Map of the Croatian motorway network

A6 interchange in Orehovica near Rijeka

Dynamics of the development of the Croatian motorway network: the length of the motorway network in Croatia 1993-2009

Highways in Croatia are the main transport network in Croatia. The Croatian classification includes several classes of highways:^[1]

• The main motorways are named A (autocesta) accompanied by one or two digits. By and large they are toll highways with a ticket system.
• Expressways (brza cesta) are limited-access roads with grade-separated intersections and by and large an increased speed limit while no tolling. They remind of the motorways, but aren't always dual carriageways, they have no emergency lanes, and their speed limit is always lower. They either have standalone designations or are parts of major state routes (D), see below.
• Roads dedicated for motor vehicles (cesta namijenjena isključivo za promet motornih vozila), which is a category for highways which are limited-access roads, usually similar to multiple-lane motorways/expressways, but which may have slow intersections. It has no specific naming convention, only a dedicated traffic sign, and it mainly includes major state routes (D) or portions thereof, see below. An example is the Jadranska Avenue in Zagreb, designated as Ž1040 county road.^[2]

Other than these, the national road classification includes the following categories which may also be referred to as highways in a general sense, with decreasing order of priority (and applicability of the term highway):^[2]

• State roads, which are marked by letter D (državna cesta) and a single, double or triple digit number.
• County roads always are marked by letter Ž (županijska cesta) and a four digit number.
• The lowest classification comprises local roads, marked by letter L (lokalna cesta) and a five digit number.

Road operators differ according to the classification system: The designated motorways are operated by four different concessionaires. The state roads are maintained almost exclusively by Hrvatske ceste, while the county and local roads are managed by various county authorities. The road maintenance agencies are governed by various laws issued by the Parliament as well as bylaws issued by the Ministry of Transport.^[1][3]

Motorways[link]

The road sign informing the motorists they are travelling on an autocesta

The primary high-speed motorways are called autoceste (Croatian pronunciation: [ˈaʊtotsesta]; singular: autocesta), and they are defined as roads with at least three lanes in each direction (including hard shoulder) and a speed limit of not less than 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). They are marked with a special road sign, similar to the road sign depicting a motorway/autoroute/autobahn in other parts of Europe.^[4] In Croatia this sign has green background. The national speed limit on an autocesta, effective in case no other speed limits are present, is 130 kilometres per hour (81 mph), with a legal tolerance of 10% on speeds over 100 km/h (as of 2009). The term autocesta is sometimes translated by Croatians simply as highway, which can be confusing because a highway can be any main road, and the terms motorway (British English) and freeway (American English) would be more precise. As of September 2010 Croatian motorway network is 1,124.9 kilometres (699.0 mi) long.^[3][5][6]

Motorways in Croatia are defined by the Ministry of Sea, Transport and Infrastructure.^[3][5][6] The same applies to names of the motorway interchanges and rest areas.^[7] Likewise, the same legislation defines the origin of motorway chainages - at the northern or the western terminus of the motorway - and the motorway markings themselves. The markings are defined as consisting of letter "A" and the motorway number assigned by the legislation, except if a specific motorway is executed in construction stages and considered an expressway, in which case the applicable motorway number is preceded by letter "B" instead.

Generally, the motorways in Croatia are developed and maintained by the state-owned company Hrvatske autoceste (Croatian Motorways Ltd). There are several exceptions to this, namely Zagreb (Lučko) - Bosiljevo 2 section of the A1 motorway, the A6 and the A7 motorways which are managed by Autocesta Rijeka - Zagreb (Rijeka - Zagreb Motorway), the A2 motorway, managed by Autocesta Zagreb - Macelj (Zagreb - Macelj Motorway) and the A8 and the A9 motorways which are managed by BINA Istra.

List of completed motorways[link]

Motorway	County	Length	Description	Notes
A1	Zagreb, Karlovac, Lika‑Senj, Zadar, Šibenik‑Knin, Split‑Dalmatia, Dubrovnik‑Neretva and the City of Zagreb	465.5 km (289.2 mi)	The A1 starts in Lučko interchange, a part of Zagreb bypass where the A3 motorway junction is found. The motorway proceeds south from Zagreb to Karlovac and further on to Bosiljevo 2 interchange interchange where the A6 motorway branches off towards Rijeka. The route continues south to Gospić, Zadar, Šibenik, Split. The southernmost sector of the motorway proceeds from Split to Vrgorac where the traffic proceeds to Ploče and Dubrovnik via the state road network.[maps 1]	Additional sections under construction.[8]
A2	Zagreb, Krapina‑Zagorje and the City of Zagreb	59.0 km (36.6 mi)	The A2 starts on the border of Slovenia near Macelj. The motorway passes west of Krapina and proceeds south towards Zagreb. The southernmost section of the motorway forms a part of Zagreb bypass and it terminates in Jankomir interchange with the A3 motorway.[maps 2]	3.75 km (2.33 mi) as a semi-motorway.
A3	Zagreb, Sisak‑Moslavina, Brod‑Posavina, Vukovar‑Syrmia and the City of Zagreb	306.5 km (190.5 mi)	The A3 starts on the border of Slovenia near Bregana. The motorway passes north of Samobor and proceeds west towards Zagreb, passing to the south of the city and forming a part of Zagreb bypass, where the route contains junctions with the A2, A1 and A4 motorways. It continues east to Kutina, Slavonski Brod, Sredanci interchange with the A5 motorway and further east to Županja and terminating on the border of Serbia near Lipovac[maps 3]	Entire route completed.
A4	Međimurje, Varaždin and Zagreb and the City of Zagreb	96.4 km (59.9 mi)	The A4 starts on the border of Hungary near Goričan. The motorway passes near Čakovec and Varaždin south towards Zagreb and the southernmost part of the route is a part of Zagreb bypass, where the motorway terminates in Ivanja Reka interchange, where the traffic defaults to the westbound A3 motorway.[maps 4]	Entire route completed.
A5	Osijek‑Baranja and Brod‑Posavina	55.0 km (34.2 mi)	The A5 starts near Osijek and proceeds south bypassing Đakovo to Sredanci interchange with the A3 motorway.[maps 5]	Additional sections planned.
A6	Primorje‑Gorski Kotar	81.2 km (50.5 mi)	The A6 starts in Bosiljevo 2 interchange, branching off from the A1 motorway and proceeds west bypassing Delnice to Rijeka and Orehovica interchange with the A7 motorway.[maps 6]	Entire route completed.
A7	Primorje‑Gorski Kotar	35.7 km (22.2 mi)	The A7 starts at the border of Slovenia and heads south to Rijeka, passes the city as Rijeka bypass. The Rijeka bypass section comprises an interchange with the A6 motorway and proceeds east terminating near Bakar where the traffic defaults to the D40 state road.[maps 7]	Additional sections under construction.
A8	Istria and Primorje‑Gorski Kotar	64.0 km (39.8 mi)	The A8 spans between Kanfanar and Matulji, i.e. the A9 and A7 motorways. As of November 2011, the Kanfanar–Rogovići section is brought to the motorway standards, and the rest is a limited access two-lane route.	45.9 km (28.5 mi) as a semi-motorway
A9	Istria	76.79 km (47.72 mi)	The A9 starts near Umag and the Slovenian border, meets the A8 expressway at Kanfanar interchange, and proceeds south to Pula, forming the western arm of Istrian Y.[maps 8]	2 km (1.24 mi) as a semi-motorway.
A11	Zagreb	9.0 km (5.6 mi)	The A11 starts at Velika Gorica interchange and runs south to Buševec interchange. As of September 2010, the A11 was not directly connected to any other motorway.	Additional sections under construction.

