in business as a watchmaker at Devereux Court, Strand, London. In 1764, Arnold obtained permission to present to King George III an exceptionally small half quarter repeating watch cylinder escapement watch mounted in a ring. A similar repeating watch by Arnold has survived; it is of interest that the basic movement is Swiss in origin but finished in London. The escapement of this watch was later fitted with one of the first jewelled cylinders made of ruby.

Arnold made another watch for the King around 1768, which was a gold and enamel pair cased watch with a movement that had every refinement, including minute repetition and centre seconds motion. In addition, Arnold fitted bi-metallic temperature compensation, and not only was every pivot hole jewelled but the escapement also had a stone cylinder made of ruby or sapphire. This watch Arnold designated "Number 1" as he did with all watches he made that he regarded as significant, these numbering twenty in all.

Other early productions by Arnold from 1768-1770 display both originality and ingenuity; this includes a centre seconds watch wound up by depressing the pendant once a day. The movement of this watch also was fully jewelled with a temperature compensation device and a ruby stone cylinder escapement.

These watches were made as demonstrations of Arnold's talent, and, in terms of style and substance, were similar to other "conversation pieces" being made at the same time as those being produced for James Cox and made primarily for export to the East.

The Technical Challenge

Arnold's facility and ingenuity, coupled with his undoubted charm brought him to the attention of the Astronomer Royal Neville Maskelyne, who at this time was seeking a watchmaker skilled enough to make a copy of John Harrison's successful marine timekeeper. A full and detailed description of this watch was published by the Board of Longitude in 1767, entitled "The Principles of Mr. Harrison's Timekeeper", the intention clearly being for it to act as a blueprint for future quantity production. In fact it was a highly complex and technically very advanced piece of micro engineering, and capable of being reproduced by less than a handful of watchmakers. However, the challenge was taken up by Larcum Kendall ,who spent two years to make a copy (now known as "K1") that cost £450, a huge sum at the time. Although successful as a precision timekeeper, the Admiralty wanted a timekeeper on every major ship, and Kendall's was too expensive and took too long to make. Kendall made a simplified version (K2) in 1771, but this too was costly, and not as accurate as the original.

In retrospect therefore, it was a significant occasion when in 1767 Neville Maskelyne presented John Arnold with a newly printed copy of the "Principles of Mr. Harrison's Timekeeper", evidently with a view to encourage him to make a precision timekeeper of the same kind. Following this, Maskelyne encouraged Arnold by employing him on several occasions, mostly in connection with watch and clock jewelling. In 1769 Arnold modified Maskelyne's centre seconds watch by John Ellicott, changing the cylinder escapement from steel to one made of sapphire. This watch he lent to the Astronomer William Wales for use in assessing the practicability of Maskelyne's Lunar distance method for finding the ship's Longitude during the voyage of the Transit of Venus expedition to the West Indies in 1769. Around this time Arnold also seems to have started to think about making an accurate timekeeper to find the Longitude.

Arnold's first "Watch Machines"

Arnold's approach to precision timekeeping was completely different to that of Harrison whose technical ethos was rooted in seventeenth and early eighteenth century theory and practise. Arnold knew that as the balance and balance spring control the timekeeping in a portable watch, he only needed to find a way of giving the balance a consistent impulse with minimal interference from the wheel work, together with an effective temperature compensation. After making some experimental machines, he produced what could be regarded as a production model to the Board of Longitude in March 1771.

This machine was completely different to Harrison's watch. It was a mahogany box of approximately 6 x 6 x 3 inches that housed a movement that, though relatively simple, was close to the same size as Harrison's, with a balance of a similar diameter. The radical difference, however, was a newly designed escapement that featured a horizontally placed pivoted detent that allowed the balance to vibrate freely, except when impulsed by the escape wheel. The spiral balance spring also had a temperature compensation device similar to those in Arnold's watches, and based on Harrison's bimetallic strip of brass and steel. Arnold proposed manufacture of these timekeepers at 60 guineas each.

Three of these timekeepers traveled with the explorers James Cook and Captain Furneaux during their second voyage to the southern Pacific Ocean in 1772-1775. Captain Cook also had Kendall's first timekeeper on board as well as one of Arnold's. Whereas Kendall's performed very well and kept excellent time during the voyage, only one of Arnold's was still running on their return to England in 1775.

During this period, Arnold also made at least one precision pocket watch, a miniature version of the larger marine timekeepers.

This surviving watch watch dates from around 1769-1770, and is signed Arnold No. 1 Invenit et Fecit. The movement, which indicates centre seconds, has a steel balance with a bimetallic temperature compensation strip that acts on the flat balance spring. Though now altered, the original escapement was Arnold's horizontal pivoted detent as fitted to the larger timekeepers, which was it seems not entirely successful and needed improvements.

Around 1772, Arnold modified this escapement so that it now was pivoted vertically and acted on by a spring. This was a much more successful arrangement, and it is known that in 1772 at least two pocket timekeepers with this escapement were supplied to Joseph Banks at a cost of £100 and also Banks' fellow Etonian Captain Constantine John Phipps, 2nd Baron Mulgrave.

In 1773, Captain Phipps made a voyage to the North Pole taking with him not only his Arnold pocket timekeeper and an Arnold box timekeeper in gimbals, but also Kendall's "K2" timekeeper. From Phipps's account, it appears that the pocket watch performed very well indeed, and was a convenient instrument for ascertaining the longitude.

By 1772, Arnold had finalized the design of his pocket timekeepers and started series production with a standardized movement caliper, this being around 50 mm in diameter, larger than a conventional watch of the period, and showing seconds with a pivoted detent escapement and spiral compensation curb. However, the latter appears to have proved ineffective, which seems to have substantially slowed the rate of production.

Even though he produced a number of pocket timekeepers, from around 1772-1778, Arnold was still experimenting with different types of compensation balance and methods of balance spring adjustment. The most difficult problem to surmount was the problem of making an effective and continuously adjustable temperature compensation device. For technical reasons, the temperature compensation for the balance spring had somehow to be incorporated into the balance itself and not act on the balance spring directly as had been done previously by Arnold and others.

Arnold's First Patent of 1775

In 1775, Arnold took out a patent for a new form of Compensation balance with a bimetallic spiral at the centre. This spiral actuated two weighted arms making them move in and out from the centre, changing the radius of gyration and thus the period of oscillation.

