The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical and consists of hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields.[11][12] It has a diameter of about 1,392,000 km, about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass (about 2×1030 kilograms, 330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.[13] Chemically, about three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen, while the rest is mostly helium. The remainder (1.69%, which nonetheless equals 5,628 times the mass of Earth) consists of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon and iron, among others.[14]
The Sun's stellar classification, based on spectral class, is G2V, and is informally designated as a yellow dwarf, because its visible radiation is most intense in the yellow-green portion of the spectrum and although its color is white, from the surface of the Earth it may appear yellow because of atmospheric scattering of blue light.[15] In the spectral class label, G2 indicates its surface temperature of approximately 5778 K (5505 °C), and V indicates that the Sun, like most stars, is a main-sequence star, and thus generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses 620 million metric tons of hydrogen each second. Once regarded by astronomers as a small and relatively insignificant star, the Sun is now thought to be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy, most of which are red dwarfs.[16][17] The absolute magnitude of the Sun is +4.83; however, as the star closest to Earth, the Sun is the brightest object in the sky with an apparent magnitude of −26.74.[18][19] The Sun's hot corona continuously expands in space creating the solar wind, a stream of charged particles that extends to the heliopause at roughly 100 astronomical units. The bubble in the interstellar medium formed by the solar wind, the heliosphere, is the largest continuous structure in the Solar System.[20][21]
The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud in the Local Bubble zone, within the inner rim of the Orion Arm of the Milky Way galaxy. Of the 50 nearest stellar systems within 17 light-years from Earth (the closest being a red dwarf named Proxima Centauri at approximately 4.2 light-years away), the Sun ranks fourth in mass.[22] The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way at a distance of approximately 24,000–26,000 light-years from the galactic center, completing one clockwise orbit, as viewed from the galactic north pole, in about 225–250 million years. Since our galaxy is moving with respect to the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) in the direction of the constellation Hydra with a speed of 550 km/s, the Sun's resultant velocity with respect to the CMB is about 370 km/s in the direction of Crater or Leo.[23]
The mean distance of the Sun from the Earth is approximately 149.6 million kilometers (1 AU), though the distance varies as the Earth moves from perihelion in January to aphelion in July.[24] At this average distance, light travels from the Sun to Earth in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds. The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis,[25] and drives Earth's climate and weather. The enormous effect of the Sun on the Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times, and the Sun has been regarded by some cultures as a deity. An accurate scientific understanding of the Sun developed slowly, and as recently as the 19th century prominent scientists had little knowledge of the Sun's physical composition and source of energy. This understanding is still developing; there are a number of present-day anomalies in the Sun's behavior that remain unexplained.
The English proper noun Sun developed from Old English sunne (around 725, attested in Beowulf), and may be related to south. Cognates to English sun appear in other Germanic languages, including Old Frisian sunne, sonne ("sun"), Old Saxon sunna, Middle Dutch sonne, modern Dutch zon, Old High German sunna, modern German Sonne, Old Norse sunna, and Gothic sunnō. All Germanic terms for the Sun stem from Proto-Germanic *sunnōn.[26][27]
In relation, the Sun is personified as a goddess in Germanic paganism; Sól/Sunna.[27] Scholars theorize that the Sun, as Germanic goddess, may represent an extension of an earlier Proto-Indo-European sun deity due to Indo-European linguistic connections between Old Norse Sól, Sanskrit Surya, Gaulish Sulis, Lithuanian Saulė, and Slavic Solnitse.[27]
The English weekday name Sunday is attested in Old English (Sunnandæg; "Sun's day", from before 700) and is ultimately a result of a Germanic interpretation of Latin dies solis, itself a translation of the Greek heméra helíou.[28] The Latin name for the star, Sol, is widely known but is not common in general English language use; the adjectival form is the related word solar.[29][30] The term sol is also used by planetary astronomers to refer to the duration of a solar day on another planet, such as Mars.[31] A mean Earth solar day is approximately 24 hours, while a mean Martian 'sol' is 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds.[32]
In this false-color ultraviolet image, the Sun shows a C3-class solar flare (white area on upper left), a solar tsunami (wave-like structure, upper right) and multiple filaments of
plasma following a magnetic field, rising from the stellar surface.
This video takes
SDO images and applies additional processing to enhance the structures visible.The events in this video represent 24 hours of activity on September 25, 2011.
The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star comprising about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. It is a near-perfect sphere, with an oblateness estimated at about 9 millionths,[33] which means that its polar diameter differs from its equatorial diameter by only 10 km. As the Sun consists of a plasma and is not solid, it rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This behavior is known as differential rotation, and is caused by convection in the Sun and the movement of mass, due to steep temperature gradients from the core outwards. This mass carries a portion of the Sun’s counter-clockwise angular momentum, as viewed from the ecliptic north pole, thus redistributing the angular velocity. The period of this actual rotation is approximately 25.6 days at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. However, due to our constantly changing vantage point from the Earth as it orbits the Sun, the apparent rotation of the star at its equator is about 28 days.[34] The centrifugal effect of this slow rotation is 18 million times weaker than the surface gravity at the Sun's equator. The tidal effect of the planets is even weaker, and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun.[35]
The Sun is a Population I, or heavy element-rich,[a] star.[36] The formation of the Sun may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae.[37] This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called Population II (heavy element-poor) stars. These elements could most plausibly have been produced by endergonic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by transmutation through neutron absorption inside a massive second-generation star.[36]
The Sun does not have a definite boundary as rocky planets do, and in its outer parts the density of its gases drops exponentially with increasing distance from its center.[38] Nevertheless, it has a well-defined interior structure, described below. The Sun's radius is measured from its center to the edge of the photosphere. This is simply the layer above which the gases are too cool or too thin to radiate a significant amount of light, and is therefore the surface most readily visible to the naked eye.[39]
The solar interior is not directly observable, and the Sun itself is opaque to electromagnetic radiation. However, just as seismology uses waves generated by earthquakes to reveal the interior structure of the Earth, the discipline of helioseismology makes use of pressure waves (infrasound) traversing the Sun's interior to measure and visualize the star's inner structure.[40] Computer modeling of the Sun is also used as a theoretical tool to investigate its deeper layers.
