Percentage of population living on less than $1.25 per day. UN estimates 2000-2007.

The poverty threshold, or poverty line, is the minimum level of income deemed adequate in a given country.^[1] In practice, like the definition of poverty, the official or common understanding of the poverty line is significantly higher in developed countries than in developing countries.^[2][3]

The common international poverty line has in the past been roughly $1 a day.^[4] In 2008, the World Bank came out with a revised figure of $1.25 at 2005 purchasing-power parity (PPP).^[5]

Determining the poverty line is usually done by finding the total cost of all the essential resources that an average human adult consumes in one year.^[6] The largest of these expenses is typically the rent required to live in an apartment, so historically, economists have paid particular attention to the real estate market and housing prices as a strong poverty line affector.

Individual factors are often used to account for various circumstances, such as whether one is a parent, elderly, a child, married, etc. The poverty threshold may be adjusted each year.

Absolute poverty[link]

It is a level of poverty as defined in terms of the minimal requirements necessary to afford minimal standards of food, clothing, health care and shelter.^[7] (See definition from Glossary of Sociology.) For the measure to be absolute, the line must be the same in different countries, cultures, and technological levels. Such an absolute measure should look only at the individual's power to consume and it should be independent of any changes in income distribution. The intuition behind an absolute measure is that mere survival takes essentially the same amount of resources across the world and that everybody should be subject to the same standards if meaningful comparisons of policies and progress are to be made. Notice that if everyone's real income in an economy increases, and the income distribution does not change, absolute poverty will decline.

Measuring poverty by an absolute threshold has the advantage of applying the same standard across different locations and time periods, it makes comparisons easier. On the other hand, it suffers from the disadvantage that any absolute poverty threshold is to some extent arbitrary; the amount of wealth required for survival is not the same in all places and time periods. For example, a person living in far northern Scandinavia requires a source of heat during colder months, while a person living on a tropical island does not.

This type of measure is often contrasted with measures of relative poverty (see below), which classify individuals or families as "poor" not by comparing them to a fixed cutoff point, but by comparing them to others in the population under study.

The term absolute poverty is also sometimes used as a synonym for extreme poverty. Absolute poverty is the absence of enough resources (such as money) to secure basic life necessities.

According to a UN declaration that resulted from the World Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995, absolute poverty is "a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services."^[8]

David Gordon's paper, "Indicators of Poverty & Hunger", for the United Nations, further defines absolute poverty as the absence of any two of the following eight basic needs:^[8]

• Food: Body Mass Index must be above 16.
• Safe drinking water: Water must not come from solely rivers and ponds, and must be available nearby (less than 15 minutes' walk each way).
• Sanitation facilities: Toilets or latrines must be accessible in or near the home.
• Health: Treatment must be received for serious illnesses and pregnancy.
• Shelter: Homes must have fewer than four people living in each room. Floors must not be made of dirt, mud, or clay.
• Education: Everyone must attend school or otherwise learn to read.
• Information: Everyone must have access to newspapers, radios, televisions, computers, or telephones at home.
• Access to services: This item is undefined by Gordon, but normally is used to indicate the complete panoply of education, health, legal, social, and financial (credit) services.

For example, a person who lives in a home with a mud floor is considered severely deprived of shelter. A person who never attended school and cannot read is considered severely deprived of education. A person who has no newspaper, radio, television, or telephone is considered severely deprived of information. All people who meet any two of these conditions — for example, they live in homes with mud floors and cannot read — are considered to be living in absolute poverty.

Relative poverty[link]

See also: Income inequality and Relative deprivation

A measure of relative poverty defines "poverty" as being below some relative poverty threshold. For example, the statement that "households with an accumulated income less than 60% of the median equivalized household disposable income are living in poverty" uses a relative measure to define poverty. In this system, if everyone's real income in an economy increases, but the income distribution stays the same, then the rate of relative poverty will also stay the same.

This means, by its very nature, that there will always be a family living in (relative) poverty, even if they have a very high living standard.

Relative poverty measurements can sometimes produce odd results, especially in small populations. For example, if the median household in a wealthy neighborhood earns US$1 million each year, then a family that earns US$100,000 would be considered poor on the relative poverty scale, even though such a family could meet all of its basic needs and much more. At the other end of the scale, if the median household in a very poor neighborhood earned only 50% of what it needs to buy food, then a person who earned the median income would not be considered poor on a relative poverty scale, even though the person is clearly poor on an absolute poverty scale.

Measures of relative poverty are almost the same as measuring income inequality: If a society gets a more equal income distribution, relative poverty will fall. They point out that if society changed in a way that hurt high earners more than low ones, then relative poverty would decrease, but every citizen of the society would be worse off. Likewise in the reverse direction: it is possible to reduce absolute poverty while increasing relative poverty.

