Disability
Theory and models Disability theory Ableism / Disablism Medical model Social model
Education Mainstreaming Individualized Education Program (IEP) Special needs Special school Special education Learning disability
Therapy Physical therapy Occupational therapy Speech therapy
Societal implications Disability rights movement inclusion People-first language Pejorative terms
Personal / physical assistance Personal care assistant Activities of daily living Orthotics and braces Prosthetics Assistive technology Mobility aid Physical accessibility Universal design Web accessibility
Socioeconomic assistance Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Ticket to Work Disability Living Allowance (DLA) Disabled students allowance Disabled Persons Railcard Freedom Pass
Groups and organizations Society for Disability Studies Disabled Peoples' International (DPI) Visitability
Disabled sports Special Olympics Paralympics Deaflympics Extremity Games
Culture Disability in the arts Disability Art Disability in the media
Disability portal category lists
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International Symbol of Access

A disability may be physical, cognitive, mental, sensory, emotional, developmental or some combination of these.

Disabilities is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. An impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations. Thus disability is a complex phenomenon, reflecting an interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives.

—World Health Organization^[1]

An individual may also qualify as disabled if he/she has had an impairment in the past or is seen as disabled based on a personal or group standard or norm. Such impairments may include physical, sensory, and cognitive or developmental disabilities. Mental disorders (also known as psychiatric or psychosocial disability) and various types of chronic disease may also qualify as disabilities.

Some advocates object to describing certain conditions (notably deafness and autism) as "disabilities", arguing that it is more appropriate to consider them developmental differences that have been unfairly stigmatized by society.^[2]

A disability may occur during a person's lifetime or may be present from birth.

Types of disability[link]

Disability is caused by impairments to various subsystems of the body - these can be broadly sorted into the following categories.

Physical disability[link]

Any impairment which limits the physical function of limbs or fine or gross motor ability is a physical disability. Other physical disabilities include impairments which limit other facets of daily living, such as severe sleep apnea.

A man with an above the knee amputation exercises while wearing a prosthetic leg

Sensory disability[link]

Sensory disability is impairment of one of the senses. The term is used primarily to refer to vision and hearing impairment, but other senses can be impaired.

Visual impairment[link]

Visual impairment (or vision impairment) is vision loss (of a person) to such a degree as to qualify as an additional support need through a significant limitation of visual capability resulting from either disease, trauma, or congenital or degenerative conditions that cannot be corrected by conventional means, such as refractive correction, medication, or surgery.^[3][4][5] This functional loss of vision is typically defined to manifest with

1. best corrected visual acuity of less than 20/60, or significant central field defect,
2. significant peripheral field defect including homonymous or heteronymous bilateral visual, field defect or generalized contraction or constriction of field, or
3. reduced peak contrast sensitivity with either of the above conditions.^[3][4][5][6]

Hearing impairment[link]

Hearing impairment or hard of hearing or deafness refers to conditions in which individuals are fully or partially unable to detect or perceive at least some frequencies of sound which can typically be heard by most people. Mild hearing loss may sometimes not be considered a disability.

Olfactory and gustatory impairment[link]

Impairment of the sense of smell and taste are commonly associated with aging but can also occur in younger people due to a wide variety of causes.

There are various olfactory disorders:

• Anosmia – inability to smell
• Dysosmia – things smell different than they should
• Hyperosmia – an abnormally acute sense of smell.
• Hyposmia – decreased ability to smell
• Olfactory Reference Syndrome – psychological disorder which causes the patient to imagine he has strong body odor
• Parosmia – things smell worse than they should
• Phantosmia – "hallucinated smell," often unpleasant in nature

Complete loss of the sense of taste is known as ageusia, while dysgeusia is persistent abnormal sense of taste,

Somatosensory impairment[link]

Insensitivity to stimuli such as touch, heat, cold, and pain are often an adjunct to a more general physical impairment involving neural pathways and is very commonly associated with paralysis (in which the motor neural circuits are also affected).

Balance disorder[link]

A balance disorder is a disturbance that causes an individual to feel unsteady, for example when standing or walking. It may be accompanied by symptoms of being giddy, woozy, or have a sensation of movement, spinning, or floating. Balance is the result of several body systems working together. The eyes (visual system), ears (vestibular system) and the body's sense of where it is in space (proprioception) need to be intact. The brain, which compiles this information, needs to be functioning effectively.

Intellectual disability[link]

Intellectual disability is a broad concept that ranges from mental retardation to cognitive deficits too mild or too specific (as in specific learning disability) to qualify as mental retardation. Intellectual disabilities may appear at any age. Mental retardation is a subtype of intellectual disability, and the term intellectual disability is now preferred by many advocates in most English-speaking countries as a euphemism for mental retardation.

Mental health and emotional disabilities[link]

A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern generally associated with subjective distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and perceived by the majority of society as being outside of normal development or cultural expectations. The recognition and understanding of mental health conditions has changed over time and across cultures, and there are still variations in the definition, assessment, and classification of mental disorders, although standard guideline criteria are widely accepted.

Developmental disability[link]

Developmental disability is any disability that results in problems with growth and development. Although the term is often used as a synonym or euphemism for intellectual disability, the term also encompasses many congenital medical conditions that have no mental or intellectual components, for example spina bifida.

Nonvisible disabilities[link]

Several chronic disorders, such as diabetes, asthma, inflammatory bowel disease or epilepsy, would be counted as nonvisible disabilities, as opposed to disabilities which are clearly visible, such as those requiring the use of a wheelchair.