Cross-section of a solar-type star (
NASA)
The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius.[41] It has a density of up to 150 g/cm3[42][43] (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvin (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the rest of the radiative zone.[41] Through most of the Sun's life, energy is produced by nuclear fusion through a series of steps called the p–p (proton–proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium.[44] Only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from the CNO cycle.[45]
The core is the only region in the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of thermal energy through fusion; inside 24% of the Sun's radius, 99% of the power has been generated, and by 30% of the radius, fusion has stopped nearly entirely. The rest of the star is heated by energy that is transferred outward from the core and the layers just outside. The energy produced by fusion in the core must then travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight or kinetic energy of particles.[46][47]
The proton–proton chain occurs around 9.2×1037 times each second in the core of the Sun. Since this reaction uses four free protons (hydrogen nuclei), it converts about 3.7×1038 protons to alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9×1056 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2×1011 kg per second.[47] Since fusing hydrogen into helium releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy,[48] the Sun releases energy at the mass-energy conversion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second, 384.6 yotta watts (3.846×1026 W),[1] or 9.192×1010 megatons of TNT per second. This mass is not destroyed to create the energy, rather, the mass is carried away in the radiated energy, as described by the concept of mass-energy equivalence.
The power production by fusion in the core varies with distance from the solar center. At the center of the Sun, theoretical models estimate it to be approximately 276.5 watts/m3,[49] a power production density that more nearly approximates reptile metabolism than a thermonuclear bomb.[b] Peak power production in the Sun has been compared to the volumetric heats generated in an active compost heap. The tremendous power output of the Sun is not due to its high power per volume, but instead due to its large size.
The fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present level.[50][51]
The gamma rays (high-energy photons) released in fusion reactions are absorbed in only a few millimeters of solar plasma and then re-emitted again in random direction and at slightly lower energy. Therefore it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the photon travel time range between 10,000 and 170,000 years.[52] In contrast, it takes only 2.3 seconds for the neutrinos, which account for about 2% of the total energy production of the Sun, to reach the surface. Since energy transport in the Sun is a process which involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium with matter, the time scale of energy transport in the Sun is longer, on the order of 30,000,000 years. This is the time it would take the Sun to return to a stable state if the rate of energy generation in its core were suddenly to be changed.[53]
After a final trip through the convective outer layer to the transparent surface of the photosphere, the photons escape as visible light. Each gamma ray in the Sun's core is converted into several million photons of visible light before escaping into space. Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but unlike photons they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. For many years measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were lower than theories predicted by a factor of 3. This discrepancy was resolved in 2001 through the discovery of the effects of neutrino oscillation: the Sun emits the number of neutrinos predicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing 2⁄3 of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor by the time they were detected.[54]
Below about 0.7 solar radii, solar material is hot and dense enough that thermal radiation is sufficient to transfer the intense heat of the core outward.[55] This zone is free of thermal convection; while the material gets cooler from 7 to about 2 million kelvin with increasing altitude, this temperature gradient is less than the value of the adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection.[43] Energy is transferred by radiation—ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons, which travel only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions.[55] The density drops a hundredfold (from 20 g/cm3 to only 0.2 g/cm3) from 0.25 solar radii to the top of the radiative zone.[55]
The radiative zone and the convection form a transition layer, the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another.[56] The fluid motions found in the convection zone above, slowly disappear from the top of this layer to its bottom, matching the calm characteristics of the radiative zone on the bottom. Presently, it is hypothesized (see Solar dynamo), that a magnetic dynamo within this layer generates the Sun's magnetic field.[43]
In the Sun's outer layer, from its surface down to approximately 200,000 km (or 70% of the solar radius), the solar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the thermal energy of the interior outward through radiation; in other words it is opaque enough. As a result, thermal convection occurs as thermal columns carry hot material to the surface (photosphere) of the Sun. Once the material cools off at the surface, it plunges downward to the base of the convection zone, to receive more heat from the top of the radiative zone. At the visible surface of the Sun, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K and the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/6,000th the density of air at sea level).[43]
The thermal columns in the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun as the solar granulation and supergranulation. The turbulent convection of this outer part of the solar interior causes a "small-scale" dynamo that produces magnetic north and south poles all over the surface of the Sun.[43] The Sun's thermal columns are Bénard cells and therefore tend to be hexagonal prisms.[57]
The
effective temperature, or
black body temperature, of the Sun (5777 K) is the temperature a black body of the same size must have to yield the same total emissive power.
Main article:
PhotosphereThe visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light.[58] Above the photosphere visible sunlight is free to propagate into space, and its energy escapes the Sun entirely. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H− ions, which absorb visible light easily.[58] Conversely, the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H− ions.[59][60] The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, being slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or limb of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening.[58] Sunlight has approximately a black-body spectrum that indicates its temperature is about 6,000 K, interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of ~1023 m−3 (this is about 0.37% of the particle number per volume of Earth's atmosphere at sea level; however, photosphere particles are electrons and protons, so the average particle in air is 58 times as heavy).[55]
During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesized that these absorption lines were because of a new element which he dubbed helium, after the Greek Sun god Helios. It was not until 25 years later that helium was isolated on Earth.[61]
During a total
solar eclipse, the solar
corona can be seen with the naked eye, during the brief period of totality.
The parts of the Sun above the photosphere are referred to collectively as the solar atmosphere.[58] They can be viewed with telescopes operating across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio through visible light to gamma rays, and comprise five principal zones: the temperature minimum, the chromosphere, the transition region, the corona, and the heliosphere.[58] The heliosphere, which may be considered the tenuous outer atmosphere of the Sun, extends outward past the orbit of Pluto to the heliopause, where it forms a sharp shock front boundary with the interstellar medium. The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun.[58] The reason has not been conclusively proven; evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona.[62]
The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region about 500 km above the photosphere, with a temperature of about 4,100 K.[58] This part of the Sun is cool enough to support simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water, which can be detected by their absorption spectra.[63]
Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines.[58] It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total eclipses of the Sun.[55] The temperature in the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 20,000 K near the top.[58] In the upper part of chromosphere helium becomes partially ionized.[64]
Taken by
Hinode's Solar Optical Telescope on January 12, 2007, this image of the Sun reveals the filamentary nature of the plasma connecting regions of different magnetic polarity.
Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about 200 km) transition region, the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 K.[65] The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma.[64] The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude. Rather, it forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion.[55] The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to the extreme ultraviolet portion of the spectrum.[66]
The corona is the extended outer atmosphere of the Sun, which is much larger in volume than the Sun itself. The corona continuously expands into space forming the solar wind, which fills all the Solar System.[67] The low corona, near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 1015–1016 m−3.[64][c] The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1,000,000–2,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions it is 8,000,000–20,000,000 K.[65] While no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection.[65][67]
The heliosphere, which is the cavity around the Sun filled with the solar wind plasma, extends from approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU) to the outer fringes of the Solar System. Its inner boundary is defined as the layer in which the flow of the solar wind becomes superalfvénic—that is, where the flow becomes faster than the speed of Alfvén waves.[68] Turbulence and dynamic forces outside this boundary cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere, forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape,[67] until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause. Both of the Voyager probes have recorded higher levels of energetic particles as they approach the boundary.[69]
The Sun is a magnetically active star. It supports a strong, changing magnetic field that varies year-to-year and reverses direction about every eleven years around solar maximum.[71] The Sun's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called solar activity, including sunspots on the surface of the Sun, solar flares, and variations in solar wind that carry material through the Solar System.[72] Effects of solar activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high latitudes, and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Solar activity changes the structure of Earth's outer atmosphere.[73]
All matter in the Sun is in the form of gas and plasma because of its high temperatures. This makes it possible for the Sun to rotate faster at its equator (about 25 days) than it does at higher latitudes (about 35 days near its poles). The differential rotation of the Sun's latitudes causes its magnetic field lines to become twisted together over time, causing magnetic field loops to erupt from the Sun's surface and trigger the formation of the Sun's dramatic sunspots and solar prominences (see magnetic reconnection). This twisting action creates the solar dynamo and an 11-year solar cycle of magnetic activity as the Sun's magnetic field reverses itself about every 11 years.[74][75]
The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself. The magnetized solar wind plasma carries Sun's magnetic field into the space forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field.[67] Since the plasma can only move along the magnetic field lines, the interplanetary magnetic field is initially stretched radially away from the Sun. Because the fields above and below the solar equator have different polarities pointing towards and away from the Sun, there exists a thin current layer in the solar equatorial plane, which is called the heliospheric current sheet.[67] At the large distances the rotation of the Sun twists the magnetic field and the current sheet into the Archimedean spiral like structure called the Parker spiral.[67] The interplanetary magnetic field is much stronger than the dipole component of the solar magnetic field. The Sun's 50–400 μT (in the photosphere) magnetic dipole field reduces with the cube of the distance to about 0.1 nT at the distance of the Earth. However, according to spacecraft observations the interplanetary field at the Earth's location is about 100 times greater at around 5 nT.[76]
The Sun is composed primarily of the chemical elements hydrogen and helium; they account for 74.9% and 23.8% of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere, respectively.[77] All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than 2% of the mass. The most abundant metals are oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron (0.2%).[78]
The Sun inherited its chemical composition from the interstellar medium out of which it formed: the hydrogen and helium in the Sun were produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis. The metals were produced by stellar nucleosynthesis in generations of stars which completed their stellar evolution and returned their material to the interstellar medium before the formation of the Sun.[79] The chemical composition of the photosphere is normally considered representative of the composition of the primordial Solar System.[80] However, since the Sun formed, the helium and heavy elements have settled out of the photosphere. Therefore, the photosphere now contains slightly less helium and only 84% of the heavy elements than the protostellar Sun did; the protostellar Sun was 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5% metals.[77]
In the inner portions of the Sun, nuclear fusion has modified the composition by converting hydrogen into helium, so the innermost portion of the Sun is now roughly 60% helium, with the metal abundance unchanged. Because the interior of the Sun is radiative, not convective (see Radiative zone above), none of the fusion products from the core have risen to the photosphere.[81]
The solar heavy-element abundances described above are typically measured both using spectroscopy of the Sun's photosphere and by measuring abundances in meteorites that have never been heated to melting temperatures. These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and thus not affected by settling of heavy elements. The two methods generally agree well.[14]
In the 1970s, much research focused on the abundances of iron group elements in the Sun.[82][83] Although significant research was done, the abundance determination of some iron group elements (e.g., cobalt and manganese) was still difficult at least as far as 1978 because of their hyperfine structures.[82]
The first largely complete set of oscillator strengths of singly ionized iron group elements were made available first in the 1960s,[84] and improved oscillator strengths were computed in 1976.[85] In 1978 the abundances of singly ionized elements of the iron group were derived.[82]
Various authors have considered the existence of a mass fractionation relationship between the isotopic compositions of solar and planetary noble gases,[86] for example correlations between isotopic compositions of planetary and solar neon and xenon.[87] Nevertheless, the belief that the whole Sun has the same composition as the solar atmosphere was still widespread, at least until 1983.[88]
In 1983, it was claimed that it was the fractionation in the Sun itself that caused the fractionation relationship between the isotopic compositions of planetary and solar wind implanted noble gases.[88]
Measurements of solar cycle variation during the last 30 years
When observing the Sun with appropriate filtration, the most immediately visible features are usually its sunspots, which are well-defined surface areas that appear darker than their surroundings because of lower temperatures. Sunspots are regions of intense magnetic activity where convection is inhibited by strong magnetic fields, reducing energy transport from the hot interior to the surface. The magnetic field causes strong heating in the corona, forming active regions that are the source of intense solar flares and coronal mass ejections. The largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometers across.[89]
The number of sunspots visible on the Sun is not constant, but varies over an 11-year cycle known as the solar cycle. At a typical solar minimum, few sunspots are visible, and occasionally none at all can be seen. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the sunspot cycle progresses, the number of sunspots increases and they move closer to the equator of the Sun, a phenomenon described by Spörer's law. Sunspots usually exist as pairs with opposite magnetic polarity. The magnetic polarity of the leading sunspot alternates every solar cycle, so that it will be a north magnetic pole in one solar cycle and a south magnetic pole in the next.[90]
History of the number of observed sunspots during the last 250 years, which shows the ~11-year solar cycle
The solar cycle has a great influence on space weather, and a significant influence on the Earth's climate since the Sun's luminosity has a direct relationship with magnetic activity.[91] Solar activity minima tend to be correlated with colder temperatures, and longer than average solar cycles tend to be correlated with hotter temperatures. In the 17th century, the solar cycle appeared to have stopped entirely for several decades; few sunspots were observed during this period. During this era, known as the Maunder minimum or Little Ice Age, Europe experienced unusually cold temperatures.[92] Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures.[93]
A recent theory claims that there are magnetic instabilities in the core of the Sun that cause fluctuations with periods of either 41,000 or 100,000 years. These could provide a better explanation of the ice ages than the Milankovitch cycles.[94][95]
The Sun was formed about 4.57 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and which probably gave birth to many other stars.[97] This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology.[8] The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago.[98][99] Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that only form in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the gases within the molecular cloud, and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity.[100] As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate due to conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much of the mass became concentrated in the center, while the rest flattened out into a disk which would become the planets and other solar system bodies. Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accreted more gas from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering nuclear fusion. Thus, our Sun was born.
