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• 
  

• 
  Alsace
  Alsace (French: Alsace [alzas]; Alsatian: Elsàss [ˈɛlsɑs]; German: Elsass, pre-1996: Elsaß, IPA: [ˈɛlzas]; Latin: Alsatia) is the fifth-smallest of the 27 regions of France in land area (8,280 km²), and the smallest in metropolitan France. It is also the seventh-most densely populated region in France and third most densely populated region in metropolitan France, with ca. 220 inhabitants per km² (total population in 2006: 1,815,488; 1 January 2008 estimate: 1,836,000). Alsace is located on France's eastern border and on the west bank of the upper Rhine adjacent to Germany and Switzerland. The political, economic and cultural capital as well as largest city of Alsace is Strasbourg. Because that city is the seat of dozens of international organizations and bodies, Alsace is politically one of the most important regions in the European Union.
  The name "Alsace" can be traced back to the Old High German Ali-saz or Elisaz, meaning "foreign domain". An alternative explanation derives it from a Germanic Ell-sass, meaning "seated on the Ill", a river in Alsace. The region was historically part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was gradually annexed by France in the 17th century under kings Louis XIII and Louis XIV and made one of the provinces of France. Alsace is frequently mentioned in conjunction with Lorraine, because German possession of parts of these two régions (as the imperial province Alsace-Lorraine, 1871–1918) was contested in the 19th and 20th centuries, during which Alsace changed hands four times between France and Germany in 75 years.
  
  wn.com/Alsace
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  Ambleteuse
  Coordinates: 50°48′37″N 1°36′26″E / 50.8103°N 1.6072°E / 50.8103; 1.6072
  Ambleteuse is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France.
  Ambleteuse began as a hamlet of a few huts in the middle of the dunes, from which the derisory name of “carcahuttes" (huts made from old-boat hulls) was once given to its inhabitants by their neighbors at Audresselles. The reason for its existence relates to the temporary needs of various invaders for conquering people from either side of the English Channel. Ambleteuse is one of the candidates for the harbour that Julius Caesar used to set out from for his invasion of Britain in 54 BC, though Boulogne-sur-Mer is the more usually accepted site.
  The origin of the name of Ambleteuse remains uncertain. Some scholars claim it has Celtic origins ( Ambleat), but that does not exclude the etymology "Hamel Thuys", a name given by the Saxons in the 6th century, as they too used the harbour when they emigrated to Great Britain.
  Henry VIII of England had two forts built here in 1546 to maintain a show of power towards the French kings. Ambleteuse was chosen to provide an alternative harbour, and was called the 'Newhaven.' The other fort at nearby Cap Gris Nez, was called the 'Blackness.' The forces of Henry II of France eventually conquered them in 1549. Henry, having killed all the English prisoners, then found a stock of coal in the fort. This was the first time that its use was noted on the continent.
  
  wn.com/Ambleteuse
• 
  Antibes
  Coordinates: 43°34′51″N 7°07′26″E / 43.5808°N 7.1239°E / 43.5808; 7.1239
  Antibes ( /ɒnˈtiːb/, French: [ɑ̃. tib]; Provençal Occitan: Antíbol in classical norm or Antibo in Mistralian norm) is a resort town in the Alpes-Maritimes department in southeastern France.
  It lies on the Mediterranean in the Côte d'Azur, located between Cannes and Nice. The town of Juan-les-Pins is within the commune of Antibes. The Sophia-Antipolis technology park is northwest of Antibes.
  Antibes was founded as a 5th century BC Greek colony settled by Phocaeans from Massilia, called Ἀντίπολις, Antípolis (literally, the "city across"). Due to its naturally protected port, the town of Antibes has long been an important trading centre.
  Rome gradually increased its hold over the Mediterranean coast and in 43 BC, Antipolis was officially incorporated in the propraetorial (senatorial from 27 BC) province of Gallia Narbonensis in which it remained for the next 500 years. Antipolis grew into the largest town in the region and a main entry point into Gaul. Roman artifacts such as aqueducts, fortified walls and amphoræ can still be seen today.
  
  wn.com/Antibes
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  Arras
  Coordinates: 50°17′23″N 2°46′51″E / 50.2897°N 2.7808°E / 50.2897; 2.7808
  Arras (French pronunciation: [aʁɑːs]; Dutch: Atrecht) is the capital of the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France on the Scarpe river. The historic centre of the Artois region, its local speech is characterized as a Picard dialect. Unlike many French words, the final "s" in the name should be pronounced.
  Arras was founded on the hill of Baudimont by the Belgic tribe of the Atrebates, who named it Nemetacum or Nemetocenna in reference to a nemeton (sacred grove) that probably existed there. It was later renamed Atrebatum by the Romans, under whom it became an important garrison town.
  The town's people were converted to Christianity in the late 4th century by Saint Inoccent, who was killed in 410 during a barbarian attack on the town. Around 130 years later, St. Vedast (also known as St. Vaast) established an episcopal see in the town and a monastic community, which developed during the Carolingian period into the immensely wealthy Benedictine Abbey of St. Vaast. The modern town of Arras initially grew up around the abbey as a grain market. Both town and abbey suffered during the 9th century from the attacks of the Vikings, who later settled to the west in Normandy. The abbey revived its strength in the 11th century and played an important role in the development of medieval painting, successfully synthesising the artistic styles of Carolingian, Ottonian and English art.
  
  wn.com/Arras
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  Auxonne
  Coordinates: 47°11′41″N 5°23′19″E / 47.1947°N 5.3886°E / 47.1947; 5.3886
  Auxonne is a commune in the Côte-d'Or department in Bourgogne in eastern France.
  Auxonne is one of the sites of the defensive structures of Vauban, clearly seen from the train bridge as it enters the Auxonne SNCF train station on the Dijon - Besançon train line. It also was home to the Artillery School where Napoleon received his first training.
  It is sister-city with Heidesheim in Germany.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Auxonne
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  Barrage Vauban
  The Barrage Vauban (Vauban weir) is a weir erected in the 17th century on the river Ill west of the "Petite France" district in Strasbourg. It was constructed from 1686 to 1700 by the French Engineer Jacques Tarade according to plans by Vauban. Several stories high, it houses sculptures in its main level and a panoramical terrace on its roof.
  Coordinates: 48°34′46″N 7°44′17″E / 48.57944°N 7.73806°E / 48.57944; 7.73806
  
  wn.com/Barrage_Vauban
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  Barraux
  Coordinates: 45°26′07″N 5°58′42″E / 45.4353°N 5.9783°E / 45.4353; 5.9783
  Barraux is a commune in the Isère department in southeastern France.
  It includes the hamlets of Le Fayet, La Gache, and the 15th century fort, Fort Barraux.
  
  
  Barraux has the village of Chapareillan to the north; La Buissiere, Le Boissieu and La Flachere to the south; Pontcharra to the east and Sainte-Marie-du-Mont, on the Plateau des Petites Roches to the west. It is situated in the valley of the Gresivaudan through which the Isère river flows.
  The inhabitants of Barraux are called Barrolins.
  The village of Barraux was probably founded as part of the supply chain to feed the fort Barraux built by Charles Emmanuel II to act as a border fort. In 1985 the fort was given back to the village of Barraux, from the French army.
  Fort Saint Barthélémy (eventually Fort Barraux) is the oldest fort using bastions in France. It was built in 1597 and its aspect changed very little over the past 400 years as the general layout invented by the Piedmontese architect Ercole Negro will be left almost intact by its followers: A fortress with an extended star shape with a narrow end, including many bastions and advanced ditches.
  