Sociology of disability[link]

People-first language[link]

Many people would rather be referred to as a person with a disability instead of handicapped. "Cerebral Palsy: A Guide for Care" at the University of Delaware offers the following guidelines:^[7]

Impairment is the correct term to use to define a deviation from normal, such as not being able to make a muscle move or not being able to control an unwanted movement. Disability is the term used to define a restriction in the ability to perform a normal activity of daily living which someone of the same age is able to perform. For example, a three year old child who is not able to walk has a disability because a normal three year old can walk independently. Handicap is the term used to describe a child or adult who, because of the disability, is unable to achieve the normal role in society commensurate with his age and socio-cultural milieu. As an example, a sixteen-year-old who is unable to prepare his own meal or care for his own toileting or hygiene needs is handicapped. On the other hand, a sixteen-year-old who can walk only with the assistance of crutches but who attends a regular school and is fully independent in activities of daily living is disabled but not handicapped. All disabled people are impaired, and all handicapped people are disabled, but a person can be impaired and not necessarily be disabled, and a person can be disabled without being handicapped.

The American Psychological Association style guide states that, when identifying a person with an impairment, the person's name or pronoun should come first, and descriptions of the impairment/disability should be used so that the impairment is identified, but is not modifying the person. Improper examples are "a borderline", "a blind person", or "an autistic boy"; more acceptable terminology includes "a woman with Down syndrome" or "a man who has schizophrenia". It also states that a person's adaptive equipment should be described functionally as something that assists a person, not as something that limits a person, e.g., "a woman who uses a wheelchair" rather than "a woman in/confined to a wheelchair."

A similar kind of "people-first" terminology is also used in the UK, but more often in the form "people with impairments" (e.g., "people with visual impairments"). However, in the UK, the term "disabled people" is generally preferred to "people with disabilities". It is argued under the social model that while someone's impairment (e.g., having a spinal cord injury) is an individual property, "disability" is something created by external societal factors such as a lack of wheelchair access to the workplace.^[8] This distinction between the individual property of impairment and the social property of disability is central to the social model. The term "disabled people" as a political construction is also widely used by international organisations of disabled people, such as Disabled Peoples' International (DPI).

Literature[link]

Many books on disability and disability rights point out that "disabled" is an identity that one is not necessarily born with, as disabilities are more often acquired than congenital. Some disability rights activists use an acronym TAB, "Temporarily Able-Bodied", as a reminder that many people will develop disabilities at some point in their lives due to accidents, illness (physical, mental or emotional), or late-emerging effects of genetics.^{[dubious – discuss][citation needed]}

Masculinity[link]

According to author Daniel J. Wilson, the characteristics of masculinity include strength, activeness, speed, endurance, and courage. These characteristics are often challenged when faced with a disability and the boy or man must reshape what it means to be masculine. For example, rather than define "being a man" through what one can physically do, one must re-define it by how one faces the world with a disability and all the obstacles and stereotypes that come with the disability.^[9]

In Leonard Kriegel's book, Flying Solo, he describes his fight with poliomyelitis and the process of accepting his disability in a world that values able-bodiedness. He writes, "I had to learn to be my own hero, my own role model – which is another way of saying that I had to learn to live with neither heroes nor role models" (pg. 40).^[10]

Femininity[link]

Some note that women who are disabled face what is called a "double disability", meaning they must not only deal with the stereotypes and challenges posed by femininity, but they must also deal with those posed by being disabled. Culture also tends to view women as fragile and weaker than men, stereotypes which are only heightened when a woman has a disability.^[9]

According to the "Survey of Income and Program Participation", as described in the book Gendering Disability, 74 percent of women participants and 90 percent of men participants without disabilities were employed. In comparison, of those with a form of disability, 41 percent of women and 51 percent of men were employed. Furthermore, the nondisabled women participants were paid approximately $4.00 less per hour than the nondisabled men participants. With a disability, women were paid approximately $1.00 less than the nondisabled women participants and the men were paid approximately $2.00 less than the nondisabled men participants. As these results suggest, women without disabilities face societal hardships as compared to men, but disability added to the equation increases the hardships.^[9]

Theory[link]

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), produced by the World Health Organization, distinguishes between body functions (physiological or psychological, e.g., vision) and body structures (anatomical parts, e.g., the eye and related structures). Impairment in bodily structure or function is defined as involving an anomaly, defect, loss or other significant deviation from certain generally accepted population standards, which may fluctuate over time. Activity is defined as the execution of a task or action. The ICF lists 9 broad domains of functioning which can be affected:

• Learning and applying knowledge
• General tasks and demands
• Communication
• Basic physical mobility, Domestic life, and Self-care (i.e., activities of daily living)
• Interpersonal interactions and relationships
• Community, social and civic life, including employment
• Other major life areas

In concert with disability scholars, the introduction to the ICF states that a variety of conceptual models has been proposed to understand and explain disability and functioning, which it seeks to integrate. These models include the following:

The medical model[link]

The medical model is presented as viewing disability as a problem of the person, directly caused by disease, trauma, or other health condition which therefore requires sustained medical care provided in the form of individual treatment by professionals. In the medical model, management of the disability is aimed at a "cure," or the individual’s adjustment and behavioral change that would lead to an "almost-cure" or effective cure. In the medical model, medical care is viewed as the main issue, and at the political level, the principal response is that of modifying or reforming healthcare policy.

The social model[link]

The social model of disability sees the issue of "disability" as a socially created problem and a matter of the full integration of individuals into society (see Inclusion (disability rights)). In this model, disability is not an attribute of an individual, but rather a complex collection of conditions, many of which are created by the social environment. Hence, the management of the problem requires social action and it is the collective responsibility of society at large to make the environmental modifications necessary for the full participation of people with disabilities in all areas of social life. The issue is both cultural and ideological, requiring individual, community, and large-scale social change. From this perspective, equal access for someone with an impairment/disability is a human rights issue of major concern.