Motorway sections under construction[link]

Motorway	County	Length	Section	Description	Scheduled completion
A1	Split‑Dalmatia and Dubrovnik‑Neretva	10.7 km (6.6 mi)	Vrgorac–Ploče	The section represents a southward extension of Ravča - Vrgorac section of the A1 motorway and comprises one major viaduct and a rest area.	2012[9][8]
A5	Osijek-Baranja	2.5 km (1.55 mi)	Drava Bridge	This is the longest bridge on the motorway A5	2014[10]
	Brod-Posavina	3.1 km (1.9 mi)	Svilaj border crossing–Sredanci	The section represents an southward extension of the existing A5 motorway and route and comprises Sava Bridge (L=660m)	2013[11]
A7	Primorje‑Gorski Kotar	5.3 km (3.3 mi)	Sveti Kuzam–Križišće	The section represents an eastward extension of the existing A7 motorway route and comprises four viaducts and one tunnel.	2012[12]
A10	Dubrovnik‑Neretva	4.6 km (2.9 mi)	Metković border crossing–Metković	This motorway is the southern part of Corridor Vc	2013[13]
A11	Zagreb and the City of Zagreb	8.7 km (5.4 mi)	Jakuševec–Velika Gorica jug (south)	The section represents a northward extension of the existing A11 motorway route and comprises one major viaduct and a cloverleaf interchange at the junction with the A3 motorway.	2012
	Zagreb	11.2 km (6.96 mi)	Buševec–Lekenik	The section represents a southward extension of the existing A11 motorway route	2012[14]

Planned motorway sections[link]

Motorway	County	Length	Section	Notes
A1	Dubrovnik‑Neretva	4.5 km (2.8 mi)	Ploče–Metković	The section is included in planning documents related to the A1 and A10 motorways, as Metković interchange shall become junction between the two routes. Design development funding approved within the A10 motorway project.[6] No funding has been approved towards any design development or construction works in the 2009–2012 national road construction plans.[15]
		39.7 km (24.7 mi)	Metković–Doli	The section is not planned in detail yet as no funding is available as of September 2010.[15]
		29.6 km (18.4 mi)	Doli–Osojnik (Dubrovnik)	Funding was planned for development of detailed designs for this section.[15][16]
A5	Osijek‑Baranja	29.5 km (18.3 mi)	Duboševica border crossing–Osijek	The sections are included applicable legislation, however no funding has been approved towards any design development or construction works in the 2009–2012 national road construction plans.[6][15]
A7	Primorje‑Gorski Kotar	24.0 km (14.9 mi)	Križišće–Povile (Novi Vinodolski)	The sections are included applicable legislation, and funding was approved for development of designs for the section.[15][17]
	Primorje‑Gorski Kotar and Lika‑Senj	32.0 km (19.9 mi)	Povile–Žuta Lokva	The sections are included applicable legislation, however no funding has been approved towards any design development or construction works in the 2009–2012 national road construction plans.[6][15][17]
A8	Istria	45.9 km (28.5 mi)	Rogovići–Matulji	An upgrade of the existing two lane expressway is planned along the A8 route except for the easternmost section of the expressway where an entirely new route to the A7 motorway.[18] The works were tentatively planned for 2011–2014.[19] As of June 2010, the section is scheduled for completion of the motorway upgrade by the end of 2014 or at the beginning of 2015.[20]
A11	Zagreb, Sisak‑Moslavina	22.2 km (13.8 mi)	Lekenik–Sisak	Planning documents specify development of design documents for the A11 motorway section and outline funds approved for the task. The planning documents pertain to 2009–2012 period.[6][15]
	Sisak‑Moslavina	6.2 km (3.9 mi)	Sisak–Mošćenica	Planning documents specify the A11 motorway section but no funds are approved for the section as of September 2010.[6][15]
A12	Zagreb	21.5 km (13.4 mi)	Sveta Helena–Vrbovec 2	Planning documents specify expansion of the existing four lane expressway in this section to include emergency lanes.[21]
	Zagreb	1.5 km (0.9 mi)	Vrbovec 2–Gradec	Planning documents specify development of design documents for the A12 motorway section and outline funds approved for the task. The planning documents pertain to 2009–2012 period.[6][15]
	Zagreb and Koprivnica‑Križevci	20.0 km (12.4 mi)	Gradec–Kloštar Vojakovački	Planning documents specify development of design documents for the A12 motorway section, start of construction work and outline funds approved for the task. The planning documents pertain to 2009–2012 period.[22][6][15]
	Koprivnica‑Križevci	13.7 km (8.5 mi)	Kloštar Vojakovački–Velika Mučna	Planning documents specify development of design documents for the A12 motorway section and outline funds approved for the task. The planning documents pertain to 2009–2012 period.[6][15]
A13	Zagreb and Bjelovar‑Bilogora	27.5 km (17.1 mi)	Vrbovec 2–Bjelovar	Planning documents specify development of design documents for the A12 motorway section, start of construction work and outline funds approved for the task. The planning documents pertain to 2009–2012 period.[23][6][15]

Expressways[link]

Roads designated for motor vehicles are marked with this kind of a sign in Croatia

There is a wide variety of types of expressways in Croatia, in terms of number of lanes, accessibility and types of intersections comprised. They range from four lane expressways with grade-separated intersections and limited access - distinguished from the motorways by lack of emergency lanes only - to four or six lane urban expressways with numerous at-grade intersections and traffic lights or two lane limited access roads with grade separated intersections. The expressways include both incomplete motorways, built in stages,^[7] and some state roads (with either limited access, more than two traffic lanes, grade-separated intersections or any combination thereof). There are even some instances of county roads which may be regarded expressways such as Jadranska Avenue (Ž1040).

As a rule, the expressways are not tolled, however major bridges and tunnels on the expressways that are or were part of the Istrian Y are tolled.

List of completed expressways[link]

Number	Control cities (or other appropriate route description)
D1	sections through Karlovac[24] (four lane expressway, with at-grade intersections)
D1	Dugopolje interchange (A1) - Split[25] (three lane expressway, with grade separated intersections)
D2	Osijek southern bypass[25] (two lane expressway, with grade separated intersections)
D8	sections through Split[26] (four lane expressway, with at-grade intersections)
A12 D28	Sveta Helena interchange (A4) - Vrbovec (four lane expressway, with grade separated intersections) The road is currently physically marked D28, however pursuant to applicable legislation and an agreement between Hrvatske autoceste and Hrvatske ceste made in 2009, the expressway management is transferred to the former, the road is designated as A12 (the legislation stipulates that it shall be marked B12 until it is upgraded to motorway standards).
D424	Zadar 2 interchange (A1) - Zadar[27] (four lane expressway, with grade separated intersections)
D425	Karamatići - Ploče[28] (four/two lane expressway, with grade separated intersections)
D522	Šibenik (Tromilja) interchange (A1) - Šibenik[29] (two lane expressway, with grade separated intersections)
D533	Gornja Ploča interchange (A1) - Udbina[30] (two lane expressway, with grade separated intersections)

State roads[link]

State roads are defined by legislation^[2] as important routes for road traffic between various parts of the country. Classification of a road as a state road does not describe actual conditions of the road itself.

State roads in Croatia are assigned one, two or three digit numbers which generally comply with the following pattern (although there are some exceptions to the rules):

• Single digit numbers (1-9) are assigned to trunk roads, normally of considerable length, spanning between borders of various neighboring countries. An obvious exception to this is the D9 state road however it spans from Bosnia and Herzegovina border and the Adriatic Sea, along the southernmost portion of Pan-European Corridor Vc.
• Double digit numbers (20-70) are assigned to arterial roads on the mainland.
• 100s are assigned to island roads
• 200s are assigned to border crossing access roads
• 300s are assigned to junction roads, connecting towns or cities (but not other state roads) to motorways or other major roads. Notable exceptions to this are D307 and D310 state roads, although the D307 originally did not connect to the D29, but only to the A2 motorway.
• 400s are assigned to mainland port and airport access roads.
• 500s are assigned to connecting roads, connecting two different state roads. Notable exceptions to this rule are the D503 which connects to a port and the D516 which connects to a border crossing checkpoint.

At the moment the state roads in Croatia have a combined length of 6,819.7 kilometres (4,237.6 mi).

D1 - D9[link]

Number	Control cities (or other appropriate route description)[2]
D1	Macelj - Krapina - Karlovac - Knin - Split
D2	Dubrava Križovljanska - Varaždin - Koprivnica - Virovitica - Našice - Osijek - Vukovar - Ilok
D3	Goričan - Čakovec - Varaždin - Zagreb - Karlovac - Rijeka
D5	Terezino Polje - Virovitica - Daruvar - Okučani - Stara Gradiška
D6	Jurovski Brod - Ribnik - Karlovac - Vojnić - Glina - Dvor
D7	Duboševica - Beli Manastir - Osijek - Đakovo - Slavonski Šamac
D8	Pasjak - Rijeka - Senj - Zadar - Split - Makarska - Klek; Zaton Doli - Dubrovnik - Karasovići
D9	Metković - Opuzen (D8)

D20 - D70[link]

Number	Control cities (or other appropriate route description)[2]
D20	Čakovec (D3) - Prelog - Drnje (D41)
D21	Kaštel – Buje – Medaki interchange (A9) – Bale – Pula (D400)
D22	Novi Marof (D3) – Križevci – Sv. Ivan Žabno (D28)
D23	Duga Resa (D3) – Josipdol – Žuta Lokva – Senj (D8)
D24	Zabok (D1) – Zlatar Bistrica – D. Konjšćina – Budinšćina – Novi Marof – Varaždinske Toplice – Ludbreg (D2)
D25	Korenica (D1) – Bunić – Lički Osik – Gospić – Karlobag (D8)
D26	Vrbovec (D28) - Čazma - Garešnica - Dežanovac - Daruvar (D5)
D27	Gračac (D1) - Obrovac - Benkovac - Stankovci - D8
D28	Sv. Helena interchange (A4) - Vrbovec interchange - Bjelovar - Veliki Zdenci (D5)
D29	N. Golubovec (D35) - Zlatar Bistrica - Marija Bistrica - Soblinec (D3)
D30	Buzin interchange (A3) - Velika Gorica - Petrinja - Hrvatska Kostajnica - Hrvatska Kostajnica
D31	V. Gorica (D30) - G. Viduševac - D6
D32	Prezid - Delnice (D3)
D33	Strmica - Knin - Drniš - Šibenik (ferry port)
D34	Daruvar (D5) - Suhopolje (D2) - Donji Miholjac - Josipovac (D2)
D35	Varaždin (D2) - Lepoglava - Sv. Križ Začretje (D1)
D36	Karlovac (D1) - Pokupsko - Sisak - Popovača interchange (A3)
D37	Sisak (D36) - Petrinja - Glina (D6)
D38	Pakrac (D5) - Požega - Pleternica - Đakovo (D7)
D39	Aržano - Cista Provo - Dubci (D8)
D40	Čavle (D3) - Čavle interchange (A6) - D8
D41	Gola - Koprivnica - Križevci - Vrbovec (D28)
D42	Vrbovsko (D3) - Ogulin - Josipdol - Plaški - Selište Drežničko (D1)
D43	Đurđevac (D2) - Bjelovar - Čazma - Ivanić Grad interchange (A3)
D44	Ponte Portone (D21) - Buzet - Lupoglav interchange (A8)
D45	V. Zdenci (D5) - Garešnica - Kutina interchange (A3)
D46	Đakovo (D7) - Vinkovci - Tovarnik
D47	Lipik (D5) - Novska - Hrvatska Dubica - Hrvatska Kostajnica - Dvor (D6)
D48	Baderna (D21) - Pazin - Rogovići interchange (A8)
D49	Pleternica - Lužani interchange (A3)
D50	Žuta Lokva (D23) - Otočac - Gospić - Gračac (D27)
D51	Gradište (D53) - Požega - Nova Gradiška interchange (A3)
D52	Špilnik (D50) - Korenica (D1)
D53	D. Miholjac - Našice - Slavonski Brod
D54	Maslenica (D8) - Zaton Obrovački (D27)
D55	Borovo (D2) - Vinkovci - Županja
D56	Tromilja interchange (D424) - Benkovac - Skradin - Drniš - Muć - Klis-Grlo interchange (D1)
D57	Vukovar (D2) - Orolik - Nijemci - Lipovac interchange (A3)
D58	Šibenik (port) - Boraja - Trogir (D8)
D59	Knin (D1) - Kistanje - Bribirske Mostine - Putičanje - Kapela (D8)
D60	Brnaze (D1) - Trilj - Cista Provo - Imotski - Vinjani Donji
D62	Šestanovac (D39) - Zagvozd - Vrgorac - Kula Norinska - Metković (D9)
D64	Pazin (D48) - Podpićan - Vozilići (D66)
D66	Pula (D400) - Labin - Opatija - Matulji (D8)
D69	Slatina (D2) - Čeralije - Voćin - Zvečevo - Kamensko (D38)
D70	Omiš (D8) - Naklice - Gata - Blato n/C interchange (A1)