The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation. At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 Earth-masses of matter into energy. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 billion years as a main-sequence star.[101]
The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, in about 5 billion years, it will enter a red giant phase. Its outer layers will expand as the hydrogen fuel at the core is consumed and the core will contract and heat up. Hydrogen fusion will continue along a shell surrounding a helium core, which will steadily expand as more helium is produced. Once the core temperature reaches around 100 million kelvin, helium fusion at the core will begin producing carbon, and the Sun will enter the asymptotic giant branch phase.[36] Following the red giant phase, intense thermal pulsations will cause the Sun to throw off its outer layers, forming a planetary nebula. The only object that will remain after the outer layers are ejected is the extremely hot stellar core, which will slowly cool and fade as a white dwarf over many billions of years. This stellar evolution scenario is typical of low- to medium-mass stars.[102][103]
Earth's ultimate fate is precarious. As a red giant, the Sun will have a maximum radius beyond the Earth's current orbit, 1 AU (1.5×1011 m), 250 times the present radius of the Sun.[104] However, by the time it is an asymptotic giant branch star, the Sun will have lost roughly 30% of its present mass due to a stellar wind, so the orbits of the planets will move outward. If it were only for this, Earth would probably be spared, but new research suggests that Earth will be swallowed by the Sun owing to tidal interactions.[104] Even if Earth should escape incineration in the Sun, still all its water will be boiled away and most of its atmosphere will escape into space. Even during its current life in the main sequence, the Sun is gradually becoming more luminous (about 10% every 1 billion years), and its surface temperature is slowly rising. The Sun used to be fainter in the past, which is possibly the reason life on Earth has only existed for about 1 billion years on land. The increase in solar temperatures is such that in about another billion years the surface of the Earth will likely become too hot for liquid water to exist, ending all terrestrial life.[104][105]
Life-cycle of the Sun; sizes are not drawn to scale.
Sunlight is Earth's primary source of energy. The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth).[106] Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by the Earth's atmosphere so that less power arrives at the surface—closer to 1,000 W/m2 in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith.[107]
Solar energy can be harnessed by a variety of natural and synthetic processes—photosynthesis by plants captures the energy of sunlight and converts it to chemical form (oxygen and reduced carbon compounds), while direct heating or electrical conversion by solar cells are used by solar power equipment to generate electricity or to do other useful work, sometimes employing concentrating solar power (that it is measured in suns). The energy stored in petroleum and other fossil fuels was originally converted from sunlight by photosynthesis in the distant past.[108]
Motion of the
barycenter of the Solar System relative to the Sun
The Sun lies close to the inner rim of the Milky Way Galaxy's Orion Arm, in the Local Fluff or the Gould Belt, at a hypothesized distance of 7.5–8.5 kpc (25,000–28,000 lightyears) from the Galactic Center,[109][110][111][112] contained within the Local Bubble, a space of rarefied hot gas, possibly produced by the supernova remnant, Geminga.[113] The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 6,500 light-years.[114] The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is found in what scientists call the galactic habitable zone.
The Apex of the Sun's Way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way, relative to other nearby stars. The general direction of the Sun's galactic motion is towards the star Vega in the constellation of Lyra at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center.