Other models[link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2011)

• The spectrum model refers to the range of visibility, audibility and sensibility under which mankind functions. The model asserts that disability does not necessarily mean reduced spectrum of operations.
• The moral model refers to the attitude that people are morally responsible for their own disability.^[11] For example disability may be seen as a result of bad actions of parents if congenital, or as a result of practicing witchcraft if not. This attitude may also be viewed as a religious fundamentalist offshoot of the original animal roots of human beings when humans killed any baby that could not survive on its own in the wild. Echoes of this can be seen in the doctrine of karma in Indian religions.
• The expert/professional model has provided a traditional response to disability issues and can be seen as an offshoot of the medical model. Within its framework, professionals follow a process of identifying the impairment and its limitations (using the medical model), and taking the necessary action to improve the position of the disabled person. This has tended to produce a system in which an authoritarian, over-active service provider prescribes and acts for a passive client.
• The tragedy/charity model depicts disabled people as victims of circumstance who are deserving of pity. This, along with the medical model, are the models most used by non-disabled people to define and explain disability.
• The legitimacy model views disability as a value-based determination about which explanations for the atypical are legitimate for membership in the disability category. This viewpoint allows for multiple explanations and models to be considered as purposive and viable.
• The social adapted model states although a person’s disability poses some limitations in an able-bodied society, oftentimes the surrounding society and environment are more limiting than the disability itself.^[12]
• The economic model defines disability by a person’s inability to participate in work. It also assesses the degree to which impairment affects an individual’s productivity and the economic consequences for the individual, employer and the state. Such consequences include loss of earnings for and payment for assistance by the individual; lower profit margins for the employer; and state welfare payments. This model is directly related to the charity/tragedy model.
• The empowering model allows for the person with a disability and his/her family to decide the course of their treatment and what services they wish to benefit from. This, in turn, turns the professional into a service provider whose role is to offer guidance and carry out the client’s decisions. This model “empowers” the individual to pursue his/her own goals.^[12]
• The market model of disability is minority rights and consumerist model of disability that recognizing people with disabilities and their stakeholders as representing a large group of consumers, employees and voters. This model looks to personal identity to define disability and empowers people to chart their own destiny in everyday life, with a particular focus on economic empowerment. By this model, based on US Census data, there are 1.2 billion people in the world who consider themselves to have a disability. An additional two billion people are considered stakeholders in disability (family/friends/employers), and when combined to the number of people without disabilities, represents 53% of the population. This model states that, due to the size of the demographic, companies and governments will serve the desires, pushed by demand as the message becomes prevalent in the cultural mainstream.^[13]
• The consumer model of disability is based upon the “rights-based" model and claims that people with disabilities should have equal rights and access to products, goods and services offered by businesses. The consumer model extends the rights-based model by proposing that businesses, not only accommodate customers with disabilities under the requirements of legislation, but that businesses actively seek, market to, welcome and fully engage people with disabilities in all aspects of business service activities. The model suggests that all business operations, e.g., websites, policies and procedures, mission statements, emergency plans, programs and services, should integrate access and inclusion practices. Furthermore, these access and inclusion practices should be based on established customer service access and inclusion standards that embrace and support the active engagement of people of all abilities in business offerings.^[14]

Management[link]

Assistive technology[link]

Assistive Technology is a generic term for devices and modifications (for a person or within a society) that help overcome or remove a disability. The first recorded example of the use of a prosthesis dates to at least 1800 BC.^[15] The wheelchair dates from the 17th century.^{[citation needed]} The curb cut is a related structural innovation. Other examples are standing frames, text telephones, accessible keyboards, large print, Braille, & speech recognition software. People with disabilities often develop personal or community adaptations, such as strategies to suppress tics in public (for example in Tourette's syndrome), or sign language in deaf communities. Assistive technology or interventions are sometimes controversial or rejected, for example in the controversy over cochlear implants for children.^{[citation needed]}

As the personal computer has become more ubiquitous, various organizations have formed to develop software and hardware to make computers more accessible for people with disabilities. Some software and hardware, such as Voice Finger, SmartboxAT's The Grid, Freedom Scientific's JAWS, the Free and Open Source alternative Orca etc. have been specifically designed for people with disabilities while other software and hardware, such as Nuance's Dragon NaturallySpeaking, were not developed specifically for people with disabilities, but can be used to increase accessibility.^{[citation needed]} The LOMAK keyboard was designed in New Zealand specifically for persons with disabilities.^{[citation needed]} The Internet is also used by disability activists and charities to network and further their goals. Organizations, such as AbilityNet and U Can Do IT in the US, provide assessment services that determine which assistive technologies will best assist an individual client.^{[citation needed]} These organizations also train disabled people in how to use computer-based assistive technology.^{[citation needed]}

Adapted sports[link]

Wheelchair basketball match between South Africa and Iran at the 2008 Summer Paralympics

The Paralympic Games (meaning "alongside the Olympics") are held after the (Summer and Winter) Olympics. The Paralympic Games include athletes with a wide range of physical disabilities. In member countries organizations exist to organize competition in the Paralympic sports on levels ranging from recreational to elite (for example, BlazeSports America in the United States).

The Paralympics developed from a rehabilitation programme for British war veterans with spinal injuries. In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttman, a neurologist working with World War II veterans with spinal injuries at Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Aylesbury in the UK, began using sport as part of the rehabilitation programmes of his patients.