In the same patent, he included a new helical balance spring. This shape reduced lateral thrust on the balance pivots as they rotated, and reduced random errors from the "point of attachment" effect, which any balance with a flat spring suffers from. As Arnold stated rather succinctly in a 1782 letter to the Board of Longitude, "...the power in all parts of the spring is uniform."

The fact that Arnold had recognized the technical advantages of a balance spring of this form clearly demonstrates a high degree of insight. The balance that was the subject of the patent appears to have been an unsuccessful design. Certainly some marine chronometers used this balance, but none have survived. Pearson records a balance of this kind in his possession that was 2.4 inches in diameter.

From 1772-1775, Arnold also made about thirty five pocket timekeepers. Not many, about ten of these, survive and none in their original form, as Arnold was constantly upgrading their specification. They appear originally to have had a pivoted detent escapement, with a steel balance and a helical balance spring. A spiral bimetallic curb acting on this spring was intended to provide the temperature compensation, but this system evidently did not work, as every watch was subsequently altered and improved by Arnold shortly afterwards. Surviving chronometers from this series include Numbers 3,29 and 28.

Further experimentation and invention by Arnold led to a breakthrough in the late 1770s. He redesigned the compensation balance and developed two designs that showed promise. Known as the "T" and "S" balances, and marked as such in Arnold's 1782 patent (probably because of their appearance), both employed bimetallic strips of brass and steel with weights attached, which changed the radius of gyration with change in temperature. Although these probably needed a lot of adjustment, they appear to have worked well compared to his previous attempts at a compensation balance.

A Revolution in Precision Timekeeping

Around 1777 Arnold redesigned his chronometer to make it larger, probably to accommodate the new balance that worked with his pivoted detent escapement and patented helical spring. The first chronometer of this pattern was signed "Invenit et Fecit" and given the fractional number 1 over 36, as it was the first of this new design.

It is generally known as "Arnold 36" and was in fact the first watch that Arnold called a "Chronometer", a term which subsequently came into general use and still to this day refers to any highly accurate watch.

The performance of this chronometer exceeded all expectations and proved to be extremely accurate when tested for thirteen months at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich from February 1, 1779 to July 6, 1780. All the more remarkable is the fact that not only was it placed in several positions during the trial but even worn at some point and carried around.

During this period the timekeeping error was 2 minutes 32.2 seconds, but the error in the last nine months amounted to just one minute. The greatest error in any 24 hours was only four seconds, or one mile of Longitude.

Subsequently Arnold produced a pamphlet detailing the trial and the results with attestations of veracity from all those concerned with testing it, in charge of this was Maskelyne's assistant the Rev. John Hellins. The astonishing performance of this watch caused controversy because many thought the result either a fluke or a fix of some kind, particularly as Maskelyne was effectively one of Arnold's patrons.

However, from the technical point of view the design was entirely sound and therefore proved highly accurate over long periods. Arnold evidently learned the lessons that Harrison had learned before him, By using a large, quickly oscillating balance (18,000 beats per hour) with small pivots. Arnold's detent escapement provided minimal interference with the controlling helical balance spring, since the temperature compensation was in the balance itself. this was suggested by Harrison as being a prerequisite, although he never developed this idea. An important point concerning Arnold's pivoted detent escapement is that it did not need oil on the acting surfaces, with the advantage that the rate of going did not deteriorate and remained stable for long periods. At the time, the only oil available was vegetable in origin and degraded fairly quickly compared to modern lubricants.

This chronometer 60mm in diameter is housed in a gold case, and miraculously has survived in a perfect and original condition. It can be seen in the collections of the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London, having been saved for the nation in 1993.

In Britain prior to Harrison's marine watch, it seems to have been generally thought that a small or very small watch (Such as Arnold's ring watch) was the ultimate test of watch making skill especially with regard to complex watches and those built for accuracy. But both Harrison and Arnold had demonstrated that an accurate watch had to be of large diameter. So, by the end of the eighteenth Century, a large diameter watch was regarded as characteristic of a superior watch.

Arnold's Second Patent of 1782

In 1782, Arnold took out another patent; he did this to protect the latest and most important inventions, which were potentially lucrative. Several other watch makers most notably Thomas Earnshaw had started to copy Arnold's work, the latter around 1780 modifying his detent escapement by mounting the detent on a spring and creating the spring detent escapement.

During the same period between 1779 and 1782, Arnold had finalized the form of his chronometer watches. As a result of continuous experimentation, he had worked out a way of making an effective but simple form of compensation balance and, at the same time, discovered a simple modification to his helical balance spring, which enabled it to develop concentrically and in addition conferred the property of isochronism on the oscillating balance. Not only this, but for adjustments to both the compensation balance and the balance spring could be carried out in a simple but calculated way. These were the main subjects of the patent, which he took out in 1782.

Concerning the balance, this consisted of a circular steel balance wheel to which two bimetallic strips were attached diametrically. Each bimetallic strip terminated with a screw thread on which was mounted a weight or balance nut. The further along the strip this nut was screwed, the greater the compensating effect. Another part of the patent concerned an addition to the form of the balance spring, this being a coil of smaller radius being made at each end of the helical spring, which offered an increasing amount of resistance to the rotating balance as it turned towards the end of each vibration. This was an important invention as it largely eliminated the problem of the positional adjustment of balance controlled watches. This device known as the "Overcoil Balance Spring" is still used today in most precision mechanical watches.

Another part of the patent concerned the escapement, this was a modification of Arnold's pivoted detent escapement which essentially mounted the detent on a spring. The specification only shows the part of this escapement, which is the method of impulse on the impulse 'roller'.

Patents and Plagiarism

The fact that Arnold had greatly simplified the technology of the timekeeper with simple yet effective mechanical techniques also meant that these methods could be easily copied and utilised by other watch makers without permission, this is why Arnold took out his patents.

There were two other makers also made precision watches with the detached escapement, both were friends of Arnold and both employed the highly skilled workman and escapement maker Thomas Earnshaw. Emery used with Arnold's permission an earlier form of his compensation balance and helical balance spring, in conjunction with the detached lever escapement of Thomas Mudge, and John Brockbank employed Earnshaw to make his pattern of chronometer but with Brockbank's design of compensation balance.

In 1780, while making these chronometers for Brockbank, Earnshaw modified the pivoted detent by mounting the locking piece on a spring thus dispensing with the pivots. He regarded this as a great invention, although, in fact, it was only a minor improvement. Arnold managed to see this new idea and promptly took out the 1782 patent for his own design of spring detent, but it is not known whether this preceded Earnshaw's own idea.