The Sun's orbit around the Galaxy is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition the Sun oscillates up and down relative to the galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. It has been argued that the Sun's passage through the higher density spiral arms often coincides with mass extinctions on Earth, perhaps due to increased impact events.[115] It takes the Solar System about 225–250 million years to complete one orbit of the galaxy (a galactic year),[116] so it is thought to have completed 20–25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Galaxy is approximately 251 km/s.[117] At this speed, it takes around 1,190 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 7 days to travel 1 AU.[118]
The Sun's motion about the centre of mass of the Solar System is complicated by perturbations from the planets. Every few hundred years this motion switches between prograde and retrograde.[119]
For many years the number of solar electron neutrinos detected on Earth was 1⁄3 to 1⁄2 of the number predicted by the standard solar model. This anomalous result was termed the solar neutrino problem. Theories proposed to resolve the problem either tried to reduce the temperature of the Sun's interior to explain the lower neutrino flux, or posited that electron neutrinos could oscillate—that is, change into undetectable tau and muon neutrinos as they traveled between the Sun and the Earth.[120] Several neutrino observatories were built in the 1980s to measure the solar neutrino flux as accurately as possible, including the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Canada and the Kamiokande laboratory in Japan.[121] Results from these observatories eventually led to the discovery that neutrinos have a very small rest mass and do indeed oscillate.[122][54] Moreover, in 2001 the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory was able to detect all three types of neutrinos directly, and found that the Sun's total neutrino emission rate agreed with the Standard Solar Model, although depending on the neutrino energy as few as one-third of the neutrinos seen at Earth are of the electron type.[121][123] This proportion agrees with that predicted by the Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (also known as the matter effect), which describes neutrino oscillation in matter, and it is now considered a solved problem.[121]
The optical surface of the Sun (the photosphere) is known to have a temperature of approximately 6,000 K. Above it lies the solar corona, rising to a temperature of 1,000,000–2,000,000 K.[65] The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct heat conduction from the photosphere.[67]
It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating.[65] The first is wave heating, in which sound, gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone.[65] These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient gas in the form of heat.[124] The other is magnetic heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events—nanoflares.[125]
Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except Alfvén waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona.[126] In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heating mechanisms.[65]
Theoretical models of the Sun's development suggest that 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the Archean period, the Sun was only about 75% as bright as it is today. Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on the Earth's surface, and thus life should not have been able to develop. However, the geological record demonstrates that the Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history, and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today. The consensus among scientists is that the young Earth's atmosphere contained much larger quantities of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane and/or ammonia) than are present today, which trapped enough heat to compensate for the smaller amount of solar energy reaching the planet.[127]
The Sun is currently behaving unexpectedly in a number of ways.[128][129]
- It is in the midst of an unusual sunspot minimum, lasting far longer and with a higher percentage of spotless days than normal; since May 2008.
- It is measurably dimming; its output has dropped 0.02% at visible wavelengths and 6% at EUV wavelengths in comparison with the levels at the last solar minimum.[130]
- Over the last two decades, the solar wind's speed has dropped by 3%, its temperature by 13%, and its density by 20%.[131]
- Its magnetic field is at less than half strength compared to the minimum of 22 years ago. The entire heliosphere, which fills the Solar System, has shrunk as a result, thereby increasing the level of cosmic radiation striking the Earth and its atmosphere.
Like other natural phenomena, the Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures throughout human history. Humanity's most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the sky, whose presence above the horizon creates day and whose absence causes night. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural phenomenon. Worship of the Sun was central to civilizations such as the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico. Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (some of the most prominent megaliths are located in Nabta Playa, Egypt; Mnajdra, Malta and at Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumn equinoxes.
In the late Roman Empire the Sun's birthday was a holiday celebrated as Sol Invictus (literally "unconquered sun") soon after the winter solstice which may have been an antecedent to Christmas. Regarding the fixed stars, the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac, and so Greek astronomers considered it to be one of the seven planets (Greek planetes, "wanderer"), after which the seven days of the week are named in some languages.[132][133][134]
Since the discovery of sunspots by Galileo in 1609, we have continued to study the Sun.
In the early first millennium BCE, Babylonian astronomers observed that the Sun's motion along the ecliptic was not uniform, though they were unaware of why this was; it is today known that this is due to the Earth moving in an elliptic orbit around the Sun, with the Earth moving faster when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion.[135]
One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras, who reasoned that it was a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the Peloponnesus rather than the chariot of Helios, and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun.[136] For teaching this heresy, he was imprisoned by the authorities and sentenced to death, though he was later released through the intervention of Pericles. Eratosthenes estimated the distance between the Earth and the Sun in the 3rd century BCE as "of stadia myriads 400 and 80000", the translation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 stadia (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148 to 153 million kilometers or 0.99 to 1.02 AU); the latter value is correct to within a few percent. In the 1st century CE, Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1,210 times the Earth radius, approximately 7.71 million kilometers (0.0515 AU).[137]
The theory that the Sun is the center around which the planets move was first proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BCE, and later adopted by Seleucus of Seleucia (see Heliocentrism). This largely philosophical view was developed into fully predictive mathematical model of a heliocentric system in the 16th century by Nicolaus Copernicus. In the early 17th century, the invention of the telescope permitted detailed observations of sunspots by Thomas Harriot, Galileo Galilei and other astronomers. Galileo made some of the first known telescopic observations of sunspots and posited that they were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between the Earth and the Sun.[138] Sunspots were also observed since the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) by Chinese astronomers who maintained records of these observations for centuries. Averroes also provided a description of sunspots in the 12th century.[139]
Arabic astronomical contributions include Albatenius discovering that the direction of the Sun's eccentric is changing,[140] and Ibn Yunus observing more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe.[141]
Sol, the Sun, from a 1550 edition of
Guido Bonatti's
Liber astronomiae.
The transit of Venus was first observed in 1032 by Persian astronomer and polymath Avicenna, who concluded that Venus is closer to the Earth than the Sun,[142] while one of the first observations of the transit of Mercury was conducted by Ibn Bajjah in the 12th century.[143][verification needed]
In 1672 Giovanni Cassini and Jean Richer determined the distance to Mars and were thereby able to calculate the distance to the Sun. Isaac Newton observed the Sun's light using a prism, and showed that it was made up of light of many colors,[144] while in 1800 William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum.[145] The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun; Joseph von Fraunhofer recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines.
In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun was a gradually cooling liquid body that was radiating an internal store of heat.[146] Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain the energy output. Unfortunately the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time.[146] In 1890 Joseph Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun.[147]
Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source.[148] However, it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun's energy output with his mass-energy equivalence relation E = mc2.[149]
In 1920, Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass.[150] The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe. Hans Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy-producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun.[151][152]
Finally, a seminal paper was published in 1957 by Margaret Burbidge, entitled "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars".[153] The paper demonstrated convincingly that most of the elements in the universe had been synthesized by nuclear reactions inside stars, some like our Sun.