In 2006, the Extremity Games was formed for people with physical disabilities, specifically limb loss or limb difference, to be able to compete in extreme sports.^{[citation needed]} A manufacturer of prosthetics, College Park Industries, organized the event^{[citation needed]} to give disabled athletes a venue to compete in this increasingly popular^{[citation needed]} sports genre also referred to as action sports. This annual event, held in the summer in Orlando, Florida,^{[citation needed]} includes competitions in skateboarding, wakeboarding, rock climbing, mountain biking, surfing, motocross and kayaking.^{[citation needed]} Non-profit organizations have created programs to advance adaptive sports for regular recreation and sport opportunities.^{[citation needed]}

Discrimination, government policies, and support[link]

United Nations[link]

On December 13, 2006, the United Nations formally agreed on the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the first human rights treaty of the 21st century, to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of the world's estimated 650 million disabled people. As of April 2011, 99 of the 147 signatories had ratified the Convention.^[16] Countries that sign the convention are required to adopt national laws, and remove old ones, so that persons with disabilities will, for example, have equal rights to education, employment, and cultural life; to the right to own and inherit property; to not be discriminated against in marriage, etc.; to not be unwilling subjects in medical experiments.

In 1976, the United Nations launched its International Year for Disabled Persons (1981), later renamed the International Year of Disabled Persons. The UN Decade of Disabled Persons (1983–1993) featured a World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons. In 1979, Frank Bowe was the only person with a disability representing any country in the planning of IYDP-1981. Today, many countries have named representatives who are themselves individuals with disabilities. The decade was closed in an address before the General Assembly by Robert Davila. Both Bowe and Davila are deaf. In 1984, UNESCO accepted sign language for use in education of deaf children and youth.

Costa Rica[link]

Under the Ley de Igualdad de Oportunidades (Law of Equal Opportunities), no person can be discriminated by their disabilities if they are equally capable as another person. This law also promotes that public places and transport should have facilities that enable people with disabilities to access them.

May 28 is the Día Nacional de la Persona con Discapacidad (National Disabled People Day) to promote respect for this population.

Currently the political party Partido de Acceso Sin Exclusión (Access Without Exclusion Party) fights for the rights of disabled persons, and one congressman, Oscar López, is blind.

United Kingdom[link]

Under the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) (1995, extended in 2005), it is unlawful for organisations to discriminate (treat a disabled person less favourably, for reasons related to the person's disability, without justification) in employment; access to goods, facilities, services; managing, buying or renting land or property; education. Businesses must make "reasonable adjustments" to their policies or practices, or physical aspects of their premises, to avoid indirect discrimination.^[17]

Since 2010 the Disability Discrimination Act has been replaced with the Equality Act 2010. This act still protects disabled people against discrimination but also encompasses a number of other characteristics including age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage, pregnancy, race, religion, sex and sexual orientation.^[18]

A number of financial and care support services are available, including Incapacity Benefit and Disability Living Allowance.^[19]

Employment[link]

The Employers' Forum on Disability (EFD) is a membership organisation of UK businesses. Following the introduction of the DDA the membership of EFD recognised the need for a tool with which they could measure their performance on disability year on year.

In 2005 80 organisations took part in the Disability Standard benchmark providing the first statistics highlighting the UK's performance as a nation of employers.

Following the success of the first benchmark Disability Standard 2007 saw the introduction of the Chief Executives' Diamond Awards for outstanding performance and 116 organisations taking the opportunity to compare trends across a large group of UK employers and monitor the progress they had made on disability.

2009 will see the third benchmark, Disability Standard 2009. EFD have promised that for the first time they will publish a list of the top ten performers who will be honoured at an award ceremony in December 2009.^[20]

United States[link]

Discrimination in employment[link]

The US Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires all organizations that receive government funding to provide accessibility programs and services. A more recent law, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), which came into effect in 1992, prohibits private employers, state and local governments, employment agencies and labor unions from discriminating against qualified individuals with disabilities in job application procedures, hiring, firing, advancement, compensation, job training, or in the terms, conditions and privileges of employment. This includes organizations like retail businesses, movie theaters, and restaurants. They must make "reasonable accommodation" to people with different needs. Protection is extended to anyone with (A) a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of an individual, (B) a record of such an impairment, or (C) being regarded as having such an impairment. The second and third criteria are seen as ensuring protection from unjust discrimination based on a perception of risk, just because someone has a record of impairment or appears to have a disability or illness (e.g. features which may be erroneously taken as signs of an illness).

African Americans and disability[link]

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the African American community has the highest rate of disability at 20.8 percent,^[21] slightly higher than the overall disability rate of 19.4%.^[21] Although people have come to better understand and accept different types of disability, there still remains a stigma attached to the disabled community.^{citation needed} African Americans with a disability are subject to not only this stigma but also to the additional forces of race discrimination. African American women who have a disability face tremendous discrimination due to their condition, race, and gender. Doctor Eddie Glenn of Howard University describes this situation as the "triple jeopardy" syndrome.^[22]

Social Security Administration[link]

The US Social Security Administration defines disability in terms of inability to perform substantial gainful activity (SGA), by which it means “work paying minimum wage or better”. The agency pairs SGA with a "listing" of medical conditions that qualify individuals for benefits.

Education[link]

Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, special educational support is limited to children and youth falling into one of a dozen disability categories (e.g., specific learning disability) and adds that, to be eligible, students may require both special education (modified instruction) and related services (supports such as speech and language pathology).