  wn.com/Barraux
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  Bayonne
  Coordinates: 43°29′37″N 1°28′30″W / 43.4936°N 1.475°W / 43.4936; -1.475
  Bayonne (French pronunciation: [bajɔn]; Gascon and Basque: Baiona) is a city and commune in south-western France at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers, in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department, of which it is a sub-prefecture. It belongs to both vernacular cultural regions of Basque Country and Gascony.
  Together with nearby Anglet, Biarritz, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, and several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an urban area with 178,965 inhabitants at the 1999 census, 40,078 of whom lived in the city of Bayonne proper (44,300 as of 2004 estimates).
  The communes of Bayonne, Biarritz, and Anglet have joined into an intercommunal entity called the Agglomération Côte Basque-Adour (formerly Communauté d'agglomération de Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz (BAB) prior to 2010).
  In the 3rd century AD, the area was the site of a Roman castrum, named Lapurdum. It was a military site, but not a port. In 840, the Vikings appeared before Lapurdum. In 842, with their chieftain Björn Ironside they launched a large-scale inland offensive and settled outside the city on the river bank^{[citation needed]}. Lapurdum was an oppidum and they needed a port. Bayonne (from Basque ibai, "river") became a key place on the route between the Adour and Ebro Rivers, which served as a kind of link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.^{[citation needed]} This commercial route was the main goal of Danish invaders in France. By this route, they could easily reach Muslim-controlled Tortosa, which was the main marketplace in Europe dealing with slaves.^{[citation needed]}
  
  wn.com/Bayonne
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  Bazoches
  Coordinates: 47°22′39″N 3°47′15″E / 47.37750°N 3.78750°E / 47.37750; 3.78750
  Bazoches is a commune in the Nièvre department in central France.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Bazoches
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  Belfort
  Coordinates: 47°38′30″N 6°51′00″E / 47.6417°N 6.85°E / 47.6417; 6.85
  Belfort (French pronunciation: [bɛl.fɔʁ-]) is a city in north-east France in the Franche-Comté région, situated between Lyon and Strasbourg. It is the biggest town and the administrative town of the Territoire de Belfort département in the Franche-Comté region. Belfort is located at 400 km (249 mi) from Paris, 141 km (88 mi) from Strasbourg, 290 km (180 mi) from Lyon and 150 km (93 mi) from Zürich. The residents of the city are called ‘’Belfortains’’. It is located on the Savoureuse, on the strategically important natural route between the Rhine and the Rhône – the Belfort Gap (Trouée de Belfort) or Burgundian Gate (Porte de Bourgogne). The city of Belfort has 50,199 inhabitants. Together with its suburbs and satellite towns, Belfort forms the largest agglomeration (metropolitan area) in Franche-Comté region with an urban population of 308,601 inhabitants.
  Belfort's strategic location, in a natural gap between the Vosges and the Jura, on a route linking the Rhine and the Rhône, has attracted human settlement and made it a target for armies.
  
  wn.com/Belfort
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  Bergues
  Coordinates: 50°58′09″N 2°26′06″E / 50.9692°N 2.435°E / 50.9692; 2.435
  Bergues (Dutch: Sint-Winoksbergen) is a commune in the Nord department in northern France.
  It is situated 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) to the south of Dunkirk and 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from the Belgian border. Locally it is referred to as "the other Bruges in Flanders". Bergues is a setting for the 2008 movie Welcome to the Sticks (French original title Bienvenue chez les Ch'tis).
  The town's name derives from the Flemish groene berg, which means "green hill". According to legend, St. Winnoc, son of the Breton king, retired to Groenberg, a hill on the edge of the coastal marshes. His establishment soon developed into a small monastery.
  In 882, when the Normans began their incursions, the Flanders count Baudouin II built primitive fortifications. Later, about 1022, count Baudouin IV built Saint-Winnoc church and interred the relics of St. Winnoc there. This church formed the basis of an abbey.
  Trade was aided by proximity to the sea, which had not yet receded to Dunkirk, and the abbey. Bergues was chartered in 1240, and its independence was later expressed in the construction of a belfry. It became a port and textile center of regional importance, and part of the Hanseatic League. Its wool market began in 1276 and over the following centuries it was fortified and maintained its independence from France. In 1583, Bergues was besieged and conquered by Alexander Farnese, but king Philip II of Spain allowed it to be rebuilt, establishing the present appearance of the town. Bergues became a major port city and eventually was attached to France by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668. Louis XIV later developed Dunkirk, and Bergues was eclipsed as a major port. After the French Revolution, its decline continued.
  
  wn.com/Bergues
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  Besançon
  Coordinates: 47°14′35″N 6°01′19″E / 47.2431°N 6.0219°E / 47.2431; 6.0219
  Besançon (French and Arpitan: [bəzɑ̃sɔ̃]; archaic German: Bisanz, Spanish: Besanzón), is the capital and principal city of the Franche-Comté region in eastern France. It had a population of about 237,000 inhabitants in the metropolitan area in 2008. Located close to the border with Switzerland, it is the capital of the department of Doubs.
  Once proclaimed first green city of France, it has been labeled a 'Town of Art and History' since 1986, and has been on the UNESCO world heritage list since 2008.
  The city is first recorded in 58 BC as Vesontio in the Book I of Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico. The etymology of Vesontio is uncertain. The most common explanation is that the name is of Celtic origin, derivated from wes, meaning 'mountain'. During the 4th century, the letter B took the place of the V, and the city name changed to Besontio or Bisontion and then underwent several transformation to become Besançon in 1243.
  
  wn.com/Besançon
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  Bitche
  Coordinates: 49°03′09″N 7°25′33″E / 49.0525°N 7.4258°E / 49.0525; 7.4258
  Bitche (German: Bitsch) is a commune in the Moselle department in Lorraine in north-eastern France.
  It is known for its large citadel. The surrounding territory is known as le Pays de Bitche in French and Bitscherland in German.
  Bitche is located near the German border on the small river Horn, at the foot of the northern slope of the Vosges between Haguenau and Sarreguemines.
  There is a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, a classical school and an academy of forestry. The town of Bitche, which was formed of the villages of Rohr and Kaltenhausen in the 17th century, derives its name from the old stronghold (mentioned in 1172 as Bytis Castrum) standing on a rock some 80 m. above the town. This had long given its name to the countship of Bitsch, which was originally in the possession of the dukes of Lorraine. In 1297 it passed by marriage to Eberhard I of Zweibrücken, whose line became extinct in 1569, when the countship reverted to Lorraine. It passed with that duchy to France in 1766.
  
  wn.com/Bitche
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  Blaye
  Coordinates: 45°07′43″N 0°39′40″W / 45.1286°N 0.6611°W / 45.1286; -0.6611
  Blaye is a commune and subprefecture in the Gironde department in Aquitaine in southwestern France.
  Its inhabitants are called Blayais or the Blayaises.
  Blaye is located on the right bank of the Gironde estuary (which is some 3 km (1.9 mi) wide at this point), close to the A10 autoroute, 56 km (35 mi) north of Bordeaux. There is a rail line with occasional freight trains, but no passenger services. A small ferry crosses the Gironde to Lamarque, in Medoc.
  In ancient times Blaye (Blavia) was a port of the Santones. Tradition states that the Frankish hero Roland was buried in its basilica, which was on the site of the citadel. It was early an important stronghold which played an important part in the wars against the English (who burnt it in 1352) and the French Wars of Religion (when it was the site of a Spanish naval victory in 1593). The duchess of Berry was imprisoned in its fortress in 1832-1833.
  The town was formerly named Blaye-et-Sainte-Luce and was renamed Blaye in June 1961.
  
  wn.com/Blaye
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  Bouchain
  Coordinates: 50°17′04″N 3°19′04″E / 50.2844°N 3.3178°E / 50.2844; 3.3178
  Bouchain is a commune in the Nord department in northern France.
  It lies halfway between Cambrai and Valenciennes. Bouchain is a former part of the County of Hainaut.
  It is twinned with Halesworth and Eitorf
  
  Halesworth and Eitorf are twinned with Bouchain.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Bouchain
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  Briançon
  Coordinates: 44°53′47″N 6°38′08″E / 44.8964°N 6.6356°E / 44.8964; 6.6356
  Briançon (Latin: Brigantium) a commune in the Hautes-Alpes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southeastern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department.
  At an altitude of 1,326 metres it is the highest city in the European Union, based on the French definition as a community containing more than 2,000 inhabitants. Briançon's most recent population estimate is 11,645.
  Briançon is built on a plateau nucleated around the confluence of the Durance and the Guisane rivers.
  Briançon was the Brigantium of the Romans and formed part of the kingdom of King Cottius. Brigantium was marked as the first place in Gallia after Alpis Cottia (Mont Genèvre). At Brigantium the road branched, to the west through Grenoble to Vienna (modern Vienne), on the Rhone; to the south through Ebrodunum (modern Embrun), to Vapincum (modern Gap). Both the Antonine Itinerary and the Table give the route from Brigantium to Vapincum. The Table places Brigantium 6 M.P. from Alpis Cottia. Strabo mentions the village Brigantium, and on a road to Alpis Cottia, but his words are obscure. Ptolemy mentions Brigantium as within the limits of the Segusini, or people of Segusio (modern Susa), in Piedmont; but it seems, as D'Anville observes, to be beyond the natural limits of the Segusini. Walckenaer (vol. i. p. 540) justifies Ptolemy in this matter by supposing that he follows a description of Italy made before the new divisions of Augustus, which we know from Pliny. Walckenaer also supports his justification of Ptolemy by the Jerusalem Itinerary, which makes the Alpes Cottiae commence at Rama (near modern La Roche-de-Rame) between Embrun and Briançon.
  
  wn.com/Briançon
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  Calais
  Calais (/ˈkæleɪ/ CAL-ay, traditionally /ˈkælɨs/; French pronunciation: [ka'lɛ]; Dutch: Kales) is a town and major ferry port in Northern France in the department of Pas-de-Calais, of which it is a sub-prefecture. Although Calais is by far the largest city in Pas-de-Calais, the department's capital is its third-largest city of Arras. The population of the metropolitan area at the 1999 census was 125,584. Calais overlooks the Strait of Dover, the narrowest point in the English Channel, which is only 34 km (21 mi) wide here, and is the closest French town to England. The White Cliffs of Dover can easily be seen on a clear day from Calais. Calais is a major port for ferries between France and England, and since 1994 the Channel Tunnel has linked to nearby Coquelles from Folkestone by rail.
  Due to its position, Calais since the Middle Ages has been a major port and a very important centre for transport and trading with England. It was annexed by Edward III of England in 1347 and grew into a thriving centre for wool production and Calais was a territorial possession of England until its capture by France in 1558. The town came to be called the "brightest jewel in the English crown" owing to its great importance as the gateway for the tin, lead, lace and wool trades (or "staples"). In 1805 it was a staging area for Napoleon's troops for several months during his planned invasion of the United Kingdom. The town was virtually razed to the ground during World War II, when in May 1940, it was a strategic bombing target of the invading German forces who took the town during the Siege of Calais. During World War II, the Germans built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on England.
  
  wn.com/Calais
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  Cambrai
  Coordinates: 50°10′36″N 3°14′08″E / 50.1767°N 3.2356°E / 50.1767; 3.2356
  Cambrai ([kɑ̃bʁɛ]; Dutch: Kamerijk; German: Kamerich; old spelling Cambray) is a commune in the Nord department in northern France on the Escaut river. It is a sub-prefecture of the department.
  Cambrai is the seat of an archdiocese whose jurisdiction was immense during the Middle Ages. The territory of the Bishopric of Cambrai, roughly coinciding with the shire of Brabant, included the central part of the Low Countries. The bishopric had some limited secular power.
  Cambrai was the Duke of Wellington's headquarters, for the British Army of Occupation, from 1815 to 1818.
  The Battle of Cambrai (20 November 1917 – 3 December 1917), a campaign of World War I took place there. It was noted for the first successful use of tanks. A second Battle of Cambrai took place between 8 October 1918 – 10 October 1918 as part of the Hundred Days Offensive.
  Little is known with certainty of the beginnings of Cambrai. Camaracum or Camaraco, as it was known to the Romans, is mentioned for the first time on the Peutinger table in the middle of the 4th century. It was a town of the Nervii, whose "capital" was at Bagacum, present-day Bavay.
  
  wn.com/Cambrai
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  Château de Lusignan
  The Château de Lusignan (in Lusignan, Vienne département, France) was the seat of the Lusignan family, Poitevin Marcher Lords, who distinguished themselves in the First Crusade and held the crowns of two Crusader kingdoms, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Kingdom of Cyprus, and even claimed the title King of Armenia.
  Lusignan was constructed in the region of Poitou, occupying a natural strongpoint: a narrow promontory that overlooked steep valleys on either side. It was already so impressive in the 12th century that a legend developed to the effect that its founder had faery aid, in the guise of the water spirit Melusine, who built it and its church through her arts, as a gift for her husband Raymondin.
  Lusignan at its height, just as it was in the early 15th century, is illustrated in the Très Riches Heures of Jean, duc de Berri, for whom it was a favorite residence until his death in 1416. It rises in the background of the miniature for the month of March (see illustration), clearly shown in perspective, with its barbican tower at the left, the clock tower — with the exterior chute of the garderobe to its right — and the Tour Poitevine on the right, above which the gilded dragon flies, the protective spirit of Marc Lacombe. After the duc de Berri's death, Lusignan became briefly the property of John, Dauphin (died May 1417) and then passed to his brother, Charles, the future Charles VII.
  
  wn.com/Château_de_Lusignan
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  Citadel of Besançon
  The Citadel of Besançon in Franche-Comté, France, is one of the military architect Vauban's masterpieces. The Citadel occupies eleven hectares on Mount Saint-Etienne, one of the seven hills that protect Besançon, the capital of Franche-Comté. Mount Saint-Etienne occupies the neck of an ox-bow formed by the river Doubs, giving the site a strategic importance that Julius Caesar recognized as early as 58 BC. The Citadel overlooks the old quarter of the city, which is located within the ox-bow, and offers a magnificent view of the entire city and its surroundings.
  The fortification is well preserved. Today it is an important tourist site (over a quarter of a million visitors per year) due both to its own characteristics and because it is the site of several museums. These museums include a museum of the Resistance and deportation, a museum focusing on traditional life in Franche-Comté and the region's archeological history, and a museum of natural history that includes a zoo, an insectarium, an aquarium, vivariums, a noctarium, a climatorium, a pedagogical exhibit on evolution, botanical gardens, and a children's farm. There is also a restaurant and shops.
  
  wn.com/Citadel_of_Besançon
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  Collioure
  Coordinates: 42°31′36″N 3°04′53″E / 42.5267°N 3.0814°E / 42.5267; 3.0814
  Collioure (French pronunciation: [kɔˈljuʁ]; Catalan: Cotlliure, IPA: [kuʎˈʎiwɾə]) is a commune in the Pyrénées-Orientales department in southern France.
  It lies on the Mediterranean and was a part of the ancient Roussillon province.
  Collioure AOC is also the name of a fine full-bodied red wine made of grenache and mourvedre grapes, produced here in one of the smallest AOC vineyards in France. The ancient terraced vines in the hills behind the town also provide tiny sunbaked grapes for the famous Banyuls (Banyuls AOC) aperitif and desert wine.
  As the town has a strong Catalan culture, its own motto has been adopted by one of the local Catalan rugby teams (USA Perpignan, France): Sempre endavant, mai morirem (Always forward, We'll never die). Under Michel Moly's leadership, the town has an alternative motto, Collioure sera toujours Collioure (Collioure shall always be Collioure) quoting French singer Maurice Chevalier's famous song titled Paris sera toujours Paris.
  
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  Cézembre
  Cézembre is an island in the Ille-et-Vilaine département of France, near Saint-Malo. The island is uninhabited, with a surface area of approximately 18 hectares (44 acres), a length of 750 meters, and a width of 300 meters.
  The island features a fine sand beach facing Saint-Malo on the south, and a steep and rocky coast around the rest of the island.
  Cézembre was inhabited by a number of hermits over the centuries, and featured a monastery for a time. Vauban fortified the island at the end of the 17th century, and it was used thereafter as a place of quarantine.
  During World War I, the Belgian Army installed a disciplinary company on Cézembre. During World War II, the island's fortifications were strengthened by the Germans and Italians as part of the Atlantic Wall. The Normandy campaign in the summer of 1944 saw the German-Italian garrison heavily bombarded by land artillery, naval artillery, and air strikes, including some of the first uses of napalm bombs. The island surrendered to elements of the U.S. 83rd Infantry Division at the beginning of September, 1944.
  
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  Douai
  Coordinates: 50°22′17″N 3°04′48″E / 50.3714°N 3.08°E / 50.3714; 3.08
  Douai (Dutch: Dowaai) is a commune in the Nord département in northern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department. Located on the river Scarpe some 40 km from Lille and 25 km from Arras, Douai is home to one of the region's most impressive belfries. The population of the metropolitan area, including Lens, was 552,682 in 1999.
  The main industries in the town are in the chemical and metal engineering sectors. Renault has a large vehicle assembly plant near the town, which has produced many well known Renault vehicles, such as the R14, R11, R19, and the Megane and Scenic of today.
  The Gare de Douai railway station is served by regional trains towards Lille, Amiens, Saint-Quentin and Valenciennes.
  Its site probably corresponds to that of a 4th century Roman fortress known as Duacum. From 10th century the town was a romance fiefdom of the counts of Flanders. The town became a flourishing textile market centre during the Middle Ages, historically known as Douay or Doway in English. In 1384, the county of Flanders passed into the domains of the Dukes of Burgundy and thence in 1477 into Habsburg possessions.
  
  wn.com/Douai
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  Dunkirk
  Coordinates: 51°02′18″N 2°22′39″E / 51.0383°N 2.377500°E / 51.0383; 2.377500
  Dunkirk (French: Dunkerque, pronounced: [dœ̃kɛʁk]; Dutch: Duinkerke(n) [ˈdœynkɛrkə(n)] ( listen); Flemish: [ˈdyŋkarkə] ( listen)) is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the Belgian border. The population of the city (commune) at the 1999 census was 70,850 inhabitants (71,300 inhabitants as per February 2004 estimates). The population of the metropolitan area was 265,974 inhabitants as per the 1999 census.
  The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish "dun(e)" (dune) and "kerke" (church). Until the middle of the 20th century the city was situated in the French Flemish area; today the local Flemish dialect, a variety of the Dutch language, can still be found but has been largely replaced by French.
  Dunkirk was first mentioned in 1067 as Dunkirk (Dutch: “Church of the Dune” or "Dune Church").^{[citation needed]}
  The area was much disputed between Spain, the Netherlands, England and France.
  