The term relative poverty can also be used in a different sense to mean "moderate poverty" –- for example, a standard of living or level of income that is high enough to satisfy basic needs (like water, food, clothing, shelter, and basic health care), but still significantly lower than that of the majority of the population under consideration.

Basic needs[link]

Some measurements combine certain aspects of absolute and relative measures. For example, the Fraser Institute publishes a basic needs poverty measure for Canada. According to the Fraser Institute, "the basic-needs approach is partly absolute (the list [of necessities] is limited to items required for long-term physical well-being) and partly relative, reflecting the standards that apply in the individual's own society at the present time."^[9] The Fraser Institute's list of necessities for living creditably in Canada includes not only food, shelter, clothing, and health care, but also personal care, furniture, transportation, communication, laundry, and home insurance. It is criticized for not including any entertainment items like cable television, daily newspapers, and tickets to movies or sporting events.^[9][10]

National poverty lines[link]

CIA World Factbook-based map showing the percentage of population by country living below that country's official poverty line.

National estimates are based on population-weighted subgroup estimates from household surveys. Definitions of the poverty line may vary considerably among nations. For example, rich nations generally employ more generous standards of poverty than poor nations. Thus, the numbers are not comparable among countries.

In 2010, in the United States, the poverty threshold for one person under 65 was US$11,344 (annual income); the threshold for a family group of four, including two children, was US$22,133.^[11][12] According to the U.S. Census Bureau data released on September 13, 2011, the nation's poverty rate rose to 15.1 percent in 2010.

In the UK, "more than five million people – over a fifth (23 percent) of all employees – were paid less than £6.67 an hour in April 2006. This is based on a low pay rate of 60 percent of full-time median earnings, equivalent to a little over £12,000 a year for a 35-hour working week. In April 2006, a 35-hour week would have earned someone £9,191 a year – before tax or National Insurance".^[13][14]

India's official poverty level, on the other hand, is split according to rural vs. urban thresholds. For urban dwellers, the poverty line is defined as living on less than 538.60 rupees (approximately USD $12) per month, whereas for rural dwellers, it is defined as living on less than 356.35 rupees per month (approximately USD $7.50).^[15]

In 2011 there was crossfire between the National Advisory Council of India (NAC) and the Planning Commission. The row was sparked when the Planning Commission informed the Supreme Court that for an average Indian urban dweller, Rs.32 per day is adequate to carry out his/her living and that those who earn more than Rs.32 ($2 in terms of PPP) in urban areas and Rs.25 ($1.56 in terms of PPP) in rural areas shall not be considered as poor anymore. Former NAC member Jean Dreze said the health expenditure estimated by the Tendulkar panel was "barely enough to buy an aspirin". Food rights activist Colin Gonsalves described the definition as "shocking". The per capita expenditure of Rs 32 per day in cities won’t be sufficient even for food. He was quoted saying that "A person cannot feed himself properly with this money. Where from he will spend on clothing, health and other things?"

Criticisms[link]

Using a poverty threshold is problematic because having an income marginally above it is not substantially different from having an income marginally below it: the negative effects of poverty tend to be continuous rather than discrete, and the same low income affects different people in different ways. To overcome this problem, poverty indices are sometimes used instead; see income inequality metrics.

A poverty threshold relies on a quantitative, or purely numbers-based, measure of income. If other human development-indicators like health and education are used, they must be quantified, which is not a simple (if even achievable) task.

Overstating poverty[link]

In-kind gifts, whether from public or private sources, are not counted when calculating a poverty threshold. For example, if a parent pays the rent on an apartment for an adult son directly to the apartment owner, instead of giving the money to the son to pay the rent, then that money does not count as income to the son. If a church or non-profit organization gives food to an elderly person, the value of the food is not counted as income to the elderly person. Rea Hederman, a senior policy analyst in the Center for Data Analysis at the Heritage Foundation, said

The official poverty measure counts only monetary income. It considers antipoverty programs such as food stamps, housing assistance, the Earned Income Tax Credit, Medicaid and school lunches, among others, "in-kind benefits" – and hence not income. So, despite everything these programs do to relieve poverty, they aren't counted as income when Washington measures the poverty rate.^[16]

Studies measuring the difference between income before and after taxes and government transfers, however, have found that without these programs poverty would be roughly 30% to 40% higher than the official poverty line indicates, despite many of their benefits not being counted as income.^{[17][18][clarification needed]}

Further, the U.S. Census Bureau calculates the poverty line the same throughout the U.S. regardless of the cost-of-living in a state or urban area. For instance, the cost-of-living in California, the largest state, was 142% of the U.S. average in 2010 while the cost-of-living in Texas, the second-largest state was 90% of the U.S. average. Taking this into account, the poverty rate in California would be about 7% higher than officially listed in 2010, 23.3% vs. 16.3%, while Texas' rate would be about 2% lower, 16.1% vs. 18.4%.