The Sun giving out a large geomagnetic storm on 1:29 pm, EST, 13
th March 2012
A lunar transit of the Sun captured during calibration of
STEREO B's ultraviolet imaging cameras
[154]
The first satellites designed to observe the Sun were NASA's Pioneers 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, which were launched between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of the Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long time, transmitting data until May 1983.[155][156]
In the 1970s, two Helios spacecraft and the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S.–German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury's orbit at perihelion.[157] The Skylab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the station.[66] Skylab made the first time-resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona.[66] Discoveries included the first observations of coronal mass ejections, then called "coronal transients", and of coronal holes, now known to be intimately associated with the solar wind.[157]
In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission was launched by NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays, X-rays and UV radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity and solar luminosity. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984 Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere in June 1989.[158]
Launched in 1991, Japan's Yohkoh (Sunbeam) satellite observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares, and demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an annular eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in 2005.[159]
One of the most important solar missions to date has been the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA and launched on 2 December 1995.[66] Originally intended to serve a two-year mission, a mission extension through 2012 was approved in October 2009.[160] It has proven so useful that a follow-on mission, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, was launched in February 2010.[161] Situated at the Lagrangian point between the Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch.[66] Besides its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of comets, mostly tiny sungrazing comets which incinerate as they pass the Sun.[162]
All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail. The Ulysses probe was launched in 1990 to study the Sun's polar regions. It first travelled to Jupiter, to "slingshot" past the planet into an orbit which would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Serendipitously, it was well-placed to observe the collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994. Once Ulysses was in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes, finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km/s which was slower than expected, and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes which scattered galactic cosmic rays.[163]
Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from spectroscopic studies, but the composition of the interior of the Sun is more poorly understood. A solar wind sample return mission, Genesis, was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material. Genesis returned to Earth in 2004 but was damaged by a crash landing after its parachute failed to deploy on re-entry into Earth's atmosphere. Despite severe damage, some usable samples have been recovered from the spacecraft's sample return module and are undergoing analysis.[164]
The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) mission was launched in October 2006. Two identical spacecraft were launched into orbits that cause them to (respectively) pull further ahead of and fall gradually behind the Earth. This enables stereoscopic imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena, such as coronal mass ejections.[165][166]
The Indian Space Research Organisation has scheduled launch of a 100 kg satellite named Aditya. The satellite will be launched in 2012, and will study the dynamic Solar corona.[167]
The Sun as it appears from the surface of Earth during the middle of the day
The Sun as it appears from the surface of Earth before
sunset.
The brightness of the sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye, although doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal, non-dilated eyes.[168][169] Looking directly at the Sun causes phosphene visual artifacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness.[170][171] UV exposure gradually yellows the lens of the eye over a period of years and is thought to contribute to the formation of cataracts, but this depends on general exposure to solar UV, not on whether one looks directly at the Sun.[172] Long-duration viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can begin to cause UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the retina after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused;[173][174] conditions are worsened by young eyes or new lens implants (which admit more UV than aging natural eyes), Sun angles near the zenith, and observing locations at high altitude.
Viewing the Sun through light-concentrating optics such as binoculars may result in permanent damage to the retina without an appropriate filter that blocks UV and substantially dims the sunlight. An attenuating (ND) filter might not filter UV and so is still dangerous. Attenuating filters to view the Sun should be specifically designed for that use: some improvised filters pass UV or IR rays that can harm the eye at high brightness levels.[175] Unfiltered binoculars can deliver over 500 times as much energy to the retina as using the naked eye, killing retinal cells almost instantly. Even brief glances at the midday Sun through unfiltered binoculars can cause permanent blindness.[citation needed]
Partial solar eclipses are hazardous to view because the eye's pupil is not adapted to the unusually high visual contrast: the pupil dilates according to the total amount of light in the field of view, not by the brightest object in the field. During partial eclipses most sunlight is blocked by the Moon passing in front of the Sun, but the uncovered parts of the photosphere have the same surface brightness as during a normal day. In the overall gloom, the pupil expands from ~2 mm to ~6 mm, and each retinal cell exposed to the solar image receives about ten times more light than it would looking at the non-eclipsed Sun. This can damage or kill those cells, resulting in small permanent blind spots for the viewer.[176] The hazard is insidious for inexperienced observers and for children, because there is no perception of pain: it is not immediately obvious that one's vision is being destroyed.
During sunrise and sunset sunlight is attenuated due to Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering from a particularly long passage through Earth's atmosphere,[177] and the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed comfortably with the naked eye or safely with optics (provided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appearing through a break between clouds). Hazy conditions, atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation.[178]
A rare optical phenomenon may occur shortly after sunset or before sunrise, known as a green flash. The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent (usually through a temperature inversion) towards the observer. Light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, green) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet and blue light is scattered more, leaving light that is perceived as green.[179]
Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes sunburn, and has other medical effects such as the production of vitamin D. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin color in different regions of the globe.[180]
- ^ In astronomical sciences, the term heavy elements (or metals) refers to all elements except hydrogen and helium.
- ^ A 50 kg adult human has a volume of about 0.05 m3, which corresponds to 13.8 watts, at the volumetric power of the solar center. This is 285 kcal/day, about 10% of the actual average caloric intake and output for humans in non-stressful conditions.
- ^ Earth's atmosphere near sea level has a particle density of about 2×1025 m−3.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Williams, D. R. (2004). "Sun Fact Sheet". NASA. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/sunfact.html. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
- ^ Asplund, M.; N. Grevesse and A. J. Sauval (2006). "The new solar abundances - Part I: the observations". Communications in Asteroseismology 147: 76–79. Bibcode 2006CoAst.147...76A. DOI:10.1553/cia147s76.
- ^ "Eclipse 99: Frequently Asked Questions". NASA. http://education.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/pages/faq.html. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
- ^ Hinshaw, G.; et al. (2009). "Five-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe observations: data processing, sky maps, and basic results". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 180 (2): 225–245. Bibcode 2009ApJS..180..225H. DOI:10.1088/0067-0049/180/2/225.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Solar System Exploration: Planets: Sun: Facts & Figures". NASA. Archived from the original on 2008-01-02. http://web.archive.org/web/20080102034758/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sun&Display=Facts&System=Metric.
- ^ Ko, M. (1999). "Density of the Sun". In Elert, G.. The Physics Factbook. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/MayKo.shtml.
- ^ "Principles of Spectroscopy". University of Michigan, Astronomy Department. 30 August 2007. http://www.astro.lsa.umich.edu/undergrad/Labs/spectro/short_spectro.html.