D100 - D128[link]

Number	Control cities (or other appropriate route description)[2]
D100	Porozina (ferry port) - Cres - Mali Lošinj
D101	(D100) - Merag (ferry port)
D102	Šmrika (D8) - Krk - Baška
D103	(D102) - Rijeka airport
D104	(D102) - Valbiska (ferry port)
D105	Lopar (ferry port) - Rab - Mišnjak (ferry port)
D106	Žigljen (ferry port) - Novalja - Pag - Posedarje (D8)
D107	Stara Novalja (ferry port) - (D106)
D108	Gorica (D106) - Povljana
D109	Veli Rat - Soline - Telašćica
D110	Muline (ferry port) - Ugljan - Tkon (ferry port)
D111	Maslinica - Grohote - Stomorska
D112	Rogač (ferry port) - (D111)
D113	Supetar - Nerežišće - Sumartin (ferry port)
D114	Milna - Sutivan - Supetar (D113)
D115	G. Humac (D113) - Bol
D116	Vira (ferry port) - Hvar - Milna - Starigrad (ferry port) - Sućuraj
D117	Komiža - Podhum - Vis
D118	Vela Luka - Smokvica - Korčula
D119	Ubli - Lastovo
D120	Pomena - Polače - Sobra - Saplunara
D121	Murter - Tisno - (D8)
D123	Sobra (ferry port) - (D120)
D124	Brbinj (ferry port) - Brbinj - (D109)
D125	Zaglav (ferry port) - (D109)
D126	Trogir (D315) - Arbanija - Slatine
D128	Uvala Mikavica - Žirje (ferry port)

D200 - D225[link]

Number	Control cities (or other appropriate route description)[2]
D200	Plovanija border checkpoint - Buje (D21)
D201	Požane border checkpoint - Buzet (D44)
D203	Brod na Kupi border checkpoint - Delnice (D3)
D204	Pribanjci border checkpoint - Bosanci (D3) - Bosiljevo 1 interchange (A1)
D205	Razvor border checkpoint - Kumrovec - Klanjec - Gubaševo (D1)
D206	Hum na Sutli border checkpoint - Pregrada - Krapina (D1)
D207	Hum na Sutli (D206) - Lupinjak - Đurmanec (D1)
D208	Trnovec border checkpoint - Nedelišće (D3)
D209	Mursko Središće border checkpoint - Šenkovec - Čakovec (D3)
D210	Gola (D41) - Ždala - Molve - Virje (D2)
D211	Baranjsko Petrovo Selo border checkpoint - Baranjsko Petrovo Selo (D517)
D212	Batina border checkpoint - Kneževi Vinogradi - D7
D213	Erdut border checkpoint - D2
D214	Gunja border checkpoint - Županja (D55)
D216	Maljevac border checkpoint - Kolarić - Vojnić (D6)
D217	Ličko Petrovo Selo border checkpoint - Grabovac (D1)
D218	Užljebić border checkpoint - Donji Lapac - Sučević (D1)
D219	Bili Brig border checkpoint - Obrovac Sinjski - Sinj - Gornji Muć (D56)
D220	Kamensko border checkpoint - Trilj - Čaporice (D60) - Bisko interchange (A1)
D222	Mali Prolog border checkpoint - D62
D223	Gornji Brgat border checkpoint - Dubac (D8)
D224	Mošćenica (D37) - Blinjski Kut - Sunja - Panjani (D30)
D225	Harmica border checkpoint - Brdovec - Zaprešić interchange (A2)

D300 - D315[link]

Number	Control cities (or other appropriate route description)[2]
D300	Umag - Buje (D21)
D301	Novigrad - Bužanija - Nova Vas - Porte Portone (D21)
D302	Poreč - Baderna (D21)
D303	Rovinj - Kanfanar interchange (A9)
D304	Kastav - Rubeši - Diračje interchange (A7) - D8
D305	D32 - Čabar
D306	Vir - Nin - Zadar (D8)
D307	Gubaševo (D1) - Oroslavje - Donja Stubica - Marija Bistrica (D29)
D310	Jastrebarsko (D1) - Jastrebarsko interchange (A1)
D312	D47 - Novska
D313	Nova Gradiška - Rešetari (D51)
D314	D2 - Orahovica
D315	Trogir (D126) - Pantana (D409)

D400 - D425[link]

Number	Control cities (or other appropriate route description)[2]
D400	Pula (D21) - Pula ferry port
D401	D66 - Pula Airport
D402	D66 - Brestova ferry port
D403	Škurinje interchange (A7) - Port of Rijeka (west)
D404	Draga interchange (A7) - Port of Brajdica - Rijeka (D8)
D405	D8 - Jablanac ferry port
D406	D8 - Prizna ferry port
D407	Zadar (D8) - Zadar ferry port
D408	D30 - Zagreb Airport (Pleso)
D409	Plano (D8) - Split Airport (Resnik)
D410	Visoka (D8) - Split ferry port
D411	Makarska west (D8) - Makarska ferry port
D412	Drvenik (D8) - Drvenik ferry dock
D413	Ploče (D8) - Port of Ploče
D414	Zaton Doli (D8) - Ston - Orebić ferry port
D415	Donja Banda (D414) - Trpanj ferry port
D416	Prapratno (D414) - Prapratno ferry port
D417	D2 - Osijek river port
D418	D2 - Osijek Airport (Klisa)
D420	Sustjepan (D8) - Port of Gruž
D421	Raša (D66) - Port of Bršica
D422	Babindub interchange (D424) - Zadar Airport
D423	Slavonski Brod (D514) - Port of Slavonski Brod
D424	Zadar 2 interchange (A1) - Port of Gaženica/Zadar
D425	Čeveljuša interchange (D8) - Karamatići (D513)

D500 - D534[link]

Number	Control cities (or other appropriate route description)[2]
D500	Vranja interchange (A8) - Šušnjevica - Kršan (D64)
D501	Gornje Jelenje (D3) - Oštrovica interchange (A6) - Meja - Križišće - Šmrika (D8)
D502	Donji Zemunik (D56) - Smilčić - Karin (D27)
D503	Zapužane (D27) - Biograd na Moru ferry port
D504	Ličko Petrovo Selo (D217) - Prijeboj (D1)
D506	D218 - Dobroselo - Mazin - D1
D507	Valentinovo (D206) - Krapinske Toplice - Gubaševo (D205)
D508	Macelj (D1) - Trakošćan - Lepoglava (D35)
D510	D200 - D21
D512	Makarska (D8) - Ravča (D62)
D513	Ploče (D8) - Mali Prolog (D62)
D514	Slavonski Brod (D53) - Slavonski Brod istok (east) interchange (A3)
D515	Našice (D2) - Đakovo (D7)
D516	Karasovići (D8) - Konfin border checkpoint
D517	Beli Manastir (D7) - Belišće - Valpovo - Koška (D2)
D518	Osijek (D2) - Jarmina (D46)
D519	Dalj (D213) - Borovo Naselje (D2)
D520	Babina Greda interchange (A3) - Slavonski Šamac (D7)
D522	Gornja Ploča interchange (A1) - Lovinac - Udbina (D1)
D523	Šmrika (D8) - Križišće (D501)
D524	Bjelovar/Predavac (D28) - Bjelovar/Letičani (D43)
D525	Pleternica (D49) - Slavonski Brod zapad (west) interchange (A3) - Slavonski Brod (D53)
D526	Varaždinske Toplice interchange (A4) - Varaždinske Toplice (D24)
D528	Varaždin interchange (A4) - Varaždin (D2)
D530	Ludbreg interchange (A4) - Zamlaka (D2)
D531	Vrpolje interchange (A1) - Vrpolje (D58)
D532	Baška Voda (D8) - Zagvozd (D62)
D533	Tromilja (D33) - Vidici interchange (D8)
D534	Gospić interchange (A1) - Budak (D25)

Toll[link]

A toll is charged on most Croatian motorways, the only notable exception being the Zagreb bypass. Payment in kuna, all major credit cards and euros are accepted at all toll gates.

There are two toll collection systems in Croatia: the open and the closed system. Open system is used on some bridges and tunnels and short stretches of tolled highway. In this system, there is only one toll plaza and drivers immediately pay the toll upon arriving.

In the closed system, every driver passes through two toll plazas. As the driver enters the system, they are given a receipt on the first toll plaza. This receipt states the point of entry. The receipt is presented upon leaving the highway through the second toll plaza. It is needed to calculate the toll. If the driver loses the receipt, they are charged with the maximum possible toll. If the receipt is more than 24 hours old, the driver must present the toll attendant with a reasonable explanation.

Steps are taken to reduce evasion of toll by adding enclosed separate service areas in each direction and prohibiting U-turns. Additionally, every vehicle is being monitored by video cameras at the toll gates.

Shunpiking is a widely accepted practice for commuters driving what would otherwise be a short stretch of tolled highway. Because of the price of monthly and yearly smart cards, many commuters from outer exurbs use state routes.

There are also reduced rates for transport companies, which should prevent heavy traffic along regional roads. Hrvatske ceste, the Croatian state road authority, imposes additional fees for trucking companies that frequently use a route.

Non-cash toll payment[link]

Not counting cash and credit cards, there are several ways to pay toll on Croatian motorways:^[31]

• Smart card, a nonrefundable and unexpiring prepaid toll card showed to the toll attendant. As of August 2007^[update], a HAC smart card costs 20 kn. Additional toll may be prepaid at owner's will. The smart card enacts a 10% discount on toll when used. It is not recommended to use the smart card for paying less than 200 kn in toll. 200 kn equals to a round-trip in relation Zagreb - Zadar. Smart card must be purchased pre-paying at least 100 kn of toll. Additional money can be added to the toll account at any time. The HAC smart card has recently been refitted to allow use by flashing the card in front of a magnetic card reader.
• seasonal smart card offers a significantly higher discount rate of 23.5% usable during specified five months. Unused amount upon expiry of these five months will be used with the standard, 10% discount. As of August 2007^[update], a class I vehicle seasonal smart card costs 1200 kn. The full amount is submitted to the toll account.^[32]
• ENC (Elektronička naplata cestarine) is an electronic toll collection system. As of August 2007^[update], the transponder costs 122 kn and a 10% discount on tolls is available. The user must pre-pay at least 90 kn of toll at purchase. Additional money can be added to the toll account at any time. ENC is usually recommended only for at least 10 longer journeys across Croatia. In the tourist season, ENC can drastically shorten wait times on large toll plazas with dedicated ENC lanes (especially toll plaza Lučko in Zagreb).^[33] ENC has been criticized for incompatibility among motorway concessioners and often malfunctions.^[34]

See also[link]

• Transport in Croatia
• Hrvatske autoceste
• Autocesta Rijeka - Zagreb
• BINA Istra
• Autocesta Zagreb - Macelj
• Hrvatske ceste

Maps[link]

1. ^ Google Maps. Overview map of the A1 (Map). http://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=Unknown+road&daddr=A1%2FE65&geocode=FTg9ugId2KLyAA%3BFeZ5kwIdKGYHAQ&hl=en&mra=mift&mrsp=1&sz=16&sll=43.218907,17.262568&sspn=0.010477,0.022724&ie=UTF8&ll=44.174325,16.864014&spn=5.279256,11.634521&t=h&z=7. Retrieved September 17, 2010. 
2. ^ Google Maps. Overview map of the A2 (Map). http://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=E59&daddr=A3&geocode=Fdz6wQIdairyAA%3BFbq2ugIdytDxAA&hl=en&mra=pr&sll=45.789432,15.847692&sspn=0.040099,0.090895&ie=UTF8&t=h&ll=46.013178,16.027679&spn=0.639007,1.454315&z=10. Retrieved September 17, 2010. 
3. ^ Google Maps. Overview map of the A3 (Map). http://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=E70&daddr=E70&geocode=FeqJuwIdDHzvAA%3BFUterwIdHokjAQ&hl=en&mra=mift&mrsp=1&sz=15&sll=45.045601,19.116211&sspn=0.019679,0.045447&ie=UTF8&ll=45.267155,17.29248&spn=2.509017,5.817261&t=h&z=8. Retrieved September 17, 2010. 
4. ^ Google Maps. Overview map of the A4 (Map). http://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=46.411618,16.700935&daddr=Obilaznica&geocode=FWIvxAIdB9b-AA%3BFdzXugId2iL2AA&hl=en&mra=mift&mrsp=1&sz=15&sll=45.800892,16.134024&sspn=0.020045,0.045447&ie=UTF8&ll=46.075136,16.523438&spn=1.276582,2.90863&t=h&z=9. Retrieved September 17, 2010. 
5. ^ Google Maps. Overview map of the A5 (Map). http://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=E73&daddr=Unknown+road&geocode=FcRgtwId1A8bAQ%3BFSHcsAIdMmoXAQ&hl=en&mra=mift&mrsp=1&sz=13&sll=45.144031,18.311462&sspn=0.081122,0.181789&ie=UTF8&ll=45.328013,18.577881&spn=0.646877,1.454315&t=h&z=10. Retrieved September 17, 2010. 
6. ^ Google Maps. Overview map of the A6 (Map). http://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=A1&daddr=45.4028947,15.2413832+to:45.3909341,15.1985347+to:45.3853659,15.182387+to:E65&geocode=FeThtAIdMvPoAA%3BFQ7LtAIdp5DoACmXq8sc225kRzFgP5cM4anoTw%3BFVactAIdRunnACnXR6R9eWVkRzHNuGjEs9To5g%3BFZWGtAIdM6rnACnXR6R9eWVkRzHNuGjEs9To5g%3BFUrSswIdsMzcAA&hl=en&mra=dvme&mrcr=0&mrsp=1&sz=11&via=1,2,3&sll=45.385913,15.238037&sspn=0.312979,0.727158&ie=UTF8&ll=45.341528,14.94278&spn=0.607142,1.454315&t=h&z=10. Retrieved September 17, 2010. 
7. ^ Google Maps. Overview map of the A7 (Map). http://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=A7&daddr=E65&geocode=FcwXtgIdjuHZAA%3BFahlswId6qrdAA&hl=en&mra=dme&mrcr=0&mrsp=1&sz=16&sll=45.311628,14.527531&sspn=0.009492,0.022724&ie=UTF8&ll=45.380608,14.38179&spn=0.323138,0.727158&t=h&z=11. Retrieved September 17, 2010. 
8. ^ Google Maps. Overview map of the A9 (Map). http://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&source=s_d&saddr=A9&daddr=Sijanska&geocode=FbJ4sAIdA6fSAA%3BFYsCrQIdO-7TAA&hl=en&mra=mift&mrsp=1&sz=16&sll=44.890935,13.888564&sspn=0.010185,0.022724&ie=UTF8&ll=44.985685,13.914185&spn=0.325388,0.727158&t=h&z=11. Retrieved September 17, 2010. 

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Highways in Croatia

• HUKA - Croatian Association of Toll Motorways Concessionaires
• Exit lists of autoceste

v t e Highways of Croatia Motorways (autocesta, pl. autoceste) A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A11 Expressways (* partial) D1* D28* D424 D425 D522 D533 Future motorways A10 A12 A13 Book Category Commons category

Republic of Croatia Republika Hrvatska
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Lijepa naša domovino Our beautiful homeland
Location of  Croatia  (green) in Europe  (dark grey)  —  [Legend]
Capital (and largest city)		Zagreb 45°48′N 16°0′E / 45.8°N 16°E / 45.8; 16
Official language(s)		Croatian
Ethnic groups (2001)		89.6% Croats, 4.5% Serbs, 5.9% others and unspecified[1]
Demonym		Croat, Croatian
Government		Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic
-	President	Ivo Josipović
-	Prime Minister	Zoran Milanović
-	Speaker of Parliament	Boris Šprem
Legislature		Sabor
Establishment
-	Principality	9th century, independent c. 840
-	Kingdom	925
-	Union with Hungary	1102
-	Joined Habsburg Empire	1 January 1527
-	Independence of SHS from Austria–Hungary	29 October 1918
-	Co-founded Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed Yugoslavia)	4 December 1918
-	Yugoslavia becomes Republic	29 November 1943
-	Decision on independence	25 June 1991
-	Declaration of independence	8 October 1991
Area
-	Total	56,594 km2 (126th) 21,851 sq mi
-	Water (%)	1.09
Population
-	2011 census	4,290,612[2]
-	Density	75.8/km2  196.3/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$80.334 billion[3] (75th)
-	Per capita	$18,191[3] (48th)
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$63.842 billion[3] (65th)
-	Per capita	$14,457[3] (44th)
Gini (2008)		29[4] (low)
HDI (2011)		0.796[5] (very high) (46th)
Currency		Kuna (HRK)
Time zone		CET (UTC+1)
-	Summer (DST)	CEST (UTC+2)
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		HR
Internet TLD		.hr
Calling code		385

Croatia (ⁱ/kroʊˈeɪʃə/ kroh-AY-shə; Croatian: Hrvatska pronounced [xř̩ʋaːtskaː]), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska  listen (help·info)), is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of Central Europe, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles) and has diverse, mostly continental and Mediterranean climates. Croatia's Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The country's population is 4.29 million, most of whom are Croats, with the most common religious denomination being Roman Catholicism.

In the early 7th century the Croats arrived in area of present-day Croatia. They organised the state into two dukedoms by the 9th century. Tomislav became the first king by 925 AD, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Peter Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir. Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs that declared independence from Austria–Hungary and co-founded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. A Croatian state briefly existed during World War II as a fascist puppet state. After the war, Croatia became a founding member and a federal constituent of the Second Yugoslavia, a socialist state. In June 1991, Croatia declared independence, which came into effect on 8 October of the same year. The Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration.

Croatia today has a very high Human Development Index. The International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high income economy. Croatia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, CEFTA and a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean. Croatia is an acceding state of the European Union, with full membership expected in July 2013. As an active participant in the UN peacekeeping forces, Croatia has contributed troops to the NATO-led mission in Afghanistan and took a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2008–2009 term.

The service sector dominates Croatia's economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world. The state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatia's most important trading partner. Since 2000, the Croatian government has invested in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia; the rest is imported. Croatia provides a universal health care system and free primary and secondary education, while supporting culture through numerous public institutions and through corporate investments in media and publishing. The nation prides itself in its cultural, artistic and scientific contributions to the world, as well as in its cuisine, wines and sporting achievements.

History[link]

Branimir Inscription

The name of Croatia derives from Medieval Latin Croātia, from Dux Croatorum ("Duke of Croatians") attested in the Branimir Inscription, itself a derivation of North-West Slavic *Xrovat-, by liquid metathesis from proposed Common Slavic *Xorvat-, from proposed Proto-Slavic *Xarwāt- (*Xъrvatъ) or *Xŭrvatŭ (*xъrvatъ).^[6] The origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe.^[7] The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, attested in the Baška tablet in style zvъnъmirъ kralъ xrъvatъskъ ("Zvonimir, Croatian king").^[8]

The first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts on the authenticity of the claim.^[9] The oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th century Branimir Inscription (found near Benkovac), where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not dated accurately, however, Branimir ruled Croatia in 879–892.^[10]

Prehistory and antiquity[link]

Tanais Tablet B, name Khoroáthos highlighted.

The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period. Fossils of Neanderthals dating to the middle Palaeolithic period have been unearthed in northern Croatia, with the most famous and the best presented site in Krapina.^[11] Remnants of several Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures were found in all regions of the country.^[12] The largest proportion of the sites is in the northern Croatia river valleys, and the most significant cultures whose presence was discovered include Starčevo, Vučedol and Baden cultures.^[13][14] The Iron Age left traces of the early Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture.^[15]

Much later, the region was settled by Liburnians and Illyrians, while the first Greek colonies were established on the islands of Korčula, Hvar^[16] and Vis.^[17] In 9 AD the territory of today's Croatia became part of the Roman Empire. Emperor Diocletian built a large palace in Split when he retired in AD 305.^[18] During the 5th century, one of the last Emperors of the Western Roman Empire, Julius Nepos, ruled his small empire from the palace.^[19] The period ends with Avar and Croat invasions in the first half of the 7th century and destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast, islands and mountains. The city of Dubrovnik was founded by such survivors from Epidaurum.^[20]

The ethnogenesis of Croats is uncertain and there are several competing theories, Slavic and Iranian being the most frequently put forward. The most widely accepted of these, the Slavic theory, proposes migration of White Croats from the territory of White Croatia during the Migration Period. Conversely, the Iranian theory proposes Iranian origin, based on Tanais Tablets containing Greek inscription of given names Χορούαθ[ος], Χοροάθος and Χορόαθος (Khoroúathos, Khoroáthos, and Khoróathos) and their interpretation as anthroponyms of Croatian people.^[21]

Middle Ages[link]

Baška tablet, the oldest evidence of the glagolitic script.

According to the work De Administrando Imperio written by the 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, the Croats had arrived in what is today Croatia in the early 7th century, however that claim is disputed and competing hypotheses date the event between the 6th and the 9th centuries.^[22] Eventually two dukedoms were formed—Duchy of Pannonia and Duchy of Dalmatia, ruled by Ljudevit Posavski and Borna, as attested by chronicles of Einhard starting in the year 818. The record represents the first document of Croatian realms, vassal states of Francia at the time.^[23] The Frankish overlordship ended during the reign of Mislav two decades later.^[24] According to the Constantine VII christianization of Croats began in the 7th century, but the claim is disputed and generally christianization is associated with the 9th century.^[25] The first native Croatian ruler recognised by the Pope was duke Branimir, whom Pope John VIII referred to as Dux Croatorum ("Duke of Croats") in 879.^[10]

The walls of Dubrovnik, which helped the defence of Dubrovnik in the Middle Ages and the 1991–1992 siege

Tomislav was the first ruler of Croatia who was styled a king in a letter from the Pope John X, dating kingdom of Croatia to year 925. Tomislav defeated Hungarian and Bulgarian invasions, spreading the influence of Croatian kings.^[26] The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns of Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Dmitar Zvonimir (1075–1089).^[27] When Stjepan II died in 1091 ending the Trpimirović dynasty, Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed Croatian crown. Opposition to the claim led to a war and personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102, ruled by Coloman.^[28]

For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by the Sabor (parliament) and a Ban (viceroy) appointed by the king.^[29] The period saw increasing threat of Ottoman conquest and struggle against the Republic of Venice for control of coastal areas. The Venetians gained control over most of Dalmatia by 1428, with exception of the city-state of Dubrovnik which became independent. Ottoman conquests led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava field and 1526 Battle of Mohács, both ending in decisive Ottoman victories. King Louis II died at Mohács, and in 1527, the Parliament on Cetin chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as new ruler of Croatia, under the condition that he provide protection to Croatia against the Ottoman Empire while respecting its political rights.^[29][30] The period saw rise of native nobility such as the Frankopans and the Šubićs to prominence and ultimately numerous Bans from the two families.^[31]

Habsburg Monarchy and Austria-Hungary[link]

Ban Josip Jelačić fought Hungarians in 1848 and 1849

Following the decisive Ottoman victories, Croatia was split into civilian and military territories, with the partition formed in 1538. The military territories would become known as the Croatian Military Frontier and were directly controlled by the Austrian emperor. Ottoman advances in the Croatian territory continued until the 1593 Battle of Sisak, the first decisive Ottoman defeat, and stabilisation of borders. During the Great Turkish War (1667–1698), Slavonia was regained but western Bosnia, which had been part of Croatia before the Ottoman conquest, remained outside Croatian control.^[30] The present-day border between the two countries is a remnant of this outcome. Dalmatia, the southern part of the border, was similarly defined by the Fifth and the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars.^[32] The Ottoman wars instigated great demographic changes. Croats migrated towards Austria and the present-day Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of these settlers.^[33] To replace the fleeing Croats the Habsburgs called on the Orthodox populations of Bosnia and Serbia to provide military service in the Croatian Military Frontier. Serb migration into this region peaked during the Great Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737–39.^[34]

Between 1797 and 1809 the First French Empire gradually occupied the entire eastern Adriatic coastline and a substantial part of its hinterland, ending the Venetian and the Ragusan republics, establishing the Illyrian Provinces.^[30] In response the Royal Navy started the blockade of the Adriatic Sea leading to the Battle of Vis in 1811.^[35] The Illyrian Provinces were captured by the Austrians in 1813, and absorbed by the Austrian Empire following the Congress of Vienna in 1815. This led to formation of the Kingdom of Dalmatia and restoration of the Croatian Littoral to the Kingdom of Croatia, now both under the same crown.^[36]

The 1830s and 1840s saw romantic nationalism inspired the Croatian National Revival, a political and cultural campaign advocating unity of all South Slavs in the empire. Its primary focus was establishment of a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian, along with promotion of Croatian literature and culture.^[37] During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 Croatia sided with the Austrians, Ban Josip Jelačić helping defeat the Hungarian forces in 1849, and ushering a period of Germanization policy.^[38] By the 1860s, failure of the policy became apparent, leading to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and creation of a personal union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. The treaty left the issue of Croatia's status to Hungary, and the status was resolved by the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868, when kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united.^[39] The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control, while Rijeka retained the status of Corpus separatum introduced in 1779.^[28] After Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina following the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, the Croatian Military Frontier was abolished and the territory returned to Croatia in 1881,^[30] pursuant to provisions of the Croatian-Hungarian settlement.^[40][41] Renewed efforts to reform Austria-Hungary, entailing federalisation with Croatia as a federal unit, were stopped by advent of World War I.^[42]

Kingdom of Yugoslavia and World War II[link]

HSS leader Stjepan Radić

On 29 October 1918 the Croatian Sabor declared independence and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs,^[29] which in turn entered into union with the Kingdom of Serbia on 4 December 1918 to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.^[43] The 1921 constitution defining the country as a unitary state and abolition of historical administrative divisions effectively ended Croatian autonomy. The new constitution was opposed by the most widely supported national political party—the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS) led by Stjepan Radić.^[44] The political situation deteriorated further as Radić was assassinated in the National Assembly in 1928, leading to the dictatorship of King Alexander in January 1929.^[45] The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitarian constitution, and changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia.^[46] The HSS, now led by Vladko Maček, continued to advocate federalization of Yugoslavia, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia. The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban.^[47]

Resistance leader and Yugoslav president Marshal Josip Broz Tito

In April 1941, Yugoslavia was occupied by Germany and Italy. Following the invasion the territory, parts of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the region of Syrmia were incorporated into the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a Nazi-backed puppet state. Parts of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy and the northern Croatian regions of Baranja and Međimurje were annexed by Hungary.^[48] The NDH regime was led by Ante Pavelić and ultranationalist Ustaše. The regime introduced anti-semitic laws and conducted a campaign of ethnic cleansing and genocide against Serb and Roma inhabitants of the NDH, exemplified by the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška concentration camps.^[49] It is estimated that out of 39,000 Jews in the country only 9,000 survived; the rest were either killed or deported to Germany, both by the local authorities and the German Army itself.^[50] Croatian and Serbian sources disagree on the exact figures.^[51] Furthermore a total of around 320,000 to 334,000 Serbs were estimated to have been killed in the territory of present-day Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina—roughly corresponding to NDH territory, of all causes - either by the regime, as members of armed resistance, or as Axis collaborators.^[52] In total the estimated number of Serb casualties throughout Yugoslavia in the war was around 537,000.^[52] At the same time, around 200,000 Croats were estimated to have been killed during World War II, likewise in various roles.^{[51][52][clarification needed]}

A resistance movement soon emerged. On 22 June 1941^[53] the 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment was formed near Sisak, as the first military unit formed by a resistance movement in occupied Europe.^[54] This sparked the beginning of the Yugoslav Partisan movement, a communist multi-ethnic anti-fascist resistance group led by Josip Broz Tito.^[55] The movement grew rapidly and at the Tehran Conference in December 1943 the Partisans gained recognition from the Allies.^[56] With Allied support in logistics, equipment, training and air power, and with the assistance of Soviet troops taking part in the 1944 Belgrade Offensive, Partisans gained control of Yugoslavia and border regions of Italy and Austria by May 1945. Political aspirations of the movement were reflected in the ZAVNOH (National Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Croatia), which developed in 1943 as the bearer of Croatian statehood and later transformed into the Parliament of Croatia in 1945, and AVNOJ—its counterpart at Yugoslav level.^[57][58]

Federal Yugoslavia and independence[link]

A Yugoslav tank destroyed during the Battle of Vukovar

After the World War II, Croatia became a single-party Socialist federal unit of the SFR Yugoslavia, ruled by the Communists, but enjoying a degree of autonomy within the federation. In 1967, Croatian authors and linguists published a Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language demanding greater autonomy for Croatian language.^[59] The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and decentralization of the Yugoslav economy, culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971, suppressed by Yugoslav leadership.^[60] Still, the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units, basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring, and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents.^[61]

In the 1980s the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated with national tension fanned by the 1986 Serbian SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro.^[62][63] In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation.^[64] In the same year, the first multi-party elections were held in Croatia, with Franjo Tuđman's win raising nationalist tensions further.^[65] Serbs in Croatia left Sabor and declared the autonomy of areas that would soon become the unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina, intent on achieving independence from Croatia.^[66][67] As tensions rose, Croatia declared independence in June 1991, however the declaration came into effect on 8 October 1991.^[68][69]

The tensions escalated into the Croatian War of Independence when the Yugoslav National Army and various Serb paramilitaries attacked Croatia.^[70] By the end of 1991, a high intensity war fought along a wide front reduced Croatia to control of about two-thirds of its territory.^[71][72] On 15 January 1992, Croatia gained diplomatic recognition by the European Economic Community members, and subsequently the United Nations.^[73][74] The war effectively ended in 1995 with a decisive victory by Croatia in August 1995.^[75] The remaining occupied areas were restored to Croatia pursuant to the Erdut Agreement of November 1995, with the process concluded in January 1998.^[76]

Geography[link]

Topographic map of Croatia

Croatia is located in Central and Southeast Europe, bordering Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the south-east, Montenegro to the south-east, the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and Slovenia to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E. Part of the territory in the extreme south surrounding Dubrovnik is a practical exclave connected to the rest of the mainland by territorial waters, but separated on land by a short coastline strip belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum.^[77]

The territory covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles), consisting of 56,414 square kilometres (21,782 square miles) of land and 128 square kilometres (49 square miles) of water. It is the 127th largest country in the world.^[1] Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Dinaric Alps with the highest point of the Dinara peak at 1,831 metres (6,007 feet) near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina in the south^[1] to the shore of the Adriatic Sea which makes up its entire south-west border. Insular Croatia consists of over a thousand islands and islets varying in size, 48 of which are permanently inhabited. The largest islands are Cres and Krk,^[1] each of them having an area of around 405 km².

The hilly northern parts of Hrvatsko Zagorje and the flat plains of Slavonia in the east (which is part of the Pannonian Basin) are traversed by major rivers such as Sava, Drava, Kupa and Danube. The Danube, Europe's second longest river, runs through the city of Vukovar in the extreme east and forms part of the border with Serbia. The central and southern regions near the Adriatic coastline and islands consist of low mountains and forested highlands. Natural resources found in the country in quantities significant enough for production include oil, coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, gypsum, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt and hydropower.^[1]

Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps.^[78] There are a number of deep caves in Croatia, 49 of which are deeper than 250 m (820.21 ft), 14 of them deeper than 500 m (1,640.42 ft) and three deeper than 1,000 m (3,280.84 ft). Croatia's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes, a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades. The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colours, ranging from turquoise to mint green, grey or blue.^[79]

Climate[link]

Plitvice Lakes National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification. Mean monthly temperature ranges between −3 °C (27 °F) (in January) and 18 °C (64 °F) (in July). The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar where snowy forested climate is found at elevations above 1,200 metres (3,900 feet). The warmest areas of Croatia are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterized by the Mediterranean climate, as the temperature highs are moderated by the sea. Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas—the lowest temperature of −35.5 °C (−31.9 °F) was recorded on 3 February 1919 in Čakovec, and the highest temperature of 42.4 °C (108.3 °F) was recorded on 5 July 1950 in Karlovac.^[77]

Mean annual precipitation ranges between 600 millimetres (24 inches) and 3,500 millimetres (140 inches) depending on geographic region and prevailing climate type. The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands (Vis, Lastovo, Biševo, Svetac) and in the eastern parts of Slavonia, however in the latter case, it is mostly occurring during the growing season. The maximum precipitation levels are observed on the Dinara mountain range and in Gorski kotar. Prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest, and in the coastal area prevailing winds are determined by local area features. Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast, generally as bura or less frequently as sirocco. The sunniest parts of the country are the outer islands, Hvar and Korčula, where more than 2700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year, followed by the southern Adriatic Sea area in general, northern Adriatic coast, and Slavonia, all with more than 2000 hours of sunshine per year.^[77]