Therefore, there has been a great deal of debate over who was the inventor of the spring detent escapement, Arnold or Earnshaw. This argument, first initiated by Earnshaw has been continued by horological historians such as Rupert Gould even up to the present, none recognizing the fact that it was not any particular form of detached escapement, which led to Arnold's success but was due to his methods of adjusting the balance spring for positional errors. Arnold probably tried to keep these secret, it is recorded that he clearly expressed his concerns about possible plagiarism to Earnshaw, warning him not to use this particular form of balance spring.

Nevertheless, Earnshaw through another watchmaker Thomas Wright, took out a patent a year later in 1783, and included in the multiple specification was Earnshaw's pattern of integral compensation balance and spring detent escapement. However both of these were practically undeveloped and the balance especially had to be redesigned.

But importantly, because Arnold's balance spring patents were in force (each for 14 years) Earnshaw could not use the helical balance spring until the 1775 patent lapsed in 1789 and in the case of the 1782 patent, 1796. It is evident that until around 1796 Earnshaw made watches with flat balance springs only, but post 1800 practically every marine chronometer including those by Earnshaw had a helical spring with terminal overcoils.

Significantly, it is from this date that Earnshaw and others started to have any kind of success in producing successful marine and pocket chronometers. Early examples by Earnshaw even copy Arnold's style of engraved signature which includes the legend "Invenit Et Fecit" as well as a fractional number.

Arnold was the first to produce marine and pocket chronometers in significant quantities at his factory at Well Hall Eltham from around 1783, during the next 14 or 15 years he produced hundreds before he had any kind of commercial competition at all. The facts prove that authors such as Gould and Sobel to be quite incorrect in their assertion that there was commercial rivalry between Arnold Sr. and Earnshaw.

Arnold and Breguet

The important French watchmaker Abraham-Louis Breguet was a great friend of Arnold, who it seems gave him permission carte blanche to incorporate or develop any of Arnold's inventions and techniques into his own watches. These included his balance designs, helical springs made of steel or gold, the spring detent escapement, the overcoil balance spring and even the layout of an Arnold dial design which Breguet incorporated into his own. These were made from engine-turned gold or silver, this pattern becoming the classic and distinctive "Breguet dial", which in terms of design are identical in layout to the enamel dials which Arnold had designed for his small chronometers, these first appeared in 1783.

Arnold also appears to have been the first to think of the concept of the Tourbillon, this probably derived from his known work on the recognition and elimination of positional errors. In the Tourbillon device, the balance and escapement is continuously rotated and virtually eliminates errors which stem from the balance not being perfectly balanced. Arnold seems to have experimented with this idea but died in 1799 before he could develop it further. It is known that Breguet made a successful and practical Tourbillon mechanism around 1795, but nevertheless he acknowledged Arnold as the inventor by presenting his first Tourbillon in 1808 to Arnold's son John Roger. As a tribute to his friend Arnold Sr. he incorporated his first tourbillon mechanism into one of Arnold's early pocket chronometers, Arnold No.11, this has an engraved commemorative inscription dedicating his gift to the revered memory of Arnold. This significant watch can be seen today in the British Museum's collection of clocks and watches.

By the time of Arnold's death in 1799 he was the most famous watch maker in the world, and his pre - eminence as the inventor of the precision chronometer was recognized by all.

John Roger Arnold

Arnold's son John Roger Arnold was born in 1769 and served an apprenticeship with both his father and the eminent French watchmaker Abraham Louis Breguet. He became Master of the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers in 1817. From 1787 he and his father founded the company Arnold & Son. After his father's death in 1799, John Roger continued the business, taking into partnership John Dent between 1830 and 1840. After his death in 1843 the company was bought by Charles Frodsham.

The brand name Arnold & Son used by a Swiss watch company has absolutely no connection to the original firm founded by John Arnold.

See also

Larcum Kendall

Thomas Earnshaw

References

Category:1736 births Category:English inventors Category:1799 deaths Category:People from Bodmin Category:People in Cornish history Category:Watchmakers (people) Category:Scientific instrument makers

Gus Backus (born September 12, 1937 in Southampton, Long Island, New York as Donald Edgar Backus) is a former member of the Del-Vikings. He also released a single on Carlton Records in 1958. He later became a popular singer in 1960s West Germany after he was stationed there as a soldier in the U.S. Army at Wiesbaden Air Base from 1957.

References

External links

Official site

Category:1937 births Category:American expatriates in Germany Category:American singers Category:Carlton Records artists Category:Living people Category:People from Suffolk County, New York

{| style="float:right;" |

Name	Joe Biden
Office	47th Vice President of the United States
Term start	January 20, 2009
Predecessor	Dick Cheney
President	Barack Obama
Order2	Chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations
Term start2	January 4, 2007
Term end2	January 3, 2009
Predecessor2	Richard Lugar
Successor2	John Kerry
Term start3	June 6, 2001
Term end3	January 3, 2003
Predecessor3	Jesse Helms
Successor3	Richard Lugar
Term start4	January 3, 2001
Term end4	January 20, 2001
Predecessor4	Jesse Helms
Successor4	Jesse Helms
Order5	Chairman of the International Narcotics Control Caucus
Term start5	January 4, 2007
Term end5	January 3, 2009
Predecessor5	Chuck Grassley
Successor5	Dianne Feinstein
Order6	Chairman of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary
Term start6	January 6, 1987
Term end6	January 3, 1995
Predecessor6	Strom Thurmond
Successor6	Orrin Hatch
Jr/sr7	United States Senator
State7	Delaware
Term start7	January 3, 1973
Term end7	January 15, 2009
Predecessor7	Caleb Boggs
Successor7	Ted Kaufman
Office8	Member of the New Castle County Council
Term start8	January 4, 1971
Term end8	January 3, 1973
Birth date	November 20, 1942
Birth place	Scranton, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Spouse	Neilia Hunter (1966–1972)Jill Jacobs (1977–present)
Children	Beau BidenRobert BidenNaomi BidenAshley Biden
Party	Democratic Party
Residence	Number One Observatory Circle (Official)Wilmington, Delaware (Private)
Alma mater	University of DelawareSyracuse University College of Law
Profession	Lawyer
Religion	Roman Catholicism
Signature	Joe Biden Signature.svg
Signature alt	Cursive signature in ink
Website	whitehouse.gov/vicepresident}}

|- | |- | |}

Joseph Robinette "Joe" Biden, Jr. (; born November 20, 1942) is the 47th and current Vice President of the United States, serving under President Barack Obama. He was a United States Senator from Delaware from January 3, 1973 until his resignation on January 15, 2009, following his election to the Vice Presidency.