- ^ a b Bonanno, A.; Schlattl, H.; Paternò, L. (2008). "The age of the Sun and the relativistic corrections in the EOS". Astronomy and Astrophysics 390 (3): 1115–1118. arXiv:astro-ph/0204331. Bibcode 2002A&A...390.1115B. DOI:10.1051/0004-6361:20020749.
- ^ a b Seidelmann, P. K.; et al. (2000). "Report Of The IAU/IAG Working Group On Cartographic Coordinates And Rotational Elements Of The Planets And Satellites: 2000". http://www.hnsky.org/iau-iag.htm. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ "The Sun's Vital Statistics". Stanford Solar Center. http://solar-center.stanford.edu/vitalstats.html. Retrieved 2008-07-29. , citing Eddy, J. (1979). A New Sun: The Solar Results From Skylab. NASA. p. 37. NASA SP-402. http://history.nasa.gov/SP-402/contents.htm.
- ^ "How Round is the Sun?". NASA. 2 October 2008. http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/02oct_oblatesun/. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ "First Ever STEREO Images of the Entire Sun". NASA. 6 February 2011. http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/06feb_fullsun/. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ Woolfson, M (2000). "The origin and evolution of the solar system". Astronomy & Geophysics 41 (1): 1.12. DOI:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00012.x.
- ^ a b Basu, S.; Antia, H. M. (2008). "Helioseismology and Solar Abundances". Physics Reports 457 (5–6): 217. arXiv:0711.4590. Bibcode 2008PhR...457..217B. DOI:10.1016/j.physrep.2007.12.002.
- ^ Wilk, S. R. (2009). "The Yellow Sun Paradox". Optics & Photonics News: 12–13. http://www.osa-opn.org/Content/ViewFile.aspx?id=11147.
- ^ Than, K. (2006). "Astronomers Had it Wrong: Most Stars are Single". Space.com. http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060130_mm_single_stars.html. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
- ^ Lada, C. J. (2006). "Stellar multiplicity and the initial mass function: Most stars are single". Astrophysical Journal Letters 640 (1): L63–L66. arXiv:astro-ph/0601375. Bibcode 2006ApJ...640L..63L. DOI:10.1086/503158.
- ^ Burton, W. B. (1986). "Stellar parameters". Space Science Reviews 43 (3–4): 244–250. Bibcode 1986SSRv...43..244.. DOI:10.1007/BF00190626.
- ^ Bessell, M. S.; Castelli, F.; Plez, B. (1998). "Model atmospheres broad-band colors, bolometric corrections and temperature calibrations for O–M stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics 333: 231–250. Bibcode 1998A&A...333..231B.
- ^ "A Star with two North Poles". Science @ NASA. NASA. 22 April 2003. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm.
- ^ Riley, P.; Linker, J. A.; Mikić, Z. (2002). "Modeling the heliospheric current sheet: Solar cycle variations". Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (A7): SSH 8–1. Bibcode 2002JGRA.107g.SSH8R. DOI:10.1029/2001JA000299. CiteID 1136. http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf.
- ^ Adams, F. C.; Laughlin, G.; Graves, G. J. M. (2004). "Red Dwarfs and the End of the Main Sequence". Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica 22: 46–49. Bibcode 2004RMxAC..22...46A. http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/571/57102211.pdf.
- ^ Kogut, A.; et al (1993). "Dipole Anisotropy in the COBE Differential Microwave Radiometers First-Year Sky Maps". Astrophysical Journal 419: 1. arXiv:astro-ph/9312056. Bibcode 1993ApJ...419....1K. DOI:10.1086/173453.
- ^ "Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion, 2000–2020". US Naval Observatory. 31 January 2008. http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/EarthSeasons.php. Retrieved 2009-07-17.
- ^ Simon, A. (2001). The Real Science Behind the X-Files : Microbes, meteorites, and mutants. Simon & Schuster. pp. 25–27. ISBN 0-684-85618-2. http://books.google.com/?id=1gXImRmz7u8C&pg=PA26&dq=bacteria+that+live+with+out+the+sun.
- ^ Barnhart, Robert K. (1995) The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology, page 776. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270084-7.
- ^ a b c Mallory, J. P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth, page 129. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27616-1.
- ^ Barnhart, Robert K. (1995) The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology, page 778. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270084-7.
- ^ William Little (ed.) Oxford Universal Dictionary, 1955. See entry on "Sol".
- ^ "Sol", Merriam-Webster online, accessed July 19, 2009
- ^ "Opportunity's View, Sol 959 (Vertical)". NASA. 2006. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mer/images/pia01892.html. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
- ^ Allison, M.; Schmunk, R. (2005). "Technical Notes on Mars Solar Time as Adopted by the Mars24 Sunclock". NASA/GISS. http://www.giss.nasa.gov/tools/mars24/help/notes.html. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
- ^ Godier, S.; Rozelot, J.-P. (2000). "The solar oblateness and its relationship with the structure of the tachocline and of the Sun's subsurface" (PDF). Astronomy and Astrophysics 355: 365–374. Bibcode 2000A&A...355..365G. http://aa.springer.de/papers/0355001/2300365.pdf.
- ^ Phillips, Kenneth J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge University Press. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9.
- ^ Schutz, Bernard F. (2003). Gravity from the ground up. Cambridge University Press. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0.
- ^ a b c Zeilik, M.A.; Gregory, S.A. (1998). Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics (4th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. p. 322. ISBN 0-03-006228-4.
- ^ Falk, S. W.; Lattmer, J.M.; Margolis, S. H. (1977). "Are supernovae sources of presolar grains?". Nature 270 (5639): 700–701. Bibcode 1977Natur.270..700F. DOI:10.1038/270700a0.
- ^ Zirker, Jack B. (2002). Journey from the Center of the Sun. Princeton University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-691-05781-1.
- ^ Phillips, Kenneth J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9.
- ^ Phillips, Kenneth J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–67. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9.