Insurance[link]

It is illegal for California insurers to refuse to provide car insurance to properly licensed drivers solely because they have a disability.^[23] It is also illegal for them to refuse to provide car insurance "on the basis that the owner of the motor vehicle to be insured is blind," but they are allowed to exclude coverage for injuries and damages incurred while a blind unlicensed owner is actually operating the vehicle (the law is apparently structured to allow blind people to buy and insure cars which their friends, family, and caretakers can drive for them).^[24]

Demographics[link]

Difficulties in measuring[link]

The demography of disability is difficult. Counting persons with disabilities is challenging. That is because disability is not just a status condition, entirely contained within the individual. Rather, it is an interaction between medical status (say, having low vision or being blind) and the environment.^{[citation needed]}

Estimates worldwide[link]

Estimates of worldwide and country-wide numbers of individuals with disabilities are problematic. The varying approaches taken to defining disability notwithstanding, demographers agree that the world population of individuals with disabilities is very large. For example, in 2004, the World Health Organization estimated a world population of 6.5 billion people, of those nearly 100 million people were estimated to be moderately or severely disabled.^[25] In the United States, Americans with disabilities constitute the third-largest minority (after persons of Hispanic origin and African Americans); all three of those minority groups number in the 30-some millions in America.^[25] According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census, as of 2004, there were some 32 million disabled adults (aged 18 or over) in the United States, plus another 5 million children and youth (under age 18). If one were to add impairments—or limitations that fall short of being disabilities—Census estimates put the figure at 51 million.^[26]

There is also widespread agreement among experts in the field that disability is more common in developing than in developed nations.

Nearly eight million men in Europe returned from the World War I permanently disabled by injury or disease.^[27]

About 150,000 Vietnam veterans came home wounded, and at least 21,000 were permanently disabled.^[28] Increased US military involvement has resulted in a significant increase of disabled military personnel since 2001. According to Fox News, this is a '25 percent' rise, with more than '2.9 million' total veterans now disabled.^[29]

After years of war in Afghanistan, there are more than one million disabled people.^[30] Afghanistan has one of the highest incidences of people with disabilities in the world.^[31] An estimated 80,000 Afghans have lost limbs, mainly as a result of landmines.^[32]

Political issues[link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010)

Political rights, social inclusion and citizenship have come to the fore in developed and some developing countries. The debate has moved beyond a concern about the perceived cost of maintaining dependent people with disabilities to an effort of finding effective ways to ensure that people with disabilities can participate in and contribute to society in all spheres of life.

Many are concerned, however, that the greatest need is in developing nations—where the vast bulk of the estimated 650 million people with disabilities reside. A great deal of work is needed to address concerns ranging from accessibility and education to self-empowerment and self-supporting employment and beyond.

In the past few years, disability rights activists have also focused on obtaining full citizenship for the disabled.

However obstacles reside in some countries in getting full employment, also public perception of disabled people may vary in areas.

Disability rights movement[link]

The disability rights movement is the movement to secure equal opportunities and equal rights for people with disabilities. The specific goals and demands of the movement are: accessibility and safety in transportation, architecture, and the physical environment, equal opportunities in independent living, employment, education, and housing, and freedom from abuse, neglect, and violations of patients' rights.^[33] Effective civil rights legislation is sought in order to secure these opportunities and rights.^[33][34]

Disability insurance[link]

Disability benefit, or disability pension, is a major kind of disability insurance, and is provided by government agencies to people who are temporarily or permanently unable to work due to a disability. In the U.S., disability benefit is provided within the category of Supplemental Security Income, and in Canada, within the Canada Pension Plan. In other countries, disability benefit may be provided under Social security systems.

Costs of disability pensions are steadily growing in Western countries, mainly European and the United States. It was reported that in the UK, expenditure on disability pensions accounted for 0.9% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1980, but two decades later had reached 2.6% of GDP.^[35][36] Several studies have reported a link between increased absence from work due to sickness and elevated risk of future disability pension.^[37]

A study by researchers in Denmark suggests that information on self-reported days of absence due to sickness can be used to effectively identify future potential groups for disability pension.^[38] These studies may provide useful information for policy makers, case managing authorities, employers, and physicians.

Private, for-profit disability insurance plays a role in providing incomes to disabled people, but the nationalized programs are the safety net that catch most claimants.

See also[link]

Disability portal

• Adaptive recreation
• Disability discrimination act
• Disability etiquette
• Disability studies
• Disabled robotics
• Ergonomy
• Human variability
• Invisible disability
• List of disability rights organizations
• List of physically disabled politicians
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
• Orthopedics
• Out From Under: Disability, History and Things to Remember (traveling exhibition)
• Passing
• Psychophobia
• Sexuality and disability
• Special education
• Ugly law

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Frank Bowe, Handicapping America: Barriers to disabled people, Harper & Row, 1978 ISBN 0-06-010422-8
• Burch, Susan, “(Extraordinary) Bodies of Knowledge: Recent Scholarship in American Disability History,” OAH Magazine of History, 23 (July 2009), 29–34.
• DePoy, E., & Gilson, S.F. (2004). Rethinking disability: Principles for professional and social change. Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-534-54929-9
• Encyclopedia of disability, general ed. Gary L. Albrecht, Thousand Oaks, Calif. [u.a.], SAGE Publications, 2005
• Glenn, Eddie. March 20, 1997. "African American Women with Disabilities: An Overview."
• David Johnstone, An Introduction to Disability Studies, 2001, 2nd edition, ISBN 1-85346-726-X
• Kaushik, R., 1999, "Access Denied: Can we overcome disabling attitudes," Museum International (UNESCO), Vol. 51, No. 3, p. 48–52.
• Lansing, Michael J., “‘Salvaging the Man Power of America’: Conservation, Manhood, and Disabled Veterans during World War I,” Environmental History, 14 (Jan. 2009), 32–57.
• Longmore, Paul, “Making Disability an Essential Part of American History,” OAH Magazine of History, 23 (July 2009), 11–15.
• Oliver, Michael. The Politics of Disablement, St. Martin's Press 1997, ISBN 0-333-43293-2
• Nikora, L.; Karapu, R.; Hickey, H.; & Awekotuku, N., Researchgateway.ac.nz, Disabled Maori and Disability Support Options, 2004. Retrieved on April 19, 2009.
• Charlotte Pearson (2006) Direct Payments and Personalisation of Care, Edinburgh, Dunedin Academic Press, ISBN 1-903765-62-5
• Tom Shakespeare, Genetic Politics: from Eugenics to Genome, with Anne Kerr, New Clarion Press, 1999, ISBN 1-873797-25-7
• Carmelo Masala, Donatella Rita Petretto, 2008, From disablement to enablement: conceptual models of disability in the 20th century, Disability and Rehabilitation, vol. 30(17), 1233-1244.
• Carmelo Masala, Donatella Rita Petretto, 2008, Psicologia dell'Handicap e della Riabilitazione,Kappa, Rome .

External links[link]

• Disability at the Open Directory Project

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Ladda Tammy Duckworth
Assistant Secretary of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs in the Department of Veterans Affairs
In office April 24, 2009 – June 30, 2011
President	Barack Obama
Preceded by	Lisette M. Mondello
Director of the Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs
In office November 21, 2006 – February 8, 2009
Governor	Rod Blagojevich Pat Quinn
Preceded by	Roy L. Dolgos
Succeeded by	Daniel W. Grant
Personal details
Born	1968 (age 43–44) Bangkok, Thailand
Political party	Democratic Party
Spouse(s)	Bryan W. Bowlsbey
Alma mater	McKinley High School University of Hawaii (B.A.) George Washington University (M.A.)
Profession	Soldier Politician
Military service
Allegiance	United States of America
Service/branch	Illinois National Guard
Years of service	1992–present
Rank	Lieutenant Colonel
Unit	106th Aviation Regiment, 28th Infantry Division
Awards	Purple Heart Air Medal Army Commendation Medal

Ladda Tammy Duckworth (born 1968) is the Democratic nominee in Illinois's 8th congressional district for the United States House of Representatives.^[1] In 2006, Duckworth was the Democratic nominee for the U.S. House of Representatives seat for another district, Illinois's 6th congressional district, losing to her opponent Peter Roskam by 2% of the vote.^[2] Previously she was the Assistant Secretary for Public and Intergovernmental Affairs in the United States Department of Veterans Affairs^[3][4] and the director of the Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs.^[5][6] Duckworth is an Iraq War veteran and former U.S. Army helicopter pilot whose severe combat wounds cost her both of her legs and damaged her right arm. She continues to serve as a Lieutenant Colonel in the Illinois Army National Guard along with her husband, Major Bryan W. Bowlsbey, a signal officer and fellow Iraq War veteran.^[7]

A supporter of the presidential election campaign of Barack Obama, Duckworth was given a prime-time speaking slot on the third night of the 2008 Democratic National Convention.^[8] She served as the Assistant Secretary of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs for the United States Department of Veterans Affairs from 2009 to 2011.^[9][10] In March 2012, Duckworth defeated Raja Krishnamoorthi to win the Democratic nomination in Illinois's 8th congressional district and will face incumbent Republican Congressman Joe Walsh in the general election on November 6, 2012.^[1]

Early life, education, and military service[link]

Duckworth was born in Bangkok, Thailand, to Frank and Lamai S. Duckworth. Her father (died 2005)^[11] was a former longtime member of the U.S. military who traced his family roots in America all the way back to the Revolutionary War; her mother, a native of Thailand, is of Chinese ancestry.^[12] She has one brother, Tom. Her family moved around Southeast Asia due to her father's work with the United Nations and international companies, and she is fluent in both Thai and Indonesian.^[13]

The family settled in Hawaii when she was 16. She graduated with honors from McKinley High School in 1985, after skipping the ninth grade. She graduated from the University of Hawaii in 1989 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science, and received a Master of Arts in international affairs from George Washington University.^[14]

Duckworth was working towards a Ph.D. in political science at Northern Illinois University with research interests in the political economy and public health in southeast Asia when she was deployed to Iraq in 2004. She also worked as a staff supervisor at Rotary International headquarters in Evanston, Illinois.^[15][16]

Duckworth narrates the Salute to Fallen Asian Pacific Islander Heroes in Arlington, Virginia, June 2, 2005.

Following in the footsteps of her father whose long military career spanned service from World War II to the Vietnam War, as well as her father's ancestors who fought in every major American conflict since the Revolutionary War,^[12] Duckworth joined the Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps (Army ROTC) as a graduate student at George Washington University in 1990. She became a commissioned officer in the United States Army Reserve in 1992 and chose to fly helicopters because it was one of the few combat jobs open to women. As a member of the Army Reserve, she went to flight school and joined the Illinois Army National Guard in 1996.^[17]

Duckworth lost the lower part of both legs from injuries sustained^[18] on November 12, 2004, when the UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter she was co-piloting was hit by a rocket propelled grenade fired by Iraqi insurgents. The explosion "almost completely destroyed her right arm, breaking it in three places and tearing tissue from the back side of it."^[19] This made her the first female double amputee from the Iraq war. ^[20] Duckworth received a Purple Heart on December 3 and was promoted to Major on December 21 at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center, where she was presented with an Air Medal and Army Commendation Medal.^[18]

Post-military career[link]

Duckworth was fitted for prosthetics and is now fully mobile. She helped establish the Intrepid Foundation and is involved in its fundraising to build a rehabilitation center for other injured veterans.

Recognition[link]

Former Republican Presidential candidate Bob Dole dedicated his biography One Soldier's Story in part to Duckworth: "And to Major Tammy Duckworth ... a brave woman wounded in Iraq, who represents all of those with their own battles ahead of them, and their own stories to tell."^[21] Duckworth credits Dole for inspiring her to pursue public service while she recuperated at Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D.C. In her campaign for congress, Dole endorsed Duckworth's opponent.^[22]

In 2007 Duckworth was honored by the non-profit group Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America (IAVA) with the "Veterans Leadership Award", in recognition of her dedication to our nation's newest generation of veterans.^[23]

In May 2010, Duckworth was awarded an honorary doctorate by Northern Illinois University.^[24]

Government service[link]

Duckworth takes the oath-of-office, administered by Judge John J. Farley, as Assistant Secretary of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs for the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, with her husband Bryan Bowlsbey standing beside her.

Duckworth was appointed Director of the Illinois Department of Veterans’ Affairs on November 21, 2006 by Governor Rod Blagojevich.^[25] She worked to develop state programs giving tax credits to employers who hire veterans who served in Iraq, Afghanistan or Desert Storm, more state grants to service organizations, and backing for below-market mortgages for veterans.^[26] She was honored by Chicago's Access Living for "her extraordinary commitment to veterans with disabilities".^[27]

On September 17, 2008, Duckworth attended a campaign event for Dan Seals, Democratic candidate for Illinois's 10th congressional district. She used vacation time to avoid any appearance of impropriety, but violated Illinois law by going to the event in a state-owned van which was equipped for a person with physical disabilities. She promptly acknowledged the mistake and repaid the state for the use of the van.^[28][29]

On February 3, 2009, Duckworth was nominated to be the Assistant Secretary of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs for the United States Department of Veterans Affairs.^[30] The United States Senate confirmed her for the position on April 22.^[9]

On June 30, 2011 Duckworth resigned from the position of Assistant Secretary of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs for the United States Department of Veterans Affairs to launch her campaign for the U.S. House of Representatives in Illinois' 8th Congressional District.

Congressional elections[link]

2006[link]

In the 2006 election, Duckworth was the Democratic nominee for the U.S. House of Representatives seat for the sixth district of Illinois which was vacated by long-time Representative Henry Hyde. Duckworth lost to her opponent, Representative Peter Roskam, by 4,810 votes.^[2][31][32]

2012[link]

In July 2011, Duckworth launched her campaign to run in 2012 for the re-drawn 8th congressional district.^[3] She defeated her opponent Raja Krishnamoorthi to win the Democratic nomination on March 20, 2012 and will face incumbent Republican Congressman Joe Walsh in the general election on November 6, 2012.

Political positions[link]

Health care[link]

Duckworth considered health care to be one of the most important issues to the voters of the Sixth District. She said, "The fact that there are kids who don't have access to health insurance, we need to be expanding S-CHIP. The fact that there are 25 percent of Americans between 50 and 64 who don't have access to health insurance, we need to let them buy into the federal employee health care system. And we certainly need to fix the entire mess made out of Medicare Part D by this administration. So that's what I'm worried about."^[33]

Veteran affairs[link]

Duckworth speaks during the third night of the 2008 Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado.

At the AmVets' National Symposium for the Needs of Young Veterans, Duckworth called for improvements in veterans health care. She called for mandatory funding of veterans’ health care, rather than discretionary funding that could change with political winds; she also wants improvements in transition assistance for those returning to civilian life, particularly for those with disabilities. Duckworth also wanted the Department of Veterans Affairs to hire more veterans as doctors and nurses because they understand what combat veterans face, and she wants the VA to prepare for the possibility of severe respiratory problems in the future for Iraq war veterans.^[34]

Abortion[link]

According to The Washington Post, Duckworth believes that abortion and end-of-life decisions are private matters and should not be subject to federal restriction.^[35] NARAL Pro-Choice America notes that Duckworth is "pro-choice," and during her 2006 campaign for U. S. Congress, Duckworth was endorsed by EMILY's List.^[36]

Education[link]

On 23 August 2006, Duckworth was endorsed by the Illinois Education Association and the Illinois Federation of Teachers. In accepting the endorsements, Duckworth criticized the Bush Administration's education policy. "The strict, one-size fits-all approach under the No Child Left Behind Act doesn’t offer the flexibility that our local schools, teachers and parents need. The fact that schools in our District are on the "watch list" shows that current adequate yearly progress rules are sorely in need of flexibility," she said. "In our community, too many good schools and their resources are at risk and it’s time for real relief and results for students in the Sixth District.^[37]

Immigration[link]

Duckworth supported the Senate's immigration plan, which includes strengthening the border but also would allow legal residency and an eventual opportunity towards citizenship for unlawful immigrants who meet certain requirements, which include: criminal background checks, paying all back taxes, paying fines and application fees of $2,750, learning English and taking courses in American culture and civics. Residents would then be eligible for permanent legal residency once existing backlogs for immigrant visas are cleared.^[38] Some critics of the bill thought it provided amnesty to undocumented aliens.

Instead of building a fence along the border, as the House bill called for, Duckworth suggested increasing the number of border patrol agents by 12,000. Duckworth has called deporting millions of illegal immigrants "unrealistic"^[39]

Iraq War[link]

She has been critical of the administration of President George W. Bush for its provision of veterans' care:

The Iraqi war has created a new need for these centers ... because of the nature of the combat injuries, wounded soldiers are requiring care of more than just a month or two. We weren't ready for that. But the Army is a huge institution — it can't react as quickly as something like the Intrepid Foundation. And the VA just can't support all the veterans it needs to; its budget needs to be protected from cuts. There are veterans who, after having served this country, have to go without the basic care they were promised they would get.

—Tammy Duckworth, ^[40]

Although Duckworth disagreed with Bush's decision to invade Iraq, she said that she felt obligated to uphold her commitment. In December 2005 she said, "We should have been fighting the enemies that attacked us at home on 9/11. (...) We should have been out there trying to catch Osama bin Laden."^[41] Duckworth is still a Lieutenant Colonel in the Illinois National Guard, and still serves on some weekends.^[42]

Duckworth was chosen by the Democratic Party to give the 30 September 2006 response to President Bush's weekly radio address. Her comments included the following:

Instead of a plan or a strategy, we get shallow slogans like 'Mission Accomplished' and 'Stay the course,'...Those slogans are calculated to win an election. But they won't help us accomplish our mission in Iraq... I didn't cut and run, Mr. President. Like so many others, I proudly fought and sacrificed, my helicopter was shot down long after you proclaimed 'mission accomplished.'... We need a Congress that will ask the tough questions and work together for solutions rather than attacking the patriotism of those who disagree.... It is time to encourage Iraqi leaders to take control of their own country and make the tough choices that will stop the civil war and stabilize the country.

—Tammy Duckworth, ^{[43][44][45][46][47]}

Duckworth has criticized the Bush Administration for "failing miserably to plan for Iraq." According to Erinn Deshinsky of the Peoria Journal Star, "Speaking at a news conference before the dinner, Duckworth said experiencing the war firsthand was frustrating, because she saw how the money was being misused. Instead of having a properly equipped helicopter, she was fed lavish meals. She said simple tasks were contracted to companies for large sums of money, even though soldiers could have easily handled the jobs. She called for more accountability from U.S. leaders when it comes to funding for the war. 'I didn't become a soldier to eat steak and lobster', Duckworth said, 'but I want my men to be protected.'"^[48]

Duckworth's strategic recommendations included requesting an immediate accounting by the U.S. Secretary of Defense of the readiness level and the training of the Iraqi forces, followed by aggressive benchmarks for progress and redeployment of U.S. troops linked to the stand-up of Iraqi troops, saying the U.S. should proceed by standing-down a defined number of U.S. units for every Iraqi battalion that can be properly trained and certified as combat-ready.^[49]

Duckworth has said that the war in Iraq is not central to the war on terror: "I think a very small percentage of what is happening in Iraq is terrorist activity. I think most of it is sectarian violence, it's Sunnis fighting Shiites ... I think that to try to tie Iraq to the war on terror is a disservice to the real work that has to be done in the war on terror, which includes finishing the job in Afghanistan, capturing Osama Bin Laden and destroying Al Qaeda but also protecting our people here at home."^[50]

The Sunday Times reported that Duckworth agreed with General Sir Richard Dannatt, the British Army chief, that the presence of coalition troops is exacerbating the conflict:

"We’re attracting more people to terrorism than ever before. We really need to think about drawing down," she told The Sunday Times. "I want the secretary of defense to come before Congress and tell us how many Iraqis are fully trained. If two guys can do traffic control in Kirkuk, I want to bring two Americans home."^[51]

Duckworth's opponent responded to Duckworth's proposals by saying: "The 6th Congressional District is not a 'cut and run' district. It is not a timetable district."^[52] In a debate, Duckworth reacted angrily to this idea: "I just could not believe he would say that to me. I have risked my life to serve my country and you cannot question my patriotism."^[53]

When asked whether she would like to see Bush impeached, Duckworth said that Congress has "far more pressing issues to deal with."^[54]

Defense spending[link]

In August 2006, Duckworth called on Congress to audit the estimated $437 billion spent on overseas military and foreign aid since September 11, 2001.^[55] She said, "Real and meaningful oversight has taken a back seat to partisan inaction. With the right kind of leadership Congress can bring greater fiscal discipline and accountability to the billions of dollars we are spending on our military efforts."^[55]

Gun control[link]

On October 10, 2006, Duckworth was endorsed by the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence. The endorsement was announced in a joint appearance with the Fraternal Order of Police, who had also endorsed Duckworth. At the press conference in Lombard, Illinois, Duckworth referred to the recent school shootings and criticized her opponent's opposition to renewing a Federal ban on semi-automatic firearms, which expired in 2004. Duckworth pointed out that Henry Hyde, then the Sixth district congressman, supported the ban. Duckworth claimed, "Basically, whatever the NRA wants, Peter Roskam will vote for it." Duckworth also supported the Brady Law, which requires background checks for gun purchases from federally licensed firearm dealers.^[56][57][58]

Earmarks[link]

In August 2006, Duckworth criticized the use of earmarks and pork-barrel spending in Congress. Duckworth said that earmarks should be eliminated to rein in spending and to reform ethics, arguing that they often are divvied out in exchange for votes. Duckworth's opponent opposed earmark reform, saying they are 'part of the process' legislators use to cut through bureaucracies and deliver constituents projects like the proton beam.^[59]

See also[link]

United States Army portal

• Veterans for a Secure America
• VoteVets.org

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tammy Duckworth

• Tammy Duckworth campaign website
• Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs, Staff biography page
• Newsmeat.com's list of Duckworth's campaign contributors
• opensecrets.org Total Raised and Spent: Illinois District 6
• Federal Election Commission contributor list

Audio links[link]

• 24 September debate on WBBM radio
• Audio and transcript of Duckworth's 30 September response to President Bush's weekly radio address
• National Public Radio piece on 19 October debate at College of DuPage

Video link[link]

• NCRR Mailers and Ads at the Illinois Coalition for Immigrant and Refugee Rights website