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  Entrevaux
  Coordinates: 43°56′58″N 6°48′39″E / 43.9494°N 6.8108°E / 43.9494; 6.8108
  Entrevaux is a commune in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department in southeastern France.
  Set on both sides of the narrow road between Annot and Puget-Théniers that runs alongside the gorge of the river Var, the mediaeval walled town lies in the shadow of a mountaintop citadel.
  Following incursions of Saracens and the razing of the old town of Glandèves, the more defensible site of mediaeval Entrevaux was founded in the 11th century on the rocky spur in an angle of the river; the oldest recorded name is Interrivos and dates from 1040.
  Between 1481 and 1487, Provence became a part of France.
  In 1536, Entrevaux fell to the troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, betrayed by its lord Jacques Glandeves; half the population was massacred (coll.). The remaining population staged an uprising, cutting the throat of the governor, and offered the town to the French Dauphin, King François I. In recognition of this, Entrevaux was given the Charter of Avignon and declared a royal town of France and its inhabitants exempt from taxation (Le Monti).
  
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  Fort Carré
  Fort Carré is a 16th-century fort on the outskirts of Antibes, France. During the 17th century, the fort was redeveloped by the Marquis de Vauban.
  Fortifications at Antibes were probably first built by the Romans. In 1553, a tower called la tour Saint-Florent was built around a preexisting chapel. Henry III had four bastions added in 1565, whereupon it became Fort Carré (the squared fort). In the 1680's, Vauban strengthened Fort Carré, adding traverses to protect against ricochet fire and exchanging the stone parapets, which were liable to scatter deadly splinters when hit by shot, for brick ones.
  Vauban also enlarged the embrasures and added outer walls to the fortification. After Vauban's work, the fort was designed to take eighteen cannon. The entrance to the fort is through a triangular work that protrudes from the walls, which is loopholed and pierced by a heavy wooden door. From here, there is a narrow bridge that leads into the fort itself via the flank of one of the arrow headed bastions. Inside, there are barrack buildings for officers and men as well as the ancient chapel, which has been preserved through the successive stages of military development of the site.
  
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  Fort de Bellegarde
  The Fort de Bellegarde is a 17th century fortification located above the town of Le Perthus, in the Pyrénées-Orientales département of southern France.
  Le Perthus became French territory after the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). Bellegarde was captured by the Spaniards in 1674, but retaken by Schomberg in 1675.
  In 1678, Vauban's plans for the new fortress of Bellegarde were approved.
  During the War of the Pyrenees, the fortress was besieged in May - June 1793 by the Spanish and then by the French (May - Sept. 1794).
  During World War II the fort was used as a holding prison by the Gestapo for escaped prisoners of war and enemy agents.
  The fort is open to the public between June and September only and includes exhibits on the history of the fort, its archaeology and the surrounding area. The property of the state, it has been listed since 1967 as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture.
  Coordinates: 42°27′31″N 2°51′33″E / 42.45861°N 2.85917°E / 42.45861; 2.85917
  
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  Fort de Joux
  The Fort de Joux or Château de Joux is a castle, transformed into a fort, located in La Cluse-et-Mijoux, in the Doubs département, in the Jura mountains of France. It commands the mountain pass "Cluse de Pontarlier".
  During its long history, Fort de Joux has gone through successive transformations. The first structure, in the 11th century, was made of wood. In the next century the lords of Joux rebuilt it in stone. It passed, along with all of Franche-Comté, into the hands of Burgundy, and then the Hapsburgs and the Spanish. It was finally regained for France in 1687 by Louis XIV.
  While others have improved or at least repaired the castle during the course of its history, Fort de Joux's most famous remodeler was Vauban, who modernized it in 1690. The Austrians captured it in 1814. Later, the construction of the forts at Larmont during the 19th century provided reinforcement. In 1879, Captain (later General) Joffre, then a military engineering officer, modernised it and transformed it into a fort.
  
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  Givet
  Coordinates: 50°08′20″N 4°49′30″E / 50.1389°N 4.825°E / 50.1389; 4.825
  Givet (French pronunciation: [ʒi.vɛ]) is a commune in the Ardennes department in northern France very close to the Belgian border. It lies on the river Meuse where Emperor Charles V built the fortress of Charlemont.
  Later on, another building was added to the fort, the Caserne Rougé, the longest barracks of France at that time, named after Pierre François, Marquis de Rougé, general of the French armies k.a. 1761.
  The town's history claims that Saint Hubert lived there in 720 and performed a miracle. The town has changed hands several times since the Roman era before becoming part of France in 1678, and was later invaded by Russians and Germans.
  In World War II, Givet was occupied by the Germans on May 12, 1940. The city was liberated September 7, 1944. By December 1944, 11,000 American soldiers were billeted in the ancient Charlemont fortress. The German Ardennes Offensive targeted Givet and its crossing of the Meuse. The British, under Montgomery, organized a last-ditch defense, and on 24 December, the German drive was stopped about 10 kilometers from Givet.
  
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  Gravelines
  Coordinates: 50°59′09″N 2°07′42″E / 50.9858°N 2.1283°E / 50.9858; 2.1283
  Gravelines (Dutch: Grevelingen) is a commune in the Nord department in northern France.
  It lies at the mouth of the river Aa 15 miles (25 km) southwest of Dunkirk. There is a market in the town square (Place Charles Valentin) on Saturdays. The "Arsenal" approached from the town square is home to an extensive and carefully displayed art collection. There are modern bronze statues in the grounds. The town is also home to French basketball club BCM Gravelines.
  In the early 12th century, Saint-Omer was an important port in western Flanders. However silting gradually cut it off from the North Sea, resulting in the construction of a canal to the new coast at what is now Gravelines. The name is derived from the Dutch Gravenenga, meaning Count's Canal. The new town became heavily fortified as it guarded the western borders of Spanish territory in Flanders.
  Gravelines was taken by Henry le Despenser's English forces during the Norwich Crusade of 1383 and was that year destroyed on his orders as the English retreated towards Calais.
  
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  Hendaye
  Coordinates: 43°21′34″N 1°46′24″W / 43.3594°N 1.7733°W / 43.3594; -1.7733
  Hendaye (Basque: Hendaia) is the most south-westerly town and commune in France, lying in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department and located in the traditional province Lapurdi (Labourd) of the French Basque Country. The town is a popular seaside tourist resort by the Atlantic coast, the "Côte Basque", lying at the same time on the right bank of the Bidassoa, which marks the border with Irún, Spain. It is currently the fifth largest commune in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques, and fourth urban area.
  The town is arranged in two distinguishable parts: on the one side, the primal nucleus stretching from the church Saint Vincent to the area around the SNCF terminus and, on the other, the quarter developed next to the beach by the ocean, with a clear tourist vocation. The latest development (Sokoburu) has taken place in the most westerly sand spit located by the mouth of the river Bidassoa.
  Hendaye acquired its independence from the Urrugne parish in 1598, when the Saint Vincent church was built. During the Franco-Spanish War, the town was briefly occupied by the Spanish, in September 1636.
  
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  Huningue
  Coordinates: 47°35′31″N 7°35′04″E / 47.5919°N 7.5844°E / 47.5919; 7.5844
  Huningue (French pronunciation: [ynɛ̃ɡ]; German: Hüningen; Alsatian: Hinige) is a commune in the Haut-Rhin department of Alsace in north-eastern France. Huningue is a northern suburb of the Swiss city of Basel. It also borders Germany (Weil am Rhein, a suburb of Basel located in Germany). In 2008 it had a population of 6503 people. The main square of the town is the Place Abbatucci, named after the Corsican-born French general Jean Charles Abbatucci who unsuccessfully defended it in 1796 against the Austrians and died here. Huningue is noted for its pisciculture and is a major producer of fish eggs,
  Huningue was first mentioned in a document in 826. Huningue was wrested from the Holy Roman Empire by the duke of Lauenburg in 1634 by the Treaty of Westphalia, and subsequently passed by purchase to Louis XIV. Louis XIV ordered the construction of the Huningue Fortress and was fortified by Vauban (1679–1681) and a bridge was built across the Rhine. Construction of the fortress required the displacement of the population on the island of Aoust and the surrounding area. In 1796 to 1797, Huningue was besieged by the Austrians.General Abbatucci held the fort for three months before being killed. In 1815, Napoleon's army resisted three months and a half against the Bavarians. Huningue was besieged for the third time in 1815 and General Barbanègre headed a garrison of only 500 men against 25,000 Austrians. At its surrender to the Habsburg Empire on August 26 1815, the city was a ruin and was dismantled at the request of Basel.
  
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  La Rochelle
  Coordinates: 46°09′33″N 1°09′06″W / 46.1591°N 1.1517°W / 46.1591; -1.1517
  La Rochelle (French pronunciation: [la ʁɔ.ʃɛl]) is a city in western France and a seaport on the Bay of Biscay, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Charente-Maritime department.
  The city is connected to the Île de Ré by a 2.9 km (1.8 mi) bridge completed on 19 May 1988. Its harbour opens into a protected strait, the Pertuis d'Antioche.
  The area of La Rochelle was occupied in antiquity by the Gallic tribe of the Santones, who gave their name to the nearby region of Saintonge and the city of Saintes.
  The Romans then occupied the area, where they developed salt production along the coast as well as wine production, which was then re-exported throughout the Empire. Roman villas have been found at Saint-Éloi and at Les Minimes, as well as salt evaporation ponds dating from the same period.
  La Rochelle was founded during the 10th century and became an important harbour in the 12th century. The establishment of La Rochelle as a harbour was a consequence of the victory of Guillaume X, Duke of Aquitaine over Isambert de Châtelaillon in 1130 and the subsequent destruction of his harbour of Châtelaillon. In 1137, Guillaume X to all intents and purposes made La Rochelle a free port and gave it the right to establish itself as a commune. Fifty years later Eleanor of Aquitaine upheld the communal charter promulgated by her father, and for the first time in France, a city mayor was appointed for La Rochelle, Guillaume de Montmirail. Guillaume was assisted in his responsibilities by 24 municipal magistrates, and 75 notables who had jurisdiction over the inhabitants. Under the communal charter, the city obtained many privileges, such as the right to mint its own coins, and to operate some businesses free of royal taxes, factors which would favour the development of the entrepreuneurial middle-class (bourgeoisie).
  
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  Le Palais
  Coordinates: 47°20′50″N 3°09′15″W / 47.3472°N 3.1542°W / 47.3472; -3.1542
  Le Palais (Breton: Porzh-Lae) is a commune in the Morbihan department of Brittany in northwestern France.
  It is one of the four communes on the island Belle Île.
  Inhabitants of Le Palais are called in French Palantins.
  
  
  
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  Le Perthus
  Coordinates: 42°27′54″N 2°51′48″E / 42.465°N 2.8633°E / 42.465; 2.8633
  Le Perthus (French pronunciation: [lə pɛʁtys], Catalan: El Pertús, IPA: [əɫ pərˈtus]) is a commune in the Pyrénées-Orientales department in southern France. Inhabitants are called Perthusiens and, as of 2006, inhabitants were 582.
  Le Perthus is situated in the historical region of Vallespir, on the borders with Catalonia, Spain. Its contiguous Spanish twin town, Els Límits (a parish of the commune of La Jonquera, in the Province of Girona), is situated in the east and south side of the urban area. Also part of the main road, Avenue de France, is both in France and Spain; and its eastern side (in Els Limits) is named Avinguda d'Espanya . Out of the main road, in which is situated the checkpoint (totally on the Spanish side), the other principal roads are Rue du Fort de Bellegarde (panoramic hill road to the fortress), Carrer del Dalt, Rue du Mas Rimbau, Calle del Correc (binational) and Rue de l'Eglise. It lies 6 km (4 mi) from La Jonquera, 14 km (9 mi) from Céret, 28 km (17 mi) from Figueres, 34 km (21 mi) from Perpignan, 64 km (40 mi) from Girona and 161 km (100 mi) from Barcelona.
  
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  Le Portel
  Coordinates: 50°42′27″N 1°34′28″E / 50.7075°N 1.5744°E / 50.7075; 1.5744
  Le Portel is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France.
  Le Portel is a tourist, fishing and light industrial town situated about 2 miles (3.2 km) southwest of Boulogne town centre, at the junction of the D236 and D119 roads. It has a beach and the white cliffs of the English coast can be seen across the sea on clear days.
  Le Portel translates as "the little port." The original Le Portel was a hamlet east of the town of Outreau. It became an independent municipality on June 13, 1856 by an imperial decree of Napoleon III.
  In the 19th century, flint tools were discovered in the centre of the village, by the river near the Hamel Bridge, evidence of the long occupation of the site. A Gallo-Roman cemetery has been excavated in the hamlet of Châtillon.
  Of agricultural origin, it grew rapidly during the 19th century because of fishing, along with the nearby port of Boulogne-sur-Mer. Sailors of Portel were as numerous as those of Boulogne before World War I. In 1841, two Le Portel sailors were on the ship Belle Poule, that brought back the remains of Napoleon.
  
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  Le Quesnoy
  Coordinates: 50°14′59″N 3°38′18″E / 50.2497°N 3.6383°E / 50.2497; 3.6383
  Le Quesnoy is a commune in the Nord department in northern France.
  Le Quesnoy's inhabitants are known as Quercitains.
  The town of Le Quesnoy has somehow missed much of the Industrial Revolution. Unlike the neighboring towns of Valenciennes or Maubeuge, iron/steel works did not take hold. The lack of wealth underground and of a major transportation route partly explains this. The authorities however took note of this weakness and proposed the Ecaillon canal from Sambre to Scheldt; considered but abandoned because of low water yield in the forest of Mormal.
  There is a craft, however, firmly maintained until 1945 when a hundred shoemakers were still identifiable. Shoemakers worked at home for a local company located in rue du Petit Valenciennes(now Désiré Tanis) in a kind of cottage industry. A glassmaking factory installed near the railway track to the site of the former Intermarché collapsed after the World War I. In the Bellevue district, the remains of a factory attest to the presence of a former pottery factory.
  
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  Leiden
  Leiden (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈlɛi̯.də(n)] ( listen); in English and archaic Dutch also Leyden) is a city and municipality in the Dutch province of South Holland. The municipality of Leiden has a population of about 120,000, but the city forms one densely connected urban area with its suburbs Oegstgeest, Leiderdorp, Voorschoten, Valkenburg, Rijnsburg and Katwijk, which have about 254,000 inhabitants combined. The larger Leiden agglomeration counts 332,000 inhabitants which makes it the sixth major agglomeration in the Netherlands. Leiden is located on the Old Rhine, at a distance of some 20 kilometers from The Hague to its south and some 40 kilometers from Amsterdam to its north. The recreational area of the Kaag Lakes (Kagerplassen) lies just to the northeast of Leiden.
  A university city since 1575, Leiden houses Leiden University and Leiden University Medical Centre. It is twinned with Oxford, the location of England's oldest university.
  It is true that Leiden is an old city, its connection with Roman Lugdunum Batavorum is true though it is actually near the close-by town of Katwijk, whereas the Roman settlement near modern Leiden was called Matilo. However, there was a Roman fortress in Leiden in the 4th century.^{[citation needed]}
  
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  Les Invalides
  Coordinates: 48°51′18″N 2°18′45″E / 48.855°N 2.3125°E / 48.855; 2.3125
  Les Invalides (French pronunciation: [lezɛ̃valid]), officially known as L'Hôtel national des Invalides (The National Residence of the Invalids), is a complex of buildings in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, France, containing museums and monuments, all relating to the military history of France, as well as a hospital and a retirement home for war veterans, the building's original purpose. The buildings house the Musée de l'Armée, the military museum of the Army of France, the Musée des Plans-Reliefs, and the Musée d'Histoire Contemporaine, as well as the burial site for some of France's war heroes, notably Napoleon Bonaparte (lists below).
  Louis XIV initiated the project by an order dated 24 November 1670, as a home and hospital for aged and unwell soldiers: the name is a shortened form of hôpital des invalides. The architect of Les Invalides was Libéral Bruant. The selected site was in the then suburban plain of Grenelle (plaine de Grenelle). By the time the enlarged project was completed in 1676, the river front measured 196 metres and the complex had fifteen courtyards, the largest being the cour d'honneur ("court of honour") for military parades. It was then felt that the veterans required a chapel. Jules Hardouin Mansart assisted the aged Bruant, and the chapel was finished in 1679 to Bruant's designs after the elder architect's death. The chapel is known as Église Saint-Louis des Invalides. Daily attendance was required.
  
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  Lille
  Coordinates: 50°38′14″N 3°03′48″E / 50.6372°N 3.0633°E / 50.6372; 3.0633
  Lille (French pronunciation: [lil] ( listen); Dutch: Rijsel) is a city in northern France (French Flanders). It is the principal city of the Lille Métropole, the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the country behind those of Paris, Lyon and Marseille. Lille is situated on the Deûle River, near France's border with Belgium. It is the capital of the Nord-Pas de Calais region and the prefecture of the Nord department.
  The city of Lille, which annexed Lomme on 27 February 2000, had a population of 226,014 at the 2006 census. Meanwhile, the Lille Métropole, which also includes Roubaix, Tourcoing and numerous suburban communities, had a population of 1,091,438. The eurodistrict of Lille-Kortrijk, which also includes the areas of the Belgian cities of Kortrijk, Tournai, Mouscron and Ypres, had 1,905,000 residents.^{[citation needed]}
  The legend of "Lydéric and Phinaert" puts the foundation of the city of "L'Isle" at 640. Although the first mention of the town appears in archives from the year 1066, some archeological digs seem to show the area as inhabited by as early as 2000 BC^{[citation needed]}, most notably in the modern-day quartiers of Fives, Wazemmes, and Old Lille.
  
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  Maastricht
  Coordinates: 50°51′4.47″N 5°41′26.65″E / 50.8512417°N 5.6907361°E / 50.8512417; 5.6907361
  Maastricht ([maːˈstʁɪçt] (southern Dutch) or [maːˈstɾɪxt] ( listen) (northern); Limburgish (incl. Maastrichtian) Mestreech [məˈstʁeːç]; French Maëstricht (archaic); Spanish Mastrique (archaic)) is a city in the Netherlands. It is located in the southern part of the Dutch province of Limburg, of which it is the capital.
  Maastricht is widely known as a city of history, culture, local folklore, education. Furthermore, it has become known, by way of the Maastricht Treaty, as the birthplace of the European Union, European citizenship, and the single European currency, the euro. The town is popular with tourists for shopping and recreation, and has a large growing international student population. Maastricht is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network.
  Maastricht is situated on both sides of the Meuse river (Dutch: Maas) in the south-eastern part of the Netherlands, on the Belgian border (with both the Dutch-speaking Flemish and French-speaking Walloon region within easy reach from the city centre) and near the German border. The city is part of the Meuse-Rhine Euroregion, the Euregio that includes Aachen, Hasselt and Liège in respectively Germany and Belgium.
  
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  Maubeuge
  Coordinates: 50°16′39″N 3°58′24″E / 50.2775°N 03.9734°E / 50.2775; 03.9734
  Maubeuge is a commune in the Nord department in northern France.
  It is situated on both banks of the Sambre (here canalized), 36 km (22 mi) east of Valenciennes and about 9 km (5.6 mi) from the Belgian border.
  Maubeuge (ancient Malbodium, from Latin, derived from the Old Frankish name Malboden, meaning "assizes of Boden") owes its origin to Maubeuge Abbey, a double monastery, for men and women, founded in the 7th century by Saint Aldego, the relics of whom are preserved in the church. It subsequently belonged to the territory of Hainaut. It was burnt by Louis XI of France, by Francis I of France, and by Henry II of France, and was finally assigned to France by the Treaty of Nijmegen.
  It was fortified by Vauban by the command of Louis XIV of France, who under Turenne first saw military service there.
  Besieged in 1793 by Prince Josias of Coburg, it was relieved by the victory of Wattignies, which is commemorated by a monument in the town. It was unsuccessfully besieged in 1814, but was compelled to capitulate, after a vigorous resistance, in the Hundred Days.
  
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  Metz
  Metz (French pronunciation: [mɛs] ( listen); German: [ˈmɛts]) is a city in the northeast of France located at the confluence of the Moselle and the Seille rivers.
  Metz is the capital of the Lorraine region and prefecture of the Moselle department. Located near the tripoint along the junction of France, Germany, and Luxembourg, Metz forms a central place of the European Greater Region and of the SaarLorLux Euroregion. So, Metz is a fellow member of the QuattroPole union of cities, along with Luxembourg City and German Saarbrücken and Trier.
  A Celtic oppidum, an important Gallo-Roman city, the Merovingian capital of the Austrasia kingdom, the birthplace of the Carolingian dynasty, a cradle of the Gregorian chant, and one of the oldest republics of the common era in Europe, Metz has a rich 3,000 year history. The city has been steeped in Romance culture, but has been strongly influenced by Germanic culture due to its location and history. A basin of urban ecology, pioneered under the leadership of people like Jean-Marie Pelt, Metz gained its nickname, The Green City, boasting over 37 m² (398 sq ft) of open ground per inhabitant and the city's historic downtown also displays one of the largest commercial, pedestrian areas in France.
  
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  Montmédy
  Coordinates: 49°31′13″N 5°22′00″E / 49.5203°N 5.3667°E / 49.5203; 5.3667
  Montmédy (French pronunciation: [mɔ̃.me.di]) is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France.
  In 1221 the first castle of Montmédy was built on top of a hill by the Count of Chiny. Montmédy soon became the capital of his territory – later it belonged to Luxembourg, Burgundy, Austria and Spain. The original castle was replaced with a fortress by Karl V in the 16th Century.
  After Marville and Stenay had been occupied by the French, 30,000 soldiers, including King Louis XIV, attacked Montmédy, whilst 756 were defending it in 1657. They held it for 57 days and surrendered only after the death of the governor Jean V of Allamont. The military engineer Vauban advanced the outer fortifications, the moats and the walls after the siege of 1657.
  During the French Revolution in 1791, the fortress was the anticipated destination of King Louis XVI and his family in their unsuccessful attempt to escape from the growing radical republicanism of Paris. The area at that time was overwhelmingly pro-monarchy. The royal party never arrived, however, because they were discovered en route at Varennes and escorted back to the capital city. The King had hoped to establish a counter-revolutionary military base of operations in the citadel from which he could reclaim the country. The citadel has also been used as a fortress during both World Wars.
  
  wn.com/Montmédy
• 
  Nijmegen
  Nijmegen (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈnɛi̯.ˌmeɪ̯.ɣə(n)] ( listen)) is a municipality and a city in the east of the Netherlands, near the German border. It is considered to be the oldest city in The Netherlands and celebrated its 2000th year of existence in 2005. The municipality is part of the "Stadsregio Arnhem-Nijmegen", a metropolitan area with 736,107 inhabitants (January 2011).
  The first mention of Nijmegen in history is in the 1st century BC, when the Romans built a military camp on the place where Nijmegen was to appear; the location had great strategic value because of the surrounding hills, which gave (and continues to give) a good view over the Waal and Rhine valley.
  By 69, when the Batavians, the original inhabitants of the Rhine and Maas delta, revolted, a village called Oppidum Batavorum had formed near the Roman camp. This village was destroyed in the revolt, but when the revolt had ended the Romans built another, bigger camp where the Legio X Gemina was stationed. Soon after, another village formed around this camp.
  
  wn.com/Nijmegen
• 
  Perpignan
  Coordinates: 42°41′55″N 2°53′44″E / 42.6986°N 2.8956°E / 42.6986; 2.8956
  Perpignan (French pronunciation: [pɛʁpiɲɑ̃], Catalan: Perpinyà [pərpiˈɲa]) is a commune and the capital of the Pyrénées-Orientales department in southern France. Perpignan was the capital of the former province and county of Roussillon (Rosselló in Catalan) and continental capital of the Kingdom of Majorca in the 13th and 14th centuries.
  As of 2009^[update], Perpignan had 120,100 inhabitants (Perpignanais, Perpinyanés) in the city proper. The metropolitan area has a total population of 300,221 in 2009.
  Though settlement in the area goes back to Roman times, the medieval town of Perpignan seems to have been founded around the beginning of the 10th century (first mentioned in a document as villa Perpiniarum in 927). Soon Perpignan became the capital of the counts of Roussillon. In 1172 Count Girard II bequeathed his lands to the Counts of Barcelona. Perpignan acquired the institutions of a partly self-governing commune in 1197. French feudal rights over Roussillon were given up by Louis IX in the Treaty of Corbeil (1258).
  
  wn.com/Perpignan
• 
  Rocroi
  Coordinates: 49°55′34″N 4°31′20″E / 49.9261°N 4.5222°E / 49.9261; 4.5222
  Rocroi is a commune in the Ardennes department in northern France.
  The center was a fortified city, the walls of which are in the shape of a stylised star. The Battle of Rocroi was fought here.
  Rocroi was fortified by Francis I of France and expanded by Henry II of France.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Rocroi
• 
  Siege of Candia
  The Siege of Candia (modern Heraklion, Crete) was a military conflict in which Ottoman forces besieged the Venetian-ruled city and were ultimately victorious. Lasting from 1648 to 1669, it was the longest siege in history.
  In the 17th century, Venice's power in the Mediterranean was waning, as Ottoman power grew. The Venetian Republic believed that the Ottomans would use any excuse to pursue further hostilities.
  In 1644, the Knights of Malta attacked an Ottoman convoy on its way from Alexandria to Constantinople. They landed at Candia with the loot, which included part of the Sultan's harem, returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca.
  In response, 60,000 Ottoman troops led by Yussuf Pasha disembarked on Venetian Crete and occupied La Canea (modern Chania) and Rettimo (modern Rethimno). Both of these cities took two months each to conquer. Between 1645 and 1648, the Turks occupied the rest of the island and prepared to take the capital, Candia.
  The siege of Candia began in May 1648. The Turks spent three months investing the city, cutting off the water supply, and disrupting Venice's sea lanes to the city. For the next 16 years, they would bombard the city to little effect.
  
  wn.com/Siege_of_Candia
• 
  Siege of Maastricht
  The Siege of Maastricht was one of the key elements in King Louis XIV's plans to attack the Netherlands, in order to revenge the humiliating conditions enforced on him by the Triple Alliance when he tried to fully conquer the Spanish Netherlands. After making a feint for Ghent and Brussels, Louis marched his army past Maastricht, a condominium of the United Provinces and the Bishopric of Liège, in May 1672, not bothering to take the fortress. In 1673, when his supply lines became threatened he decided to capture the city; the siege began on June 11.
  Maastricht would be the first major city to be attacked by Sebastien Vauban, the master of siegecraft in his time. In addition to firing upon the city walls with cannon, Vauban ordered the building of trenches, in a zigzag pattern, parallel to the walls. These trenches made it more difficult for the defenders from having a clear shot at the attackers and, in addition, allowed for the protection of military miners to allow them to reach the base of the fortifications and plant mines to make a breach.
  
  wn.com/Siege_of_Maastricht
• 
  Stenay
  Coordinates: 49°29′27″N 5°11′11″E / 49.4908°N 5.1864°E / 49.4908; 5.1864
  Stenay is a commune in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France.
  It was one of the last villages to experience fighting during World War I. Stenay was captured on 11 November 1918 by the American 89th Division under General William M. Wright only hours before the Armistice went into effect. The 89th lost 365 men to howitzer fire.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Stenay
• 
  Strasbourg
  Strasbourg (French pronunciation: [stʁazbuʁ]; Lower Alsatian: Strossburi, [ˈʃd̥rɔːsb̥uri]; German: Straßburg, [ˈʃtʁaːsbʊɐ̯k]) is the capital and principal city of the Alsace region in eastern France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany, it is the capital of the Bas-Rhin département. The city and the region of Alsace are historically German-speaking, explaining the city's Germanic name. In 2006, the city proper had 272,975 inhabitants and its urban community 467,375 inhabitants. With 638,670 inhabitants in 2006, Strasbourg's metropolitan area (aire urbaine) (only the part of the metropolitan area on French territory) is the ninth largest in France. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 884,988 inhabitants in 2008.
  Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe (with its European Court of Human Rights, its European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Audiovisual Observatory) and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine.
  
  wn.com/Strasbourg
• 
  Toul
  Coordinates: 48°40′30″N 5°53′30″E / 48.675°N 5.8917°E / 48.675; 5.8917
  Toul (French pronunciation: [tul]) is a commune in the Meurthe-et-Moselle department in north-eastern France.
  It is a sub-prefecture of the department.
  Toul is located between Commercy and Nancy, and situated between the Moselle River and the Canal de la Marne au Rhin.
  Toul was known to the Romans as Tullum Leucorum, and was the capital of the Gaulish tribe of the Leuci.
  In 612, King Theudebert II of Austrasia was defeated by King Theuderic II of Burgundy near Toul. By the Treaty of Meerssen of 870, Toul became part of East Francia, the later Holy Roman Empire. During the High Middle Ages, it became a Free Imperial City. Toul was annexed to France by King Henry II in 1552; this was recognized by the Holy Roman Empire in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648. It then was a part of the French province of the Three Bishoprics.
  During the siege of 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War, the last time that Toul's defenses were used as a classic fortress, 64 guns opened fire at 6:00 a.m. on 23 September, and the fortress surrendered at 3:00 p.m. after 2,433 shells had been fired.
  
  wn.com/Toul
• 
  Toulon
  Coordinates: 43°08′N 5°55′E / 43.13°N 5.92°E / 43.13; 5.92
  Toulon (French pronunciation: [tu.lɔ̃]; Provençal Occitan: Tolon in classical norm or Touloun in Mistralian norm), italian language: Tolone, is a town in southern France and a large military harbor on the Mediterranean coast, with a major French naval base. Located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur region, Toulon is the capital of the Var department in the former province of Provence.
  Toulon is an important centre for naval construction, fishing, wine making, and the manufacture of aeronautical equipment, armaments, maps, paper, tobacco, printing, shoes, and electronic equipment.
  The military port of Toulon is the major naval centre on France's Mediterranean coast, home of the French Navy aircraft carrier Charles De Gaulle and her battle group. The French Mediterranean Fleet is based in Toulon.
  Archaeological excavations, such as those at the Cosquer Cave near Marseilles, show that the coast of Provence was inhabited since at least the Paleolithic era. Greek colonists came from Asia Minor in about the 7th century BC and established trading depots along the coast, including one, called Olbia, at Saint-Pierre de l'Almanarre south of Hyères, to the east of Toulon. The Ligurians settled in the area beginning in the 4th century BC.
  
  wn.com/Toulon
• 
  Valenciennes
  Coordinates: 50°21′29″N 3°31′24″E / 50.3581°N 3.5233°E / 50.3581; 3.5233
  Valenciennes (French pronunciation: [valɑ̃sjɛn]; Dutch: Valencijn, Latin: Valentianae) is a commune in the Nord department in northern France.
  It lies on the Scheldt (French: Escaut) river. Although the city and region had seen a steady decline between 1975 and 1990, it has since rebounded. The 1999 census recorded that the population of the commune of Valenciennes was 41,278, and that of the metropolitan area was 399,677.
  Valenciennes is first mentioned in 693 in a legal document written by Clovis II (Valentiana). In the 843 Treaty of Verdun, it was made a neutral city between Neustria and the Austrasia. Later in the 9th century the region was overrun by the Normans, and in 881 the town passed to them. In 923 it passed to the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia dependent on the Holy Roman Empire. Once the Empire of the Franks was established, the city began to develop, though the archaeological record has still not revealed all it has to reveal about this period. Under the Ottonian emperors, Valenciennes became the centre of marches on the border of the Empire.
  
  wn.com/Valenciennes
• 
  Verdun
  Verdun (French pronunciation: [vɛʁ.dœ̃]; medieval German: Wirten, official name before 1970 Verdun-sur-Meuse) is a city in the Meuse department in Lorraine in north-eastern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department.
  Verdun is the biggest city in Meuse, although the capital of the department is the slightly smaller city of Bar-le-Duc.
  Verdun (Latin: Verodunum, meaning "strong fort") was founded by the Gauls (as its Celtic name shows; "Dunum" is the Latinized version of a Celtic word meaning oppidum). It has been the seat of the bishop of Verdun since the 4th century AD, with interruptions. In the Treaty of Verdun in AD 843, the empire of Charlemagne was divided into three parts.
  At around this time Verdun was the centre of a Europe-wide thriving trade selling young boys to be enslaved eunuchs to the Islamic emirates of Iberia. Less controversially, the city has been famous for Dragées or sugared almonds from 1200 onwards; they were distributed at the baptism of French princes.
  Verdun was part of the middle kingdom of Lotharingia, and in 1374 it became an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire. The Bishopric of Verdun formed together with Tull (Toul) and Metz the Three Bishoprics, which were annexed by France in 1552 (recognized in 1648 by the Peace of Westphalia).
  
  wn.com/Verdun
• 
  Wimereux
  Coordinates: 50°46′14″N 1°36′38″E / 50.7706°N 1.6106°E / 50.7706; 1.6106
  Wimereux is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France.
  Wimereux is a coastal town situated some 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Boulogne, at the junction of the D233 and the D940 roads, on the banks of the river Wimereux. The river Slack forms the northern boundary of the commune, the English Channel the western. Farming and tourism are its principal activities.
  At the Pointe-aux-Oies, dolmen can still be seen at a Stone Age prehistoric site, the first known settlement of Wimereux.
  Vauban built a coastal fort at the mouth of the river Wimereux, the ruins showed at low-tide until the 1940s, when they disappeared completely. Napoleon ordered a port to be built here between 1803 and 1804, taking its name from the river. In 1840, the future Napoleon III, first president (and last monarch) of France, landed at Pointe aux Oies.
  The territory of Wimereux originally belonged to the commune of Wimille, from which it separated on May 28, 1899. In the same year, the first radio link between France and England was established at Wimereux in April by Guglielmo Marconi and Édouard Branly.
  
  wn.com/Wimereux
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  Yonne
  Yonne (French pronunciation: [jɔn]) is a French department named after the Yonne River. It is one of the four constituent departments of Burgundy in eastern France and its prefecture (capital) is Auxerre. Its official number is 89.
  It elects three members of parliament to the National Assembly - in the 2002-7 parliamentary term, all three are drawn from the right-wing Union for a Popular Movement (UMP). Its two senators also represent the UMP.
  
  wn.com/Yonne

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  Albert de Rochas
  Eugène Auguste Albert de Rochas d'Aiglun (20 May 1837 - 2 September 1914) was a leading French Parapsychologist, historian, translator, writer, military engineer and administrator.
  Rochas was born in Saint Firmin in the department of Hautes-Alpes, the son of Marie Joseph Eugène de Rochas d'Aiglun, a judge at the court in Briançon, and of Félicité Camille Jayet. He studied literature and mathematics at the Lycée de Grenoble, then, in 1857, entered the École Polytechnique in Paris, intending to follow a military career.
  In 1861, he was commissioned as a Lieutenant in the Military Engineers ("Le Génie militaire") and distinguished himself as a soldier, engineer and administrator. He rose to the rank of battalion commander in 1880 and was made chief of engineers in 1887. He retired from the military in 1888 as a Lieutenant-Colonel. He had also been inspector of studies and director at the École Polytechnique, but had to resign due to his involvement in paranormal research activities.
  Rochas was made a Chevalier (Knight) in the Legion d'Honneur in 1875 and an officer in 1889.
  
  wn.com/Albert_de_Rochas
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  Alsace
  Alsace (French: Alsace [alzas]; Alsatian: Elsàss [ˈɛlsɑs]; German: Elsass, pre-1996: Elsaß, IPA: [ˈɛlzas]; Latin: Alsatia) is the fifth-smallest of the 27 regions of France in land area (8,280 km²), and the smallest in metropolitan France. It is also the seventh-most densely populated region in France and third most densely populated region in metropolitan France, with ca. 220 inhabitants per km² (total population in 2006: 1,815,488; 1 January 2008 estimate: 1,836,000). Alsace is located on France's eastern border and on the west bank of the upper Rhine adjacent to Germany and Switzerland. The political, economic and cultural capital as well as largest city of Alsace is Strasbourg. Because that city is the seat of dozens of international organizations and bodies, Alsace is politically one of the most important regions in the European Union.
  The name "Alsace" can be traced back to the Old High German Ali-saz or Elisaz, meaning "foreign domain". An alternative explanation derives it from a Germanic Ell-sass, meaning "seated on the Ill", a river in Alsace. The region was historically part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was gradually annexed by France in the 17th century under kings Louis XIII and Louis XIV and made one of the provinces of France. Alsace is frequently mentioned in conjunction with Lorraine, because German possession of parts of these two régions (as the imperial province Alsace-Lorraine, 1871–1918) was contested in the 19th and 20th centuries, during which Alsace changed hands four times between France and Germany in 75 years.
  
  wn.com/Alsace
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  Cardinal Mazarin
  Jules Mazarin (French: [ʒyl mazaʁɛ̃]; 1602–1661), born Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino [ˈdʒuljo raiˈmondo maddzaˈrino] or Mazarini, was a French-Italian cardinal, diplomat, and politician, who served as the chief minister of France from 1642 until his death. Mazarin succeeded his mentor, Cardinal Richelieu. He was a noted collector of art and jewels, particularly diamonds, and he bequeathed the "Mazarin diamonds" to Louis XIV in 1661, some of which remain in the collection of the Louvre museum in Paris. His personal library was the origin of the Bibliothèque Mazarine in Paris.
  Giulio Mazzarino was born in Pescina, then part of the Kingdom of Naples, where his parents were travelling, but was raised in Rome. His father Pietro was a notary with connections to the Colonna, who became chamberlain to the Constable Filippo I Colonna and gained an easy situation for his family; Mazarin never forgot that the basis of his fortune in life was the patronage of the Colonna, who had provided his father with a wife, Ortensia Buffalini, of a noble family of Città di Castello in Umbria with an ample dowry. He had a younger sister, Laura Margherita Mazzarini.
  
  wn.com/Cardinal_Mazarin
• Daniel Halévy
  Daniel Halévy (12 December 1872, Paris – 4 February 1962, Paris) was a French historian.
  The son of Ludovic Halévy, Daniel was born and died in Paris. His family was of Jewish descent, but his parents were Protestant and he was brought up as a Protestant. He studied at the Lycée Condorcet, where he'd become friends with Marcel Proust.
  Social historians have acknowledged Halévy for his "Essai sur l'accélération de l'histoire" (Essay on the Acceleration of History), while he remains largely overlooked by literary scholars.
  With André Spire,who he had met in the Cooperation des Idées, he founded the Université populaire.
  He was a supporter of the political right. Following the 6 February 1934 crisis, he lost all trust in parliamentary institutions. Despite his Jewish descent, he publicly declared that following February 6, 1934 he was now a "man of the extreme right." Although he personally abhored Italian fascism or German national socialism he went on to support Marshal Philippe Pétain's Vichy regime. The radicalization of the right wing would accelerate after the election of the Popular Front in 1936 and the Spanish Civil War (1936–39).
  
  wn.com/Daniel_Halévy
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  Fronde
  The Fronde (French pronunciation: [fʁɔ̃d]); was a civil war in France, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The word fronde means sling, which Parisian mobs used to smash the windows of supporters of Cardinal Mazarin.
  The Fronde was divided into two campaigns, the Fronde of the parlements and the Fronde of the nobles. The timing of the outbreak of the Fronde des parlements, directly after the Peace of Westphalia (1648) that ended the Thirty Years War, was significant. The nuclei of armed bands under aristocratic leaders that terrorized parts of France had been hardened in a generation of war in Germany where troops still tended to operate autonomously. Louis XIV, impressed as a young ruler with the experience of the Fronde, came to reorganize French fighting forces under a stricter hierarchy whose leaders ultimately could be made or unmade by the King. Thus the Fronde finally resulted in the disempowerment of the territorial aristocracy and the emergence of absolute monarchy.
  
  wn.com/Fronde
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  Louis XIV of France
  Louis XIV (5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715), known as Louis the Great or the Sun King (French: le Roi-Soleil), was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and Navarre. He holds the distinction of being the longest-reigning king in European history, reigning for 72 years and 110 days.
  Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661 after the death of his chief minister, the Italian Cardinal Mazarin. An adherent of the theory of the divine right of kings, which advocates the divine origin and lack of temporal restraint of monarchical rule, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from the capital. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts of France and, by compelling the nobility to inhabit his lavish Palace of Versailles, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many members of which had participated in the Fronde rebellion during Louis's minority. By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution.
  
  wn.com/Louis_XIV_of_France
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  Menno van Coehoorn
  Menno, Baron van Coehoorn (March 1641 – March 17, 1704) was a Dutch soldier and military engineer. He made a number of influential weaponry innovations in siege warfare and fortification techniques. He was also known as the "Hollandish Vauban" (Hollandse Vauban), after his famous French counterpart Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban.
  Coehoorn was born in Britsum, a village north of Leeuwarden in the Dutch province of Friesland. He received an excellent military and general education, and at the age of sixteen became a captain in the Dutch army. During the Anglo-Dutch Wars, he took part in the defence of Maastricht in 1673 and in the siege of Grave in 1674, where he used the small mortars (called coehorns) invented by him to great effect against the French garrison. He was promoted to the rank of colonel for his gallant conduct at the battle of Seneffe (1674), and was also present at the Battle of Cassel (1677) and the Battle of Saint Denis (1678).
  
  wn.com/Menno_van_Coehoorn
• Wikipedia Persondata
  wn.com/Wikipedia_Persondata
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  William Petty
  Sir William Petty FRS (27 May 1623 – 16 December 1687) was an English economist, scientist and philosopher. He first became prominent serving Oliver Cromwell and Commonwealth in Ireland. He developed efficient methods to survey the land that was to be confiscated and given to Cromwell's soldiers. He also managed to remain prominent under King Charles II and King James II, as did many others who had served Cromwell.
  He was Member of the Parliament of England briefly and was also a scientist, inventor, and entrepreneur, and was a charter member of the Royal Society. It is for his theories on economics and his methods of political arithmetic that he is best remembered, however, and he is attributed as having started the philosophy of 'laissez-faire' in relation to government activity. He was knighted in 1661. He was the great-grandfather of the future Prime Minister, William Petty Fitzmaurice, 2nd Earl of Shelburne and 1st Marquess of Landsdowne.
  Petty was a founder member of The Royal Society. He was born and buried in Romsey and was a contemporary and friend of Samuel Pepys. In 1858, Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne, one of Petty's descendants erected a memorial and likeness of Petty in Romsey Abbey. The text on it reads: "a true patriot and a sound philosopher who, by his powerful intellect, his scientific works and indefatigable industry, became a benefactor to his family and an ornament to his country". His grave slab on the floor of the south choir aisle reads HERE LAYES SIR WILLIAM PETY.
  
  wn.com/William_Petty