- ^ a b García, R.; et al. (2007). "Tracking solar gravity modes: the dynamics of the solar core". Science 316 (5831): 1591–1593. Bibcode 2007Sci...316.1591G. DOI:10.1126/science.1140598. PMID 17478682.
- ^ Basu et al.; Chaplin, William J.; Elsworth, Yvonne; New, Roger; Serenelli, Aldo M. (2009). "Fresh insights on the structure of the solar core". The Astrophysical Journal 699 (699): 1403. Bibcode 2009ApJ...699.1403B. DOI:10.1088/0004-637X/699/2/1403.
- ^ a b c d e "NASA/Marshall Solar Physics". Solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov. 2007-01-18. http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/interior.shtml. Retrieved 2009-07-11.
- ^ Broggini, Carlo (26–28 June 2003). "Nuclear Processes at Solar Energy". Physics in Collision: 21. arXiv:astro-ph/0308537. Bibcode 2003phco.conf...21B.
- ^ Goupil, M. J.; Lebreton, Y.; Marques, J. P.; Samadi, R.; Baudin, F. (January 2011), "Open issues in probing interiors of solar-like oscillating main sequence stars 1. From the Sun to nearly suns", Journal of Physics: Conference Series 271 (1): 012031, Bibcode 2011JPhCS.271a2031G, DOI:10.1088/1742-6596/271/1/012031
- ^ Zirker, Jack B. (2002). Journey from the Center of the Sun. Princeton University Press. pp. 15–34. ISBN 978-0-691-05781-1.
- ^ a b Phillips, Kenneth J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–53. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9.
- ^ p. 102, The physical universe: an introduction to astronomy, Frank H. Shu, University Science Books, 1982, ISBN 0-935702-05-9.
- ^ Table of temperatures, power densities, luminosities by radius in the Sun. Fusedweb.llnl.gov (1998-11-09). Retrieved on 2011-08-30.
- ^ Haubold, H.J.; Mathai, A.M. (May 18, 1994). "Solar Nuclear Energy Generation & The Chlorine Solar Neutrino Experiment". Basic space science. AIP Conference Proceedings 320: 102. arXiv:astro-ph/9405040. Bibcode 1995AIPC..320..102H. DOI:10.1063/1.47009.
- ^ Myers, Steven T. (1999-02-18). "Lecture 11 – Stellar Structure I: Hydrostatic Equilibrium". http://www.aoc.nrao.edu/~smyers/courses/astro12/L11.html. Retrieved 15 July 2009.
- ^ NASA (2007). "Ancient Sunlight". Technology Through Time (50). http://sunearthday.nasa.gov/2007/locations/ttt_sunlight.php. Retrieved 2009-06-24.
- ^ Michael Stix (January 2003). "On the time scale of energy transport in the sun". Solar Physics 212 (1): 3–6. Bibcode 2003SoPh..212....3S. DOI:10.1023/A:1022952621810. http://www.springerlink.com/content/l256u14247171u67/.
- ^ a b Schlattl, H. (2001). "Three-flavor oscillation solutions for the solar neutrino problem". Physical Review D 64 (1): 013009. arXiv:hep-ph/0102063. Bibcode 2001PhRvD..64a3009S. DOI:10.1103/PhysRevD.64.013009.
- ^ a b c d e f "Nasa – Sun". Nasa.gov. 2007-11-29. http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/sun_worldbook.html. Retrieved 2009-07-11. [dead link]
- ^ ed. by Andrew M. Soward... (2005). "The solar tachocline: Formation, stability and its role in the solar dynamo". Fluid dynamics and dynamos in astrophysics and geophysics reviews emerging from the Durham Symposium on Astrophysical Fluid Mechanics, July 29 to August 8, 2002. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 193–235. ISBN 978-0-8493-3355-2. http://books.google.com/?id=PLNwoJ6qFoEC&pg=PA193.
- ^ Mullan, D.J (2000). "Solar Physics: From the Deep Interior to the Hot Corona". In Page, D., Hirsch, J.G.. From the Sun to the Great Attractor. Springer. p. 22. ISBN 978-3-540-41064-5. http://books.google.com/?id=rk5fxs55_OkC&pg=PA22.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Abhyankar, K.D. (1977). "A Survey of the Solar Atmospheric Models". Bull. Astr. Soc. India 5: 40–44. Bibcode 1977BASI....5...40A. http://prints.iiap.res.in/handle/2248/510.
- ^ Gibson, E.G. (1973). The Quiet Sun. NASA. ASIN B0006C7RS0.
- ^ Shu, F.H. (1991). The Physics of Astrophysics. 1. University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-64-4.
- ^ Parnel, C.. "Discovery of Helium". University of St Andrews. http://www-solar.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~clare/Lockyer/helium.html. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ De Pontieu, B.; et al. (2007). "Chromospheric Alfvénic Waves Strong Enough to Power the Solar Wind". Science 318 (5856): 1574–77. Bibcode 2007Sci...318.1574D. DOI:10.1126/science.1151747. PMID 18063784.
- ^ Solanki, S.K.; , W. and Ayres, T. (1994). "New Light on the Heart of Darkness of the Solar Chromosphere". Science 263 (5143): 64–66. Bibcode 1994Sci...263...64S. DOI:10.1126/science.263.5143.64. PMID 17748350.
- ^ a b c Hansteen, V.H.; Leer, E. (1997). "The role of helium in the outer solar atmosphere". The Astrophysical Journal 482 (1): 498–509. Bibcode 1997ApJ...482..498H. DOI:10.1086/304111.
- ^ a b c d e f g Erdèlyi, R.; Ballai, I. (2007). "Heating of the solar and stellar coronae: a review". Astron. Nachr. 328 (8): 726–733. Bibcode 2007AN....328..726E. DOI:10.1002/asna.200710803.
- ^ a b c d e Dwivedi, Bhola N. (2006). "Our ultraviolet Sun" (PDF). Current Science 91 (5): 587–595. http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/sep102006/587.pdf. [dead link]
- ^ a b c d e f g Russell, C.T. (2001). "Solar wind and interplanetary magnetic filed: A tutorial". In Song, Paul; Singