Adriatic Sea
Map of the Adriatic Sea
Location	Europe
Coordinates	43°N 15°E / 43°N 15°E / 43; 15Coordinates: 43°N 15°E / 43°N 15°E / 43; 15
Primary sources	Adige, Bojana, Drin, Krka, Neretva, Po, Soča
Primary outflows	Ionian Sea
Catchment area	235,000 km2 (91,000 sq mi)
Basin countries	Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia–Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania (bordering); Switzerland and France (drainage basins for inflow rivers)
Max length	800 km (500 mi)
Max width	200 km (120 mi)
Surface area	138,600 km2 (53,500 sq mi)
Average depth	252.5 m (828 ft)
Max depth	1,233 m (4,045 ft)
Water volume	35,000 km3 (8,400 cu mi)
Residence time (of Ocean water)	3.4±0.4 years
Salinity	38–39 PSU
Shore length1	3,739.1 km (2,323.4 mi)
Max temperature	24 °C (75 °F)
Min temperature	9 °C (48 °F)
Islands	Over 1300
Settlements	Bari, Venice, Trieste, Split, Ravenna, Rimini, Rijeka, Pescara, Durres, Ancona

The Adriatic Sea ( /ˌeɪdriˈætɨk/) is a body of water separating the Apennine Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula and the Apennine Mountains from the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) to the northwest and the Po Valley. Its coasts are part of (in decreasing order of coastline length without islands) Croatia, Italy, Albania, Montenegro, Slovenia and Bosnia–Herzegovina. The Adriatic contains over 1300 islands, mostly located along its eastern coast. It is divided into three basins—the northern being the shallowest and the southern being the deepest, with a maximum depth of 1,233 metres (4,045 ft). The Otranto Sill, a decrease in depth, is located at the border between the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The prevailing currents flow counterclockwise from the Strait of Otranto, along the eastern coast and back to the strait along the western (Italian) coast. Tidal movements in the Adriatic are slight, although larger amplitudes are known to occur occasionally. The Adriatic's salinity is lower than the Mediterranean's because the former collects a third of the fresh water flowing into the latter, acting as a dilution basin. The surface water temperatures generally range from 24 °C (75 °F) in summer to 12 °C (54 °F) in winter, significantly moderating the Adriatic Basin's climate.

The Adriatic Sea sits on the Apulian or Adriatic Microplate, which separated from the African Plate in the Mesozoic era. The plate's movement contributed to the Alpine orogeny and Apennine tectonic uplift via its collision with the likewise-moving Eurasian plate. All types of sediment are found in the Adriatic, with the bulk of the material transported by the Po and other rivers on the western coast. The western coast is alluvial or terraced, while the eastern coast is highly indented with pronounced karstification. There are dozens of marine protected areas in the Adriatic, designed to protect the sea's karst habitats and biodiversity. The sea is abundant in flora and fauna—more than 7,000 species are identified as native to the Adriatic, including endemic, rare and threatened ones.

The Adriatic's shores are populated by more than 3.5 million people; the largest cities are Bari, Venice, Trieste and Split. The earliest settlements on the Adriatic shores were Etruscan, Illyrian, and Greek. By the 2nd century BC, the shores were under the Roman Republic's control. In the Middle Ages, the Adriatic shores and the sea itself were controlled, to a varying extent, by a series of states—most notably the Byzantine Empire, the Republic of Venice, the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire. The Napoleonic Wars resulted in the First French Empire gaining coastal control and the British effort to counter the French in the area, ultimately securing most of the Eastern Adriatic and the Po Valley for Austria. Following Italian unification, the Kingdom of Italy started an eastward expansion that lasted until the 20th century. Following World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, the eastern coast's control passed to Yugoslavia and Albania. The former disintegrated in the 1990s, resulting in four new states on the Adriatic coast. Italy and Yugoslavia agreed on their maritime boundaries by 1975 and this boundary is recognised by Yugoslavia's successor states, but the maritime boundaries between Slovenian, Croatian, Bosnian–Herzegovinian and Montenegrin waters are disputed. Italy and Albania agreed on their maritime boundary in 1992.

The Adriatic Sea is significant to the economies of the countries found along its coasts, especially in terms of fisheries and tourism. Adriatic Croatia's tourism industry has grown faster economically than the rest of the Adriatic Basin's. Maritime transport is also a significant branch of the area's economy—there are 19 seaports in the Adriatic that each handle more than a million tonnes of cargo per year. The largest Adriatic seaport by annual cargo turnover is the Port of Trieste, while the Port of Split is the largest Adriatic seaport by passengers served per year.

Geography[link]

The Adriatic Sea is a semi-enclosed sea,^[1] bordered in the southwest by the Apennine peninsula, in the northwest by the Italian regions of Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and in the northeast by Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia–Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania—the Balkan peninsula. In the southeast, the Adriatic Sea connects to the Ionian Sea at the 72-kilometre (45 mi) wide Strait of Otranto.^[2] The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the boundary between the Adriatic and the Ionian seas as a line running from the Butrinto River's mouth (latitude 39°44'N) in Albania to the Karagol Cape in Corfu, through this island to the Kephali Cape (these two capes are in latitude 39°45'N), and on to the Santa Maria di Leuca Cape (latitude 39°48'N).^[3] It extends 800 kilometres (500 mi) from the northwest to the southeast and is 200 kilometres (120 mi) wide. It covers 138,600 square kilometres (53,500 sq mi) and has a volume of 35,000 cubic kilometres (8,400 cu mi). The Adriatic extends northwest from 40° to 45°47' north, representing the Mediterranean's northernmost portion.^[2] The sea is geographically divided into the Northern Adriatic, Central (or Middle) Adriatic, and Southern Adriatic.^[4] The Adriatic Sea drainage basin encompasses 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi), yielding a land–sea ratio of 1.8. The drainage basin's mean elevation is 782 metres (2,566 ft) above sea level, with a mean slope of 12.1°.^[5] Major rivers discharging into the Adriatic include the Po, Soča, Krka, Neretva, Drin, Bojana, and Vjosë.^[6][7] In the late 19th century, Austria-Hungary established a geodetic network with an elevation benchmark using the average Adriatic Sea level at the Sartorio pier in Trieste, Italy. The benchmark was subsequently retained by Austria, adopted by Yugoslavia, and retained by the states that emerged after its dissolution.^[8][9]

Bay of Kotor, a ria in the Southern Adriatic

The Adriatic Sea contains over 1300 islands and islets, most along the Adriatic's eastern coast—especially in Croatia, with 1,246 counted. The number includes islands, islets, and rocks of all sizes, including ones emerging at ebb tide only.^[13] The Croatian islands include the largest—Cres and Krk, each covering about the same area of 405.78 square kilometres (156.67 sq mi)—and the tallest—Brač, whose peak reaches 780 metres (2,560 ft) above sea level. The islands of Cres and the adjacent Lošinj are separated only by a narrow navigable canal dug in the time of classical antiquity;^[14] the original single island was known to the Greeks as Apsyrtides.^[15] The Croatian islands include 48 permanently inhabited ones, the most populous among them being Krk and Korčula.^[16] The islands along the Adriatic's western (Italian) coast are smaller and less numerous than those along the opposite coast; the best-known ones are the 117 islands on which the city of Venice is built.^[17] The northern shore of the Greek island of Corfu also lies in the Adriatic Sea as defined by the IHO.^[18] The IHO boundary places a few smaller Greek islands (ones northwest of Corfu) in the Adriatic Sea.^[3][19]

Adriatic islands off of Croatia's coast

Bathymetry[link]

Depth of the Adriatic Sea

The Adriatic Sea's average depth is 252.5 metres (828 ft), and its maximum depth is 1,233 metres (4,045 ft); however, the North Adriatic basin rarely exceeds a depth of 100 metres (330 ft).^[10] The North Adriatic basin, extending between Venice and Trieste towards a line connecting Ancona and Zadar, is only 15 metres (49 ft) deep at its northwestern end; it gradually deepens towards the southeast. It is the largest Mediterranean shelf and is simultaneously a dilution basin and a site of bottom water formation.^[20] The Middle Adriatic basin is south of the Ancona–Zadar line, with the 270-metre (890 ft) deep Middle Adriatic Pit (also called the Pomo Depression or the Jabuka Pit). The 170-metre (560 ft) deep Palagruža Sill is south of the Middle Adriatic Pit, separating it from the 1,200-metre (3,900 ft) deep South Adriatic Pit and the Middle Adriatic basin from the South Adriatic Basin. Further on to the south, the sea floor rises to 780 metres (2,560 ft) to form the Otranto Sill at the boundary to the Ionian Sea. The South Adriatic Basin is similar in many respects to the Northern Ionian Sea, to which it is connected.^[7] Transversely, the Adriatic Sea is also asymmetric: the Apennine peninsular coast is relatively smooth with very few islands and the Monte Conero and Gargano promontories as the only significant protrusions into the sea; in contrast, the Balkan peninsular coast is rugged with numerous islands, especially in Croatia. The coast's ruggedness is exacerbated by the Dinaric Alps' proximity to the coast, in contrast to the opposite (Italian) coast where the Apennine Mountains are further away from the shoreline.^[21]

Hydrology[link]

Schematic layout of Adriatic Sea currents
                     surface currents                      benthic currents

The coastal water dynamics are determined by the asymmetric coasts and the Mediterranean seawater's inflow through the Straits of Otranto and further on along the eastern coast.^[22] The smooth Italian coast (with very few protrusions and no major islands) allows the Western Adriatic Current's smooth flow, which is composed of the surface's relatively freshwater mass and the bottom's cold and dense water mass.^[23] The coastal currents on the opposite shore are far more complex, due to the jagged shoreline, several large islands and the Dinaric Alps' proximity to the shore. The last produces significant temperature variations between the sea and the hinterland, which leads to the creation of local jets.^[21] The tidal movement is normally slight, usually remaining below 30 centimetres (12 in). The amphidromic point is at the mid-width east of Ancona.^[24]

The normal tide levels are known to increase significantly in a conducive environment, leading to coastal flooding; this phenomenon is most famously known in Italy—especially Venice—as acqua alta. Such tides can exceed normal levels by more than 140 centimetres (55 in),^[25] with the highest tide level of 194 centimetres (76 in) observed on 4 November 1966.^[26][27] Such flooding is caused by a combination of factors, including the alignment of the Sun and Moon, meteorological factors such as sirocco related storm surges,^[28] and the basin's geometric shape (which amplifies or reduces the astronomical component). Moreover, the Adriatic's long and narrow rectangular shape is the source of an oscillating water motion (French: seiche) along the basin's minor axis.^[29] Finally, Venice is increasingly vulnerable to flooding due to coastal area soil subsidence.^[30] Such unusually high tides resulting in flooding have also been observed elsewhere in the Adriatic Sea, and have been recorded in recent years in the towns of Koper, Zadar and Šibenik as well.^[31][32][33]

A submarine spring near Omiš, observed through sea surface rippling

It is estimated that the Adriatic's entire volume is exchanged through the Strait of Otranto in 3.4±0.4 years, a comparably short period. (For instance, approximately 500 years are necessary to exchange all the Black Sea's water.) This short period is particularly important as the rivers flowing into the Adriatic discharge up to 5,700 cubic metres per second (200,000 cu ft/s). This rate of discharge amounts to 0.5% of the total Adriatic Sea volume, or a 1.3-metre (4 ft 3 in) layer of water each year. The greatest portion of the discharge from any single river comes from the Po (28%),^[34] with an average discharge from it alone of 1,569 cubic metres per second (55,400 cu ft/s).^[35] In terms of the annual total discharge into the entire Mediterranean Sea, the Po is ranked second, followed by the Neretva and Drin, which rank as third and fourth.^[36] Another significant contributor of freshwater to the Adriatic is the submarine groundwater discharge through submarine springs (Croatian: vrulja); it is estimated to comprise 29% of the total water flux into the Adriatic.^[37] The submarine springs include thermal springs, discovered offshore near the town of Izola. The thermal springwater is rich with hydrogen sulfide, has a temperature of 22 to 29.6 °C (72 to 85 °F), and has enabled the development of specific ecosystems.^[38] The inflow of freshwater, representing a third of the freshwater volume flowing into the Mediterranean,^[39] makes the Adriatic a dilution basin for the Mediterranean Sea.^[40] The Middle and South Adriatic Gyres (SAG), are significant cyclonic circulation features, with the former being intermittent and the latter permanent. The SAG measures 150 kilometres (93 miles) in diameter. It contributes to the flow of bottom water from the Adriatic to the Levantine Basin through the Ionian Sea. Through that process, the Adriatic Sea produces most of the East Mediterranean deep water.^[41]

Temperature and salinity[link]

The Adriatic's surface temperature usually ranges from 22 to 24 °C (72 to 75 °F) in the summer, or 12 to 14 °C (54 to 57 °F) in the winter, except along the western Adriatic coast's northern part, where it drops to 9 °C (48 °F) in the winter. The distinct seasonal temperature variations, with a longitudinal gradient in the Northern and transversal gradient in the Middle and Southern Adriatic,^[42] are attributed to the continental characteristics of the Adriatic Sea: it is shallower and closer to land than are oceans.^[43] During particularly cold winters, sea ice may appear in the Adriatic's shallow coastal areas, especially in the Venetian Lagoon but also in isolated shallows as far south as Tisno (south of Zadar).^[44][45] The Southern Adriatic is about 8 to 10 °C (14 to 18 °F) warmer during the winter than the more northerly regions.^[4] The Adriatic's salinity variation over the year is likewise distinct:^[43] it ranges between 38 and 39 PSUs.^[42] The southern Adriatic is subjected to saltier water from the Levantine Basin.^[4]

Climate[link]

As in most Mediterranean Basin areas, the Adriatic Sea and its surrounding landmass enjoy the Mediterranean climate, a type of subtropical climate. Since the Adriatic Sea is located in the mid-latitudes, it is characterized by a seasonally variable climate; it is also characterized by warm to hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters. The air temperature fluctuates by about 20 °C (68 °F) during a season.^[42] According to the Köppen climate classification, the southern and central Adriatic are classified as hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) and the northern Adriatic as humid subtropical climate (Cfa) areas.^[46][47] The predominant winter winds are the bora and sirocco (called jugo along the eastern coast). The bora is significantly conditioned by wind gaps in the Dinaric Alps bringing cold and dry continental air; it reaches peak speeds in the areas of Trieste, Senj, and Split, with gusts of up to 180 kilometres per hour (97 kn; 110 mph). The sirocco brings humid and warm air, often carrying Saharan sand causing rain dust.^[48]

Population[link]

On the Adriatic Sea's coasts and islands, there are numerous small settlements, but few larger cities. Among the largest are Bari, Venice, Trieste, Ravenna, and Rimini in Italy, Split, Rijeka and Zadar in Croatia, Durrës and Vlorë in Albania and Koper in Slovenia. In total, more than 3.5 million people live on the Adriatic coasts.^[53]

Coastal management[link]

MOSE Project north of Lido di Venezia

Venice, which was originally built on islands off the coast, is most at risk due to subsidence, but the threat is present in the Po delta as well. The causes are a decrease in sedimentation rate due to loss of sediment behind dams, the deliberate excavation of sand for industrial purposes, agricultural use of water, and removal of ground water.^[54][55]

The sinking of Venice slowed after artesian wells were banned in the 1960s, but the city remains threatened by the acqua alta floods. Recent studies have suggested that the city is no longer sinking,^[56][57] but a state of alert remains in place. In May 2003, then-Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE project (Italian: Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of inflatable gates. The project proposes laying a series of 79 inflatable pontoons across the sea bed at the three entrances to the Venetian Lagoon. When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres (43 in), the pontoons will be filled with air and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea. This engineering work is due to be completed by 2014.^[58]

Geology[link]

Adriatic Microplate boundaries

Geophysical and geological information indicate that the Adriatic Sea and the Po Valley are associated with a tectonic microplate—identified as the Apulian or Adriatic Plate—that separated from the African Plate during the Mesozoic era. This separation began in the Middle and Late Triassic, when limestone began to be deposited in the area. Between the Norian and Late Cretaceous, the Adriatic and Apulia Carbonate Platforms formed as a thick series of carbonate sediments (dolomites and limestones), up to 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) deep.^[59] Remnants of the former are found in the Adriatic Sea, as well as in the southern Alps and the Dinaric Alps, and remnants of the latter are seen as the Gargano Promontory and the Maiella mountain. In the Eocene and early Oligocene, the plate moved north and north-east, contributing to the Alpine orogeny (along with the African and Eurasian Plates' movements) via the tectonic uplift of the Dinarides and Alps. In the Late Oligocene, the motion was reversed and the Apennine Mountains' orogeny took place.^[60] An unbroken zone of increased seismic activity borders the Adriatic Sea, with a belt of thrust faults generally oriented in the northeast–southwest direction on the east coast and the northeast–southwest normal faults in the Apennines, indicating an Adriatic counterclockwise rotation.^[61] An active 200-kilometre (120 mi) fault has been identified to the northwest of Dubrovnik, adding to the Dalmatian islands as the Eurasian Plate slides over the Adriatic microplate. Furthermore, the fault causes the Apennine peninsula's southern tip to move towards the opposite shore by about 0.4 centimetres (0.16 in) per year. If this movement continues, the seafloor will be completely consumed and the Adriatic Sea closed off in 50–70 million years.^[62] In the Northern Adriatic, the coast of the Gulf of Trieste and western Istria is gradually subsiding, having sunk about 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) in the past two thousand years.^[63] In the Middle Adriatic Basin, there is evidence of Permian volcanism in the area of Komiža on the island of Vis and the volcanic islands of Jabuka and Brusnik.^[64] Earthquakes have been observed in the region since the earliest historical records.^[65] A recent strong earthquake in the region was the 1979 Montenegro earthquake, measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale.^[66] Historical earthquakes in the area include the 1627 Gargano peninsula and the 1667 Dubrovnik earthquakes, both followed by strong tsunamis.^[67] In the last 600 years, fifteen tsunamis have occurred in the Adriatic Sea.^[68]

Seafloor sediment[link]

Sediment billowing out from Italy's shore into the Adriatic

All types of seafloor sediments are found in the Adriatic Sea. The Northern Adriatic's comparatively shallow seabed is characterised by relict sand (from times when the water level was lower and the area was a sandy beach), while a muddy bed is typical at depths below 100 metres (330 ft).^[22][69] There are five geomorphological units in the Adriatic: the Northern Adriatic (up to 100 metres (330 ft) deep); the North Adriatic islands area protected against sediments filling it in by outer islands (pre-Holocene karst relief); the Middle Adriatic islands area (large Dalmatian islands); the Middle Adriatic (characterized by the Middle Adriatic Depression); and the Southern Adriatic consisting of a coastal shelf and the Southern Adriatic Depression. Sediments deposited in the Adriatic Sea today generally come from the northwest coast, being carried by the Po, Reno, Adige, Brenta, Tagliamento, Piave and Soča rivers. The volume of sediments carried from the eastern shore by the Rječina, Zrmanja, Krka, Cetina, Ombla, Dragonja, Mirna, Raša and Neretva rivers is negligible, because these sediments are mostly deposited at the river mouths. The Adriatic's western shores are largely either alluvial or terraced, whereas the eastern shores are predominantly rocky, except for the southernmost part of the shore located in Albania that consists of sandy coves and rocky capes.^[60]

Coasts[link]

The eastern Adriatic shore's Croatian part is the most indented Mediterranean coastline.^[70] Most of the eastern coast is characterised by a karst topography, developed from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform's exposure to weathering. Karstification there largely began after the Dinarides' final uplift in the Oligocene and the Miocene, when carbonate deposits were exposed to atmospheric effects; this extended to the level of 120 metres (390 ft) below the present sea level, exposed during the Last Glacial Maximum. It is estimated that some karst formations are from earlier sea level drops, most notably the Messinian salinity crisis.^[59] Similarly, karst developed in Apulia from the Apulian Carbonate Platform.^[71]

The largest part of the eastern coast consists of carbonate rocks, while flysch (a particular type of sedimentary rock) is significantly represented in the Gulf of Trieste coast, especially along Slovenia's coast where the 80-metre (260 ft) Strunjan cliff—the highest cliff on the entire Adriatic and the only one of its type on the eastern Adriatic coast—is located,^[72] on the Kvarner Gulf coast opposite Krk, and in Dalmatia north of Split.^[73] Rocks of the same type are found in Albania and on the western Adriatic coast.^[74][75]

There are alternations of maritime and alluvial sediments occurring in the Po Valley, at the Adriatic's north-west coast, and as far west as Piacenza, dating to the Pleistocene as the sea advanced and receded over the valley. An advance began after the Last Glacial Maximum, which brought the Adriatic to a high point at about 5,500 years ago.^[76] Since then, the Po delta has been prograding (expanding/extending). The rate of coastal zone progradation between 1000 BC and 1200 AD was 4 metres (13 ft) per year.^[77] In the 12th century, the delta advanced at a rate of 25 metres (82 ft) per year. In the 17th century, the delta began to become a human-controlled environment, as the excavation of artificial channels started; the channels and new distributaries of the Po have been prograding at rates of 50 metres (160 ft) per year or more since then.^[78] There are more than 20 other rivers flowing into the Adriatic Sea in Italy alone, also forming alluvial coastlines,^[79] including the lagoons of Venice, Grado and Caorle.^[80] There are smaller Eastern Adriatic alluvial coasts—in the deltas of the Dragonja,^[81] Bojana and Neretva rivers.^[82][83]

Biogeography and ecology[link]

The Adriatic Sea is a unique water body in respect of its overall biogeochemical physionomy. It exports inorganic nutrients and imports particulate organic carbon and nitrogen through the Strait of Otranto—acting as a mineralization site. The exchange of the substances is made more complex by bathymetry of the Adriatic Sea—75% of water flowing north through the strait recirculates at the Palagruža Sill and North Adriatic adds no more than 3 – 4% of water to the South Adriatic.^[84] This is reflected in its biogeography and ecology, and particularly in the composition and properties of its ecosystems.^[4] Its main biogeographic units are the Northern Adriatic, the Central Adriatic, and the Southern Adriatic.^[85]

Flora and fauna[link]

The unique nature of the Adriatic gives rise to an abundance of endemic flora and fauna. The Croatian National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan identified more than 7,000 animal and plant species in the Adriatic Sea. The Central Adriatic is especially abundant in endemic plant species, with 535 identified species of green, brown and red algae.^[86] Four out of five Mediterranean seagrass species are found in the Adriatic Sea. The most common species are Cymodocea nodosa and Zostera noltii, while Zostera marina and Posidonia oceanica are comparably rare.^[87]

A number of rare and threatened species are also found along the Adriatic's eastern coast; it is relatively clearer and less polluted than the western Adriatic coast—in part because the sea currents flow through the Adriatic in a counterclockwise direction, thus bringing clearer waters up the eastern coast and returning increasingly polluted water down the western coast. This circulation has significantly contributed to the biodiversity of the countries along the eastern Adriatic coast; for instance, the common bottlenose dolphin is frequent in the eastern coast's waters only.

The Northern Adriatic in particular is rich in endemic fish fauna.^[7] Around thirty species of fish are found in only one or two countries bordering the Adriatic Sea. These are particularly due to or dependant upon the karst morphology of the coastal or submarine topography; this includes inhabiting subterranean habitats, karst rivers, and areas around freshwater springs.^[88] There are 45 known subspecies endemic to the Adriatic's coasts and islands. In the Adriatic, there are at least 410 species and subspecies of fish, representing approximately 70% of Mediterranean taxa, with at least 7 species endemic to the Adriatic. 64 known species are threatened with extinction, largely because of overfishing.^[86] Only a small fraction of the fish found in the Adriatic are attributed to recent processes such as Lessepsian migration, cases of escape from mariculture or similar.^[89]

Protected areas[link]

Isole Tremiti protected area

The biodiversity of the Adriatic is relatively high, and several marine protected areas have been established by countries along its coasts. In Italy, these are Miramare in the Gulf of Trieste (in the Northern Adriatic), Torre del Cerrano and Isole Tremiti in the Middle Adriatic basin and Torre Guaceto in southern Apulia.^[90][91] The Miramare protected area was established in 1986 and covers 30 hectares (74 acres) of coast and 90 hectares (220 acres) of sea. The area encompasses 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi) of coastline near the Miramare promontory in the Gulf of Trieste.^[92] The Torre del Cerrano protected area was created in 2009, extending 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) into the sea and along 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) of coastline. Various zones of the protected area cover 37 square kilometres (14 sq mi) of sea surface.^[93] The Isole Tremiti reserve has been protected since 1989, while the Tremiti islands themselves are part of the Gargano National Park.^[94] The Torre Guaceto protected area, located near Brindisi and Carovigno, covers a sea surface of 2,227 hectares (5,500 acres) and is adjacent to the Torre Guaceto State Reserve covering 1,114 hectares (2,750 acres) of coast and sharing a 8-kilometre (5.0 mi) coastline with the marine protected area.^[95] Furthermore there are 10 internationally-important (Ramsar) wetland reserves in Italy located along the Adriatic coast.^[96]

Kornati national park

There are seven marine protected areas in Croatia: Brijuni and the Lim Canal off the Istria peninsula's coast, near Pula and Rovinj respectively; Kornati and Telašćica in the Middle Adriatic basin, near Šibenik; and Lastovo, Bay of Mali Ston (Croatian: Malostonski zaljev) and Mljet in southern Dalmatia.^[90] The Brijuni national park encompasses the 743.3-hectare (1,837-acre) archipelago itself and 2,651.7 hectares (6,552 acres) of surrounding sea;^[97] it became a national park in 1999.^[98] The Lim Canal is a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) ria of the Pazinčica river.^[99] The Kornati national park was established in 1980; it covers approximately 220 square kilometres (85 sq mi), including 89 islands and islets. The marine environment encompasses three quarters of the total area, while the island shores' combined length equals 238 kilometres (148 mi).^[100] Telašćica is a nature park established on Dugi Otok in 1988. The park covers 69 kilometres (43 mi) of coastline, 22.95 square kilometres (8.86 sq mi) of land and 44.55 square kilometres (17.20 sq mi) of sea.^[101] The Bay of Mali Ston is located at the border of Croatia and Bosnia–Herzegovina, north of the Pelješac peninsula. The marine protected area covers 48 square kilometres (19 sq mi).^[90] The Lastovo nature park was established in 2006, and it includes 44 islands and islets, 53 square kilometres (20 sq mi) of land and 143 square kilometres (55 sq mi) of sea surface.^[102] The Mljet national park was established in 1960, covering a 24-square-kilometre (9.3 sq mi) marine protection area.^[90] In addition, there is a Ramsar wetland reserve in Croatia—the Neretva river's delta.^[103]

Karavasta Lagoon in Albania

In Slovenia, the marine and coastal protected nature areas are the Sečovlje Salina Nature Park, Strunjan Landscape Park, Škocjan Inlet Nature Reserve, and the Debeli Rtič, Cape Madona and Lakes in Fiesa natural monuments.^[104][105] The Sečovlje Salina Nature Park was established in 1990, covers 721 hectares (1,780 acres), and includes four nature reserves.^[106][107] In 1993, the area was designated a Ramsar site;^[104] it is also a site of international importance for waterbird species.^[108] The 429-hectare (1,060-acre) Strunjan Landscape Park was established in 2004 and comprises two nature reserves.^[104][106] It includes a 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) long cliff, the northernmost Mediterranean salt field and the only Slovenian lagoon system.^[109] It is also the northernmost point of growth of some Mediterranean plant species.^[110] The Škocjan Inlet Nature Reserve was established in 1998 and covers 122 hectares (300 acres).^[111] The Debeli Rtič natural monument covers 25 hectares (62 acres),^[112] the Cape Madona natural monument covers 13 hectares (32 acres)^[112] and the coastal lake in Fiesa, the only brackish lake in Slovenia, covers 2.5 hectares (6.2 acres).^[113]

In 2010, Albania established its first marine protection area, the Karaburun-Sazan National Marine Park at the Karaburun Peninsula where the Adriatic and Ionian Seas meet. The park covers a total of 12,570 hectares (31,100 acres).^[114] Two additional marine protection areas are planned in Albania: the Cape of Rodon (Albanian: Kepi i Rodonit) and Porto Palermo.^[90] In addition, Albania is home to two Ramsar wetland reserves: Karavasta Lagoon, and Butrint.^[115] Neither Bosnia–Herzegovina nor Montenegro have or plan to establish any marine protection areas.^[90]

Pollution[link]

The Adriatic Sea ecosystem is threatened by excessive input of nutrients through drainage from agricultural land and wastewater flowing from cities; this includes both along its coast and from rivers draining into the sea—especially from the Po River.^[116] Venice is often cited as an example of polluted coastal waters where shipping, transportation, farming, manufacturing and wastewater disposal contribute to polluting the sea.^[117] A further risk is presented by ballast water discharge by ships, especially tankers. Still, since most of the cargo handled by the Adriatic ports, and virtually all liquid (tanker) cargo handled by the ports, is coming to—not coming from—the Adriatic basin the risk from ballast water (from tankers expelling ballast water then loading in the Adriatic) remains minimal. However, proposed export oil pipelines were objected to specifically because of this issue. Oil spills are a major concern in terms of potential environmental impact and damage to tourism and fisheries.^[118] It is estimated that if a major oil spill happened, a million people would lose their livelihoods in Croatia alone.^[119] An additional risk is presented by oil refineries in the Po River basin where oil spills have occurred before,^[120] in addition to accidents occurring in the Adriatic already, so far with no significant environmental consequences.^[121] Since 2006, Italy has been considering the construction of an offshore and an onshore LNG terminal in the Gulf of Trieste, as well as a pipeline, in the immediate vicinity of the Slovenian–Italian border.^[122] The Slovenian government and municipalities,^[123] the municipal council of Trieste,^[124] and non-governmental organisations have voiced concern over their environmental hazards, effect on transport and effect on tourism.^[125][126]

Another source of pollution of the Adriatic is solid waste. Drifting waste—occasionally relatively large quantities of material, especially waste plastic—is transported northwest by the sirocco.^[127] Air pollution in the Adriatic basin is associated with the large industrial centres in the Po River valley and the large industrial cities along the coast.^[128][129]

Italy and Yugoslavia established a joint commission to protect the Adriatic Sea from pollution in 1977; the organization later changed with Slovenia, Croatia and Montenegro replacing Yugoslavia.^[130] Future pollution hazards are addressed and pollution hotspots are assessed not only by nations in the basin but also through regional projects with World Bank support. 27 such hotspots have been determined as of 2011, 6 warranting an urgent response.^[131]

History[link]

Name[link]

The etymology of the name Adriatic is linked to the Etruscan settlement of Adria, its own name probably originating from the Illyrian word adur meaning water or sea.^[132] In classical antiquity, the sea was known as Mare Adriaticum (Mare Hadriaticum, also sometimes simplified to Adria) or, less frequently, as Mare Superum.^[133] The two terms were not synonymous, however. Mare Adriaticum generally corresponds to the Adriatic Sea's extent, spanning from the Gulf of Venice to the Strait of Otranto. That boundary became more consistently defined by Roman authors—early Greek sources place the boundary between the Adriatic and Ionian seas at various places ranging from adjacent to the Gulf of Venice to the southern tip of the Peloponnese, eastern shores of Sicily and western shores of Crete.^[134] Mare Superum on the other hand normally encompassed both the modern Adriatic Sea and the sea off the Apennine peninsula's southern coast, as far as the Strait of Sicily.^[135] Another name used in the period was Mare Dalmaticum, applied to waters off the coast of Dalmatia or Illyricum.^[136]

Early history[link]

Pula Arena, one of the six largest surviving Roman amphitheatres

Settlements along the Adriatic dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC appear in Albania and Dalmatia on the eastern coast, related to the Cardium Pottery Culture.^[137] During classical antiquity, the Adriatic's shores were initially inhabited by the Ancient peoples of Italy—the Etruscan civilization becoming the most prominent before the Roman Republic's rise—on the Western Adriatic coast,^[138] and by the Illyrians along the Eastern Adriatic coast.^[139] Greek colonisation of the Adriatic dates back to the 7th and 6th centuries BC when Epidamnus and Apollonia were founded. The Greeks soon expanded further north establishing several cities, including Epidaurus, Black Corcyra, Issa and Ancona, with trade established as far north as the Po River delta, where the emporion of Adria was founded. Following Roman intervention and the Illyrian Wars, the Eastern Adriatic shore became a province of the Roman Republic.^[140] The initial Roman intervention in 229 BC marked the first time that their navy crossed the Adriatic to launch a military campaign.^[141]

Middle Ages[link]

In the Early Middle Ages, after the Roman Empire's decline, the Adriatic's coasts were ruled by Ostrogoths, Lombards and the Byzantine Empire.^[142][143] The last part of the period saw the Carolingian Empire's rise and subsequently the Frankish Kingdom of Italy that controlled the Adriatic Sea's western coast,^[144] while Byzantine control of the opposite coast gradually shrunk following the Avar and Croatian invasions starting in the 7th century.^[145] The Republic of Venice was founded in this period; it later became a significant trading power after receiving a Byzantine tax exemption in 1082.^[146] The end of the period brought about the Holy Roman Empire's control over the Kingdom of Italy (which would last until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648),^[147] the establishment of an independent Kingdom of Croatia and the Byzantine Empire's expansion to the southern Apennine peninsula.^[148][149] In addition, the Papal States were carved out in the area around Rome in the 8th century.^[150]