See also[link]

• Asset poverty
• Income deficit
• Measuring poverty
• List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty
• Social issues in Brazil
• Poverty in China
• Poverty in India
• Poverty in the United Kingdom
• Poverty in the United States

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Shweparde, Jon; Robert W. Greene (2003). Sociology and You. Ohio: Glencoe McGraw-Hill. pp. A-22. ISBN 0-07-828576-3. http://www.glencoe.com/catalog/index.php/program?c=1675&s=21309&p=4213&parent=4526. 
• Alan Gillie, "The Origin of the Poverty Line", Economic History Review, XLIX/4 (1996), 726

External links[link]

• History of the U.S. Poverty Line by Tom Gentle, Oregon State University.
• United States Department of Health and Human Services Poverty Guidelines, Research, and Measurement
• 2007 United States Department of Health and Human Services Poverty Guidelines
• Debraj Ray 1998, Development Economics, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01706-9.
• World Summit for Social Development Agreements, United Nations
• The "elimination" of poverty, Takis Fotopoulos, The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy, vol.4, no.1, (January 2008).
• Fisher, Gordon (2005-12-16). "Relative or Absolute — New Light on the Behavior of Poverty Lines Over Time". Department of Health and Human Services. http://aspe.hhs.gov/POVERTY/papers/relabs.htm. Retrieved 2008 -01-16. 

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (May 2010)

Cocoa Tea(born Calvin George Scott, September 3, 1959, Kingston, Jamaica) is a Jamaican reggae/dancehall singer, songwriter, and DJ.^[1]

Biography[link]

Cocoa Tea was popular in Jamaica in from 1985, but has become successful worldwide only since the 1990s. One of his most famous songs is "Rikers Island", which was later put into a dub version by Nardo Ranks entitled "Me No Like Rikers Island" (featured on Dancehall Reggaespanol) which was released the same year as the original "Rikers Island". He also gained fame with the song "Young Lover". He gained notoriety in March 2008 after releasing a song titled "Barack Obama" in support of the US Presidential candidate by the same name. Cocoa Tea's song "Jah Made Them That Way" from his 1984 album Rocking Dolly interpolates "Human Nature" by Michael Jackson and "Answer Mi Question" by Dillinger.

Partial discography[link]

• 2008. "Yes We Can". Roaring Lion Records
• 2007. "Biological Warfare". Minor 7 Flat Five
• 2006. Save Us Oh Jah. V.P. Records.
• 1997. Holy Mount Zion. Motown.
• 1997. RAS Portraits. Ras.
• 1996. Israel's King. V.P. Records.
• 1992. Can't Stop Cocoa Tea. V.P. Records.
• 1992. Kingston Hot. Ras.
• 1991. Riker's Island V.P. Records.
• 1986. Showdown Vol 8 (Frankie Paul & Cocoa Tea).Hitbound
• 1985. Israel Vibration Meets Cocoa Tea
• 1985. I Lost My Sonia. Volcano
• 1985. Mr. Coco Tea. Corner Stone
• 1985. Settle Down. Corner Stone
• 1985. Sweet Sweet Coco Tea. Blue Mountain
• 1985. The Marshall. Jammys
• 1985. Clash (Tenor Saw & Cocoa Tea). Hawkeye
• 1984. Rocking Dolly. RAS
• 1984. Weh Dem A Go Do. Volcano
• 1983-2006 Reggae Anthology. 17 North Parade
• 198X. Corner Stone Presents Clash Of The 80's (Cocoa Tea & Barrington Levy). Corner Stone

References[link]

External links[link]

• Cocoa Tea's Original Dancehall Jam Jam, Official Website of Cocoa Tea & Original Dancehall Jam Jam
• Cocoa Tea, Artists Only! Records
• Barack Obama by Coco Tea

Roaring Lion (born Rafael de Leon, Aroquita, Trinidad, British Trinidad and Tobago, 22 February 1908 – 11 July 1999^{[citation needed]}) was a calypsonian (calypso singer/composer). His 65-year career began in the early 1930s and he is best known for his compositions "Ugly Woman" (1933), "Mary Ann" and "Netty, Netty," which are still performed today.^{[citation needed]}

Early life[link]

Rafael de Leon was born in Aroquita, in the Caura Hills of northern Trinidad, to a mother named Basalicion de Leon and a father named Arias Cairi Llama. An illegitimate child, Lion spent some of his earliest years in two orphanages, before being taken in, following his mother's illness, by an elderly woman named Miss Charles who lived on Coffee Street in the southwestern city of San Fernando.^a Finally, he was presented by Charles to a Muslim Indian^{[citation needed]} family in San Fernando who wanted him; he was adopted by Najeeran Khan, who became his adoptive mother. He championed orphanages throughout his career, with songs like 1940s "Orphan home" for one example. Although there has long been confusion about his full name, he himself gave it as Rafael Arias Cairi Llama de Leon.^b He later met his biological father, who told him that his name, Cairi, was another name for Trinidad,^c and that "Llama" is a sort of goat or deer from South America. In a 1990 interview, Roaring Lion stated that "from fear that I might be styled a thief, I only use Rafael Deleon."^de[1]

Career as a calypsonian[link]

From a young age, Roaring Lion (de Leon's adopted stage name) became known for his skill in creating calypsos (particularly in his ability to extemporize lyrics on any subject). Contrary to his humble origins, he cultivated a refined stage persona and always appeared sharply dressed. His career officially began in 1924; he cut his first sides in his late teens. He recorded extensively between the 1930s and 1950s, and was one of the calypsonians who deserves the most credit for the increasing international popularity of the genre during this period. In March 1934 the Trinidadian phonograph merchant Eduardo Sa Gomes sent Roaring Lion and Attila The Hun to New York to record; they became the first calypsonians to record abroad.^[2] He was also the only calypsonian vocalist of his generation who could read and write musical notation. (Bear Family records, West Indian rhythm 10 CD boxset/ book) Roaring Lion achieved fame for his linguistic prowess as much as for his catchy tunes. His lyrics, delivered in rapid-fire style, show an impeccable command of the English language (as well as Trinidadian slang), and are replete with witty turns of phrase, humorous metaphors, and clever alliterations and internal rhymes. Of all the early calypsonians, he was by far the most scandalous, with the most banned songs by a large margin. His "Netty Netty," the song of a prostitute who left town to have an abortion operation, shocked not only Trinidad and Tobago, but in neighboring countries such as Grenada, where he was banned for a while. (As his song "Excursion to Grenada" demonstrates.) Further, the lyrics of many of his "war calypsoes" (essentially insult songs) presage those of similar hip hop battle rap songs by over 50 years. An extract from his lyrics to "War" (recorded during the 1930s by Roaring Lion with Executor, Caresser, and Attila and directed against their fellow calypsonian Wilmoth Houdini) is a particularly good example of such lyrics:

The earth is a trembling and a tumbling

And the heavens are falling and all

Because the lion is roaring.

My tongue is like the blast of a gunman...

Destruction, desolation and damnation --

All these I'll inflict on insubordination,

For the Lion in his power is like the rock of Gibraltar.

Later life[link]

Roaring Lion continued recording through the 1990s; his later recordings feature electronic and soca backgrounds, though he continued to sing in the classic early calypso style. He was regarded as an elder statesman and historian of calypso music and frequently appeared in the Trinidadian media in this role.^{[citation needed]}

In 1986 he self-published a book entitled Calypso From France to Trinidad: 800 Years of History; in it, he claims that calypso is of French rather than African origin, and also shares many reminiscences about his career.^{[citation needed]}

Roaring Lion died on July 11, 1999, at the age of 91. Reports claim that Lion had ten children. His sons include Ibn Llama de Leon, Ishmael de Leon, Akenathon de Leon, Rafael deLeon, Jr. (who lives in Minnesota), Mohondas deLeon (who lives in Norway), Karelius de Leon (who lives in Norway), Christobal deLeon (who lives in Brooklyn, New York), and Krishna deLeon (who lives in Paris). His daughter is Pamela deLeon-Lewis (who lives in Brooklyn, New York with her three children: Abigail J. Bishop, Darryl R. Bishop, and youngest daughter Keiela J. Lewis).^[3] He was formerly married to Marie Louise de Leon, of Norway and the mother of his children.

In 2002 Akenathon announced plans to turn his father's Mt. Lambert property into a Roaring Lion Museum.^[4] His daughter is currently writing two books about the Roaring Lion; one is a compilation of the stories behind the writing of his calypsoes, his business successess, his world travels, his time as Goodwill Ambassador, entertaining the troops in World War II, his performances for historical figures like Winston Churchill, Rockefeller, kings and queens, the Pope, et al., as related by him on tapes he recorded with and for her. This book presents a side of the Roaring Lion that the public never saw or knew. The Roaring Lion-Trapped' – the second book – details the untold story of his final days and also presents another dimension to this legendary man.^{[citation needed]}

Notes[link]

• ^a The oft-printed statement that Roaring Lion was born "Hubert Raphael Charles" is thus incorrect, at least as far as the surname "Charles" is concerned.
• ^b Although the second name has appeared in print as "Arius," it appears in Lion's book "Calypso From France to Trinidad: 800 Years of History" as "Arias."
• ^c "Kairi" is, indeed, the aboriginal name for Trinidad in the Island Carib language.
• ^d This published quote has his surname spelled Deleon rather than de Leon, the latter of which Roaring Lion seems to have preferred.
• ^e Although his surname has variously appeared in print as "DeLeon," "de Leon," "De Leon," and "Deleon," Roaring Lion gives his name as "de Leon" in his book Calypso From France to Trinidad: 800 Years of History.^{[page needed]}

References[link]

External links[link]

• Roaring Lion interview by Tony Hall
• Roaring Lion biography from MP3.com site
• "Homes of Kitchener, Lion to Be Museums", by Terry Joseph, Trinidad Express (February 11, 2002)
• Roaring Lion biography

Further reading[link]

This article lacks ISBNs for the books listed in it. Please make it easier to conduct research by listing ISBNs. If the {{Cite book}} or {{citation}} templates are in use, you may add ISBNs automatically, or discuss this issue on the talk page. (September 2009)

• Roaring Lion (Rafael De Leon) (1986). Calypso From France to Trinidad: 800 Years of History. Trinidad: General Printers of San Juan.

• Gordon Rohlehr (1990). Calypso & Society in Pre-Independence Trinidad. Trinidad : Lexicon Trinidad Ltd.

Bear Family records, "West Indian Rhythm" 10 CD boxset + book.

Linda McRae is a Canadian rock and alternative country musician.

Career[link]

McRae was a member of platinum folk rock band Spirit of the West from 1988 to 1996. A multi-instrumentalist playing accordion, guitar, bass, and banjo she also appeared as a guest musician on The Wonder Stuff's album Never Loved Elvis. McRae played her final show with Spirit of the West on New Year's Eve of 1996, and left amicably to pursue a solo career.

Her debut album as a solo artist, Flying Jenny, was released in 1997. That album was produced by Colin Linden, and included guest performances from members of Blue Rodeo, The Tragically Hip and The Band, as well as Syd Straw and Gurf Morlix and showcased the songs Linda had written while with SOTW.

In 2003, she released her pure honky-tonk second album, Cryin' Out Loud produced by Gurf Morlix and recorded with Vancouver band Cheerful Lonesome. Her third album, Carve it to the Heart co-produced by McRae and Marc L’Esperance featured 10 new songs steeped in the dust bowl traditions as far-reaching as the Canadian Prairie to the heartland of the Appalachian Mountains.

In 2008 she moved with her husband to Nashville. They are currently working on her next recording to be released later this year. She also writes a monthly column for BC Musician's Magazine entitled This Winding Road.

Discography[link]

• Jason Eklund TBA 2007
• Joanne MacKell Brand New Loneome 2008
• Linda McRae Carve It to the Heart 2007
• Rodney DeCroo War Torn Man 2006
• Escovedo 101, Alejandro Escovedo Tribute 2004
• Rodney DeCroo Rodney DeCroo and the Killers 2004
• Gurf Morlix Cut’N Shoot 2004
• Linda McRae Cryin’ Out Loud, 2003
• Leslie Alexander Savage Country 2003
• John Guliak The Black Monk 2002
• Neko Case Furnace Room Lullaby 2000
• Jim Whitford Poison in the Well 2000
• JT King, Ruby River, 2000
• Bruce Cockburn Where Have All the Flowers Gone, Pete Seeger Tribute 1998
• Linda McRae Flying Jenny 1997
• Spirit of the West Open Heart Symphony Live with the VSO 1996
• Spirit of the West Two-Headed 1995
• The Waltons Cock’s Crow 1995
• Spirit of the West Upfront! Canadians Live On Stage Various Artists 1994
• Spirit of the West Faithlift 1993
• The Wonder Stuff Never Loved Elvis 1992
• Spirit of the West The Hanging Garden 1997
• Spirit of the West Go Figure 1991
• Spirit of the West Collected Works Compilation 1991
• Spirit of the West, Save This House 1990
• Easy Money, Standing in Your Shadow 1981
• Easy Money, Getting Lost 1980

External links[link]

• Linda McRae and Cheerful Lonesome

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