Biden was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania and lived there for ten years before moving to Delaware. He became an attorney in 1969, and was elected to a county council in 1970. Biden was first elected to the Senate in 1972 and became the sixth-youngest senator in U.S. history. He was re-elected to the Senate six times, was the fourth most senior senator at the time of his resignation, and is the 14th-longest serving Senator in history. Biden was a long-time member and former chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee. His strong advocacy helped bring about U.S. military assistance and intervention during the Bosnian War. He opposed the Gulf War in 1991. He voted in favor of the Iraq War Resolution in 2002, but later proposed resolutions to alter U.S. strategy there. He has also served as chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee, dealing with issues related to drug policy, crime prevention, and civil liberties, and led creation of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act and Violence Against Women Act. He chaired the Judiciary Committee during the contentious U.S. Supreme Court nominations of Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas.

Biden unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988 and 2008, both times dropping out early in the race. Barack Obama selected Biden to be the Democratic Party nominee for Vice President in the 2008 U.S. presidential election. Biden is the first Roman Catholic and the first Delawarean to become Vice President of the United States. As Vice President, Biden has been heavily involved in Obama's decision-making process and has held the oversight role for infrastructure spending from the Obama stimulus package aimed at counteracting the late-2000s recession.

Early life and education

Biden was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, and Catherine Eugenia "Jean" Finnegan (1917–2010). He was the first of four siblings He has two brothers, James Brian Biden and Francis W. Biden, and a sister, Valerie (Biden) Owens. His great-grandfather, Edward F. Blewitt, was a member of the Pennsylvania State Senate.

Biden's father had been very well-off earlier in his life, but had suffered several business reverses by the time Biden was born, and for several years the family had to live with Biden's maternal grandparents, the Finnegans. In 1953, the Biden family moved to an apartment in Claymont, Delaware, where they lived for a few years before moving to a house in Wilmington, Delaware.

Biden attended the Archmere Academy in Claymont, where he was a standout halfback/wide receiver on the high school football team; he helped lead a perennially losing team to an undefeated season in his senior year. He played on the baseball team as well. He played halfback with the Blue Hens freshman football team, He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts with a double major in history and political science in 1965,

He went on to receive his Juris Doctor from Syracuse University College of Law in 1968, He was admitted to the Delaware Bar in 1969.

Biden received five student draft deferments during this period, with the first coming in late 1963 and the last in early 1968, at the peak of the Vietnam War. In April 1968, he was reclassified by the Selective Service System as not available for service due to having had asthma as a teenager. Biden was not a part of the anti-Vietnam War movement; he would later say that at the time he was preoccupied with marriage and law school, and that he "wore sports coats ... not tie-dyed".

Negative impressions of drinking alcohol in the Biden and Finnegan families and in the neighborhood led to Joe Biden becoming a teetotaler. Biden suffered from stuttering through much of his childhood and into his twenties; he overcame it via long hours spent reciting poetry in front of a mirror.

Family and early political career

On August 27, 1966, Biden, then a law student, married Neilia Hunter, who was from an affluent background in Skaneateles, New York and had attended Syracuse University. They had met in 1964 while on spring break in the Bahamas, and he had overcome her parents' initial reluctance for her to be dating a Roman Catholic. They had three children, Joseph R. "Beau" Biden III (born 1969), Robert Hunter (born 1970), and Naomi Christina (born 1971). He ran as a Democrat for the New Castle County Council on a liberal platform that included support for public housing in the suburban area.

His entry into the 1972 U.S. Senate election in Delaware presented Biden with a unique circumstance. Longtime Delaware political figure and Republican incumbent Senator J. Caleb Boggs was considering retirement, which would likely have left U.S. Representative Pete du Pont and Wilmington Mayor Harry G. Haskell, Jr. in a divisive primary fight. To avoid that, U.S. President Richard M. Nixon helped convince Boggs to run again with full party support. No other Democrat wanted to run against Boggs. the small size of the state and lack of a major media market made the approach feasible. Biden's two sons, Beau and Hunter, were critically injured in the accident, but both eventually made full recoveries. The accident left Biden filled with both anger and religious doubt: "I liked to [walk around seedy neighborhoods] at night when I thought there was a better chance of finding a fight ... I had not known I was capable of such rage ... I felt God had played a horrible trick on me."

To be at home every day for his young sons, Biden began the practice of commuting every day by Amtrak train for 1½ hours each way from his home in the Wilmington suburbs to Washington, D.C., which he continued to do throughout his Senate career. A single father for five years, Biden left standing orders that he be interrupted in the Senate at any time if his sons called. his younger son, Hunter, became a Washington attorney and lobbyist.

In 1975, Biden met Jill Tracy Jacobs, who grew up in Willow Grove, Pennsylvania and would become a teacher in Delaware. Biden would credit her with renewing his interest in both politics and life. On June 17, 1977, Biden and Jacobs married.

United States Senator

John F. Kennedy once occupied the desk in the U.S. Senate.]] and President of Egypt Anwar El Sadat after signing Egyptian–Israeli Peace Treaty, 1979]] in the Oval Office]] When Biden took office on January 3, 1973, at age 30 (the minimum age to become a U.S. Senator), he became the sixth-youngest senator in U.S. history. In 1974, freshman Senator Biden was named one of the 200 Faces for the Future by Time magazine.

Biden was subsequently elected to six additional terms, in the elections of 1978, 1984, 1990, 1996, 2002, and 2008, usually getting about 60 percent of the vote. Biden spent 28 years as a junior senator due to the two-year seniority of his Republican colleague William V. Roth, Jr.. After Roth was defeated for re-election by Tom Carper in 2000, Biden became Delaware's senior senator. He then became the longest-serving senator in Delaware history. In May 1999, Biden set the mark for youngest senator to cast 10,000 votes.

In February 1988, after suffering from several episodes of increasingly severe neck pain, Biden was taken by long-distance ambulance to Walter Reed Army Medical Center and given lifesaving surgery to correct an intracranial berry aneurysm that had begun leaking; the situation was serious enough that a priest had administered last rites at the hospital. While recuperating, he suffered a pulmonary embolism, which represented a major complication. The hospitalization and recovery kept Biden from his duties in the U.S. Senate for seven months. Biden has had no recurrences or effects from the aneurysms since then. At the close, Biden won praise for conducting the proceedings fairly and with good humor and courage, as his 1988 presidential campaign collapsed in the middle of the hearings. Rejecting some of the less intellectually honest arguments that other Bork opponents were making, Thomas later wrote that despite earlier private assurances from the senator, Biden's questions had been akin to a beanball. The nomination came out of the committee without a recommendation, with Biden opposed. Biden said he was striving to preserve Thomas's right to privacy and the decency of the hearings. Congress reauthorized VAWA in 2000 and 2005. Biden has said, "I consider the Violence Against Women Act the single most significant legislation that I’ve crafted during my 35-year tenure in the Senate." In 2004 and 2005, Biden enlisted major American technology companies in diagnosing the problems of the Austin, Texas-based National Domestic Violence Hotline, and to donate equipment and expertise to it in a successful effort to improve its services.

Biden was critical of the actions of Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr during the 1990s Whitewater controversy and Lewinsky scandal investigations, and said "it's going to be a cold day in hell" before another Independent Counsel is granted the same powers. Biden voted to acquit on both charges during the impeachment of President Clinton.

As chairman of the International Narcotics Control Caucus, Biden wrote the laws that created the U.S. "Drug Czar", who oversees and coordinates national drug control policy. In April 2003, he introduced the controversial Reducing Americans' Vulnerability to Ecstasy Act, also known as the RAVE Act. He continued to work to stop the spread of "date rape drugs" such as flunitrazepam, and drugs such as Ecstasy and Ketamine. In 2004, he worked to pass a bill outlawing steroids like androstenedione, the drug used by many baseball players.

Foreign Relations Committee

Biden was also a long-time member of the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. In 1997, he became the ranking minority member and chaired the committee from June 2001 through 2003. When Democrats re-took control of the Senate following the 2006 elections, Biden again assumed the top spot on the committee in 2007. He collaborated effectively with important Republican Senate figures such as Richard Lugar and Jesse Helms and sometimes went against elements of his own party. A partial list covering this time showed Biden meeting with some 150 leaders from nearly 60 countries and international organizations. Biden held frequent hearings as chair of the committee, as well as holding many subcommittee hearings during the three times he chaired the Subcommittee on European Affairs. When the Reagan administration wanted to interpret the 1972 SALT I Treaty loosely in order to allow the Strategic Defense Initiative to proceed, Biden argued for strict adherence to the treaty's terms.

Biden became interested in the Yugoslav Wars after hearing about Serbian abuses during the Croatian War of Independence in 1991. Biden related that he told Milošević, "I think you're a damn war criminal and you should be tried as one." In 1998, Congressional Quarterly named Biden one of "Twelve Who Made a Difference" for playing a lead role in several foreign policy matters, including NATO enlargement and the successful passage of bills to streamline foreign affairs agencies and punish religious persecution overseas. siding with 45 of the 55 Democratic senators; he said the U.S. was bearing almost all the burden in the anti-Iraq coalition. Biden was a strong supporter of the 2001 war in Afghanistan, saying "Whatever it takes, we should do it." The Bush administration rejected an effort Biden undertook with Senator Richard Lugar to pass a resolution authorizing military action only after the exhaustion of diplomatic efforts. In October 2002, Biden voted in favor of the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq, justifying the Iraq War. In November 2006, Biden and Leslie H. Gelb, President Emeritus of the Council on Foreign Relations, released a comprehensive strategy to end sectarian violence in Iraq. Rather than continuing the present approach or withdrawing, the plan called for "a third way": federalizing Iraq and giving Kurds, Shiites, and Sunnis "breathing room" in their own regions. In September 2007, a non-binding resolution passed the Senate endorsing such a scheme. In May 2008, Biden sharply criticized President George W. Bush for his speech to Israel's Knesset in which he suggested that some Democrats were acting in the same way some Western leaders did when they appeased Hitler in the runup to World War II. Biden stated: "This is bullshit. This is malarkey. This is outrageous. Outrageous for the president of the United States to go to a foreign country, sit in the Knesset ... and make this kind of ridiculous statement." Biden later apologized for using the expletive. Biden further stated, "Since when does this administration think that if you sit down, you have to eliminate the word 'no' from your vocabulary?"

Delaware matters

Biden was a familiar figure to his Delaware constituency, by virtue of his daily train commuting from there,

In 1975, Biden broke from liberal orthodoxy when he took legislative action to limit desegregation busing.

Since 1991, Biden has served as an adjunct professor at the Widener University School of Law, Delaware's only law school, where he has taught a seminar on constitutional law.

Biden was a sponsor of bankruptcy legislation during the 2000s, which was sought by MBNA, one of Delaware's largest companies, and other credit card issuers.

Biden sits on the board of advisors of the Close Up Foundation, which brings high school students to Washington for interaction with legislators on Capitol Hill.

Characteristics as senator

With a net worth between $59,000 and $366,000, and almost no outside income or investment income, he was consistently ranked as one of the least wealthy members of the Senate. Biden stated that he was listed as the second poorest member in Congress, a distinction that he was not proud of, but attributed to being elected early in his career. Biden realized early in his senatorial career how vulnerable poorer public officials are to offers of financial contributions in exchange for policy support, and he pushed campaign finance reform measures during his first term. He has been a strong speaker and debater and a frequent and effective guest on the Sunday morning talk shows. According to political analyst Mark Halperin, he has shown "a persistent tendency to say silly, offensive, and off-putting things"; as permitted by Delaware state law. On November 4, 2008, Biden was re-elected as senator, in addition to winning the vice presidency.

Having won both races, Biden made a point of holding off his resignation from the Senate so that he could be sworn in for his seventh term on January 6, 2009. He became the youngest senator ever to be sworn in for a seventh full term, and said, "In all my life, the greatest honor bestowed upon me has been serving the people of Delaware as their United States senator." Biden resigned from the Senate later that day; in emotional farewell remarks on the Senate floor, where he had spent most of his adult life, Biden said, "Every good thing I have seen happen here, every bold step taken in the 36-plus years I have been here, came not from the application of pressure by interest groups, but through the maturation of personal relationships."

Delaware's Democratic governor, Ruth Ann Minner, announced on November 24, 2008, that she would appoint Biden's longtime senior adviser Ted Kaufman to succeed Biden in the Senate. Biden's son Beau ruled himself out of the 2008 selection process due to his impending tour in Iraq with the Delaware Army National Guard. He was a possible candidate for the 2010 special election, but in early 2010 said he would not run for the seat.

Political positions

A method that political scientists use for gauging ideology is to compare the annual ratings by the Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) with the ratings by the American Conservative Union (ACU). Biden has a lifetime liberal 72 percent score from the ADA through 2004, while the ACU awarded Biden a lifetime conservative rating of 13 percent through 2008. Using another metric, Biden has a lifetime average liberal score of 77.5 percent, according to a National Journal analysis that places him ideologically among the center of Senate Democrats. The Almanac of American Politics rates congressional votes as liberal or conservative on the political spectrum, in three policy areas: economic, social, and foreign. For 2005–2006, Biden's average ratings were as follows: the economic rating was 80 percent liberal and 13 percent conservative, the social rating was 78 percent liberal and 18 percent conservative, and the foreign rating was 71 percent liberal and 25 percent conservative. This has not changed much over time; his liberal ratings in the mid-1980s were also in the 70–80 percent range. Biden received a 91 percent voting record from the National Education Association (NEA) showing a pro-teacher union voting record. Biden opposes drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and supports governmental funding to find new energy sources. Biden believes action must be taken on global warming. He co-sponsored the Sense of the Senate resolution calling on the United States to be a part of the United Nations climate negotiations and the Boxer-Sanders Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act, the most stringent climate bill in the United States Senate. Biden cites high health care and energy costs as two major threats to the prosperity of American businesses, and believes that addressing these issues will improve American economic competitiveness. Biden was given a 100 percent approval rating from AFL-CIO indicating a heavily pro-union voting record. Biden is opposed to the privatization of Social Security and was given an 89 percent approval rating from the Alliance for Retired Americans (ARA), an organization of retired union members.

Presidential campaigns

Biden has twice run for the Democratic nomination for President, first in 1988, and again in 2008. He first considered running in 1984, after he gained notice for giving speeches to party audiences that simultaneously scolded and encouraged Democrats. He chose not to run in 1992 in part because he had voted against the resolution authorizing the Gulf War. In May 2004, Biden urged Republican Senator John McCain to run as vice president with presumptive Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, saying the cross-party ticket would help heal the "vicious rift" in U.S. politics. During this time, Biden was also widely discussed as a possible Secretary of State in a Democratic administration.

1988

In 1987, Biden ran as a Democratic presidential candidate, formally declaring his candidacy at the Wilmington train station on June 9, 1987. When the campaign began, Biden was considered a potentially strong candidate because of his moderate image, his speaking ability on the stump, his appeal to Baby Boomers, his high profile position as chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee at the upcoming Robert Bork Supreme Court nomination hearings, and his fundraising appeal. Biden received considerable attention in the summer of 1986 when he excoriated Secretary of State George P. Shultz at a Senate hearing because of the Reagan administration's support of South Africa, which continued to practice the apartheid system.

By August 1987, Biden's campaign, whose messaging was confused due to staff rivalries, had begun to lag behind those of Michael Dukakis and Dick Gephardt, although he had still raised more funds than all candidates but Dukakis, and was seeing an upturn in Iowa polls. In September 1987, the campaign ran into trouble when he was accused of plagiarizing a speech that had been made by Neil Kinnock, leader of the British Labour Party. Kinnock’s speech included the lines:

"Why am I the first Kinnock in a thousand generations to be able to get to university? [Then pointing to his wife in the audience] Why is Glenys the first woman in her family in a thousand generations to be able to get to university? Was it because all our predecessors were thick?"

While Biden’s speech included the lines:

"I started thinking as I was coming over here, why is it that Joe Biden is the first in his family ever to go to a university? [Then pointing to his wife in the audience] Why is it that my wife who is sitting out there in the audience is the first in her family to ever go to college? Is it because our fathers and mothers were not bright? Is it because I'm the first Biden in a thousand generations to get a college and a graduate degree that I was smarter than the rest?"

Though Biden had cited Kinnock as the source for the formulation many times before, he made no reference to the original source at the August 23 Iowa State Fair debate in question or in another appearance. While political speeches often appropriate ideas and language from each other, Biden's use came under more scrutiny because he somewhat distorted his own family's background to match Kinnock's.

The Kinnock and school revelations were magnified by the limited amount of other news about the nomination race at the time, when most of the public were not yet paying attention to any of the campaigns; Biden thus fell into what The Washington Post writer Paul Taylor described as that year's trend, a "trial by media ordeal". Biden lacked a strong demographic or political group of support to help him survive the crisis. He withdrew from the nomination race on September 23, 1987, saying his candidacy had been overrun by "the exaggerated shadow" of his past mistakes. After Biden withdrew from the race, it was revealed that the Dukakis campaign had secretly made a video highlighting the Biden–Kinnock comparison and distributed it to news outlets. Also later in 1987, the Delaware Supreme Court's Board of Professional Responsibility cleared Biden of the law school plagiarism charges regarding his standing as a lawyer, saying Biden had "not violated any rules".

2008

house party, July 2007]] Biden declared his candidacy for president on January 31, 2007, although he had discussed running for months prior, and first made a formal announcement to Tim Russert on Meet the Press on January 7, stating he would "be the best Biden I can be." In January 2006, Delaware newspaper columnist Harry F. Themal wrote that Biden "occupies the sensible center of the Democratic Party." Themal concludes that this is the position Biden desires, and that in a campaign "he plans to stress the dangers to the security of the average American, not just from the terrorist threat, but from the lack of health assistance, crime, and energy dependence on unstable parts of the world." Biden rejected the notion of accepting the position of U.S. Secretary of State, focusing only on the presidency. At a 2007 campaign event, Biden said, "I know a lot of my opponents out there say I'd be a great Secretary of State. Seriously, every one of them. Do you watch any of the debates? 'Joe's right, Joe's right, Joe's right.'" Other candidates' comments that "Joe is right" in the Democratic debates were converted into a Biden campaign theme and ad. In mid-2007, Biden stressed his foreign policy expertise compared to Obama's, saying of the latter, "I think he can be ready, but right now I don't believe he is. The presidency is not something that lends itself to on-the-job training." Biden also said that Obama was copying some of his foreign policy ideas. Biden was noted for his one-liners on the campaign trail, saying of Republican then-frontrunner Rudy Giuliani at the October 30, 2007, debate in Philadelphia, "There's only three things he mentions in a sentence: a noun, and a verb and 9/11." Overall, Biden's debate performances were an effective mixture of humor and sharp and surprisingly disciplined comments. This comment undermined his campaign as soon as it began and significantly damaged his fund-raising capabilities; it later took second place on Time magazine's list of Top 10 Campaign Gaffes for 2007. Biden had earlier been criticized in July 2006 for a remark he made about his support among Indian Americans: "I've had a great relationship. In Delaware, the largest growth in population is Indian-Americans moving from India. You cannot go to a 7-Eleven or a Dunkin' Donuts unless you have a slight Indian accent. I'm not joking." Biden later said the remark was not intended to be derogatory.

Overall, Biden had difficulty raising funds, struggled to draw people to his rallies, and failed to gain traction against the high-profile candidacies of Obama and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton; he never rose above single digits in the national polls of the Democratic candidates. In the initial contest on January 3, 2008, Biden placed fifth in the Iowa caucuses, garnering slightly less than one percent of the state delegates. Biden withdrew from the race that evening, saying "There is nothing sad about tonight.... I feel no regret."

Despite the lack of success, Biden's stature in the political world rose as the result of his campaign. and Obama having viewed Biden as garrulous and patronizing. Now, having gotten to know each other during 2007, Obama appreciated Biden's campaigning style and appeal to working class voters, and Biden was convinced that Obama was "the real deal". Biden declined Obama's first request to vet him for the vice presidential slot, fearing the vice presidency would represent a loss in status and voice from his senate position, but subsequently changed his mind. In early August, Obama and Biden met in secret to discuss a possible vice-presidential relationship, The New York Times reported that the strategy behind the choice reflected a desire to fill out the ticket with someone who has foreign policy and national security experience—and not to help the ticket win a swing state or to emphasize Obama's "change" message. Other observers pointed out Biden's appeal to middle class and blue-collar voters, as well as his willingness to aggressively challenge Republican nominee John McCain in a way that Obama seemed uncomfortable doing at times. In accepting Obama's offer, Biden ruled out to him the possibility of running for president again in 2016

, while presidential nominee Barack Obama listens]] in Denver, Colorado.]] After his selection as a vice presidential candidate, Biden was criticized by his own Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington Bishop Michael Saltarelli over his stance on abortion, which goes against the church's pro-life beliefs and teachings. The diocese confirmed that even if elected vice president, Biden would not be allowed to speak at Catholic schools. Biden was soon barred from receiving Holy Communion by the bishop of his original hometown of Scranton, Pennsylvania, because of his support for abortion rights; however, Biden did continue to receive Communion at his local Delaware parish. Biden said he believed that life began at conception but that he would not impose his personal religious views on others. Bishop Saltarelli had previously stated regarding stances similar to Biden's: "No one today would accept this statement from any public servant: ‘I am personally opposed to human slavery and racism but will not impose my personal conviction in the legislative arena.’ Likewise, none of us should accept this statement from any public servant: ‘I am personally opposed to abortion but will not impose my personal conviction in the legislative arena.'" During one week in September 2008, for instance, the Pew Research Center's Project for Excellence in Journalism found that Biden was only included in five percent of the news coverage of the race, far less than for the other three candidates on the tickets. Biden nevertheless focused on campaigning in economically challenged areas of swing states and trying to win over blue-collar Democrats, especially those who had supported Hillary Rodham Clinton.

On October 2, 2008, Biden participated in the campaign's one vice presidential debate with Palin. Polling from CNN, Fox and CBS found that while Palin exceeded many voters' expectations, Biden had won the debate overall. On October 5, Biden suspended campaign events for a few days after the death of his mother-in-law. During the final days of the campaign, Biden focused on less-populated, older, less well-off areas of battleground states, especially in Florida, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, where polling indicated he was popular and where Obama had not campaigned or performed well in the Democratic primaries. He also campaigned in some normally Republican states, as well as in areas with large Catholic populations. Privately, Obama was frustrated by Biden's remarks, saying "How many times is Biden gonna say something stupid?" Publicly, Obama strategist David Axelrod said that any unexpected comments had been outweighed by Biden's high popularity ratings. Nationally, Biden had a 60 percent favorability rating in a Pew Research Center poll, compared to Palin's 44 percent. The Obama-Biden ticket won 365 Electoral College votes to McCain-Palin's 173, and had a 53–46 percent edge in the nationwide popular vote.

Vice Presidency

at Number One Observatory Circle, November 13, 2008]] , January 20, 2009]] Biden became the 47th Vice President of the United States on January 20, 2009, when he was inaugurated alongside President Barack Obama. He succeeded Dick Cheney. Biden is the first United States Vice President from Delaware and the first Roman Catholic to attain that office. Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens administered the oath of office to Biden.

As Biden headed to Delaware's Return Day tradition following the November 2008 election, and the transition process to an Obama administration began, Biden said he was in daily meetings with Obama and that McCain was still his friend. The U.S. Secret Service codename given to Biden is "Celtic", referencing his Irish roots.

Biden chose veteran Democratic lawyer and aide Ron Klain to be his vice-presidential chief of staff, and Time Washington bureau chief Jay Carney to be his director of communications. Biden intended to eliminate some of the explicit roles assumed by the vice presidency of Cheney, who had established himself as an autonomous power center. Biden said he had been closely involved in all the cabinet appointments that were made during the transition. As his last act as Chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, Biden went on a trip to Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan during the second week of January 2009, meeting with the leadership of those countries.

In the early months of the Obama administration, Biden assumed the role of an important behind-the-scenes counselor. One role was to adjudicate disputes between Obama's "team of rivals". His skeptical voice was still considered valuable within the administration, by this time he had become the administration's point man in delivering messages to Iraqi leadership about expected progress in the country. Biden was in charge of the oversight role for infrastructure spending from the Obama stimulus package intended to help counteract the ongoing recession, and stressed that only worthy projects should get funding. By September 2009, Biden was satisfied that no major instances of waste or corruption had occurred. The remark revived Biden's reputation for gaffes, and led to a spate of late-night television jokes themed on him being a loose-talking buffoon. In the face of persistently rising unemployment through July 2009, Biden acknowledged that the administration had "misread how bad the economy was" but maintained confidence that the stimulus package would create many more jobs once the pace of expenditures picked up. The same month, Secretary of State Clinton quickly disavowed Biden's remarks disparaging Russia as a power, but despite any missteps, Biden still retained Obama's confidence and was increasingly influential within the administration. On March 23, 2010, a microphone picked up Biden telling the president that his signing of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act was "a big fucking deal" during live national news telecasts. White House press secretary Robert Gibbs replied via Twitter "And yes Mr. Vice President, you're right..." Senior Obama advisor Valerie Jarrett said that Biden's loose talk "[is] part of what makes the vice president so endearing ... We wouldn't change him one bit."

Biden's most important role within the administration has been to question assumptions and playing a contrarian role. Another senior Obama advisor said Biden "is always prepared to be the skunk at the family picnic to make sure we are as intellectually honest as possible."

Biden campaigned heavily for Democrats in the 2010 midterm elections, maintaining an attitude of optimism in the face of general predictions of large-scale losses for the party. Following large-scale Republican gains in the elections and the departure of White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel, Biden's past relationships with Republicans in Congress became more important. He led the administration effort to gain Senate approval for the New START treaty. Saint Joseph's University (1981), Widener University School of Law (2000), Emerson College (2003), his alma mater the University of Delaware (2004), Suffolk University Law School (2005), and his other alma mater Syracuse University (2009).

Biden received the Chancellor Medal from his alma mater, Syracuse University, in 1980. In 2005, he received the George Arents Pioneer Medal—Syracuse's highest alumni award

In 2008, Biden received the Best of Congress Award, for "improving the American quality of life through family-friendly work policies," from Working Mother magazine. Also in 2008, Biden shared with fellow Senator Richard Lugar the Hilal-i-Pakistan award from the Government of Pakistan, "in recognition of their consistent support for Pakistan." In 2009, Biden received The Golden Medal of Freedom award from Kosovo, that region's highest award, for his vocal support for their independence in the late 1990s.

Biden is an inductee of the Delaware Volunteer Firemen's Association Hall of Fame. He was named to the Little League Hall of Excellence in 2009.

Almanac

U.S. Senators are popularly elected and take office January 3 for a six year term (except when appointed to fill existing vacancies).

{|class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align: center;" |- ! colspan="7" | Public offices |- ! Office ! Type ! Location ! Began office ! Ended office ! notes |- |County Council |Legislature |Wilmington |January 4, 1971 |January 3, 1973 |New Castle County |- |U.S. Senator |Legislature |Washington, D.C. |January 3, 1973 |January 3, 1979 | |- |U.S. Senator |Legislature |Washington, D.C. |January 3, 1979 |January 3, 1985 | |- |U.S. Senator |Legislature |Washington, D.C. |January 3, 1985 |January 3, 1991 | |- |U.S. Senator |Legislature |Washington, D.C. |January 3, 1991 |January 3, 1997 | |- |U.S. Senator |Legislature |Washington, D.C. |January 3, 1997 |January 3, 2003 | |- |U.S. Senator |Legislature |Washington, D.C. |January 3, 2003 |January 3, 2009 | |- |U.S. Senator |Legislature |Washington, D.C. |January 6, 2009 |January 15, 2009 |resigned to be sworn in as Vice President |- |Vice President |Executive |Washington, D.C. |January 20, 2009 | — || — |}

{|class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align: center;" |- ! colspan="7" style="background:#ccf;"| United States Congressional service |- ! Dates ! Congress ! Majority ! President ! Committees ! Class/District |- |1973–1975 |93rd |Democratic |Richard M. NixonGerald R. Ford |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1975–1977 |94th |Democratic |Gerald R. Ford |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1977–1979 |95th |Democratic |Jimmy Carter |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1979–1981 |96th |Democratic |Jimmy Carter |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1981–1983 |97th |Republican |Ronald W. Reagan |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1983–1985 |98th |Republican |Ronald W. Reagan |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1985–1987 |99th |Republican |Ronald W. Reagan |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1987–1989 |100th |Democratic |Ronald W. Reagan |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1989–1991 |101st |Democratic |George H. W. Bush |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1991–1993 |102nd |Democratic |George H. W. Bush |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1993–1995 |103rd |Democratic |William J. Clinton |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1995–1997 |104th |Republican |William J. Clinton |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1997–1999 |105th |Republican |William J. Clinton |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |1999–2001 |106th |Republican |William J. Clinton |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |2001–2003 |107th |RepublicanDemocratic |George W. Bush |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |2003–2005 |108th |Republican |George W. Bush |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |2005–2007 |109th |Republican |George W. Bush |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |2007–2009 |110th |Democratic |George W. Bush |Judiciary, Foreign Relations |class 2 |- |2009 |111th |Democratic |George W. Bush | |class 2 |} Even though at the time he was the Vice President-elect, Biden was sworn in for his seventh term in office as the senior senator from Delaware on January 6, 2009. Fourteen days later he was sworn in as Vice President of the United States. Although the 111th Congress' President is Barack Obama, Biden did not serve as a Senator under Obama due to him serving as Vice President instead.

{|class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align: center;" |- ! colspan="12" | Election results |- !Year !Office !Election !Votes for Biden !% !Opponent !Party !Votes !% |- |1970 |County Councilman |General | |10,573 | |55% | |Lawrence T. Messick | |Republican | |8,192 | |43% |-|- |1972 |U.S. Senator |General | |116,006 | |50% | |J. Caleb Boggs | |Republican | |112,844 | |49% |- |1978 |U.S. Senator |General | |93,930 | |58% | |James H. Baxter, Jr. | |Republican | |66,479 | |41% |- |1984 |U.S. Senator |General | |147,831 | |60% | |John M. Burris | |Republican | |98,101 | |40% |- |1990 |U.S. Senator |General | |112,918 | |63% | |M. Jane Brady | |Republican | |64,554 | |36% |- |1996 |U.S. Senator |General | |165,465 | |60% | |Raymond J. Clatworthy | |Republican | |105,088 | |38% |- |2002 |U.S. Senator |General | |135,253 | |58% | |Raymond J. Clatworthy | |Republican | |94,793 | |41% |- |2008 |U.S. Senator |General | |257,484 | |65% | |Christine O'Donnell | |Republican | |140,584 | |35% |- |2008 |Vice President |General | |69,456,897 | |53% | |Sarah Palin | |Republican | |59,934,786 | |46% |}

Writings by Biden

, January 2007 ]]

Also paperback edition, Random House 2008, ISBN 978-0-8129-7621-2.

See also

USA Congressional staff edits to Wikipedia

References

Books referenced

External links

White House biography

Vice Presidential campaign website, via barackobama.com

Senate campaign website (archived)

In the Words of Joe Biden - slideshow by Life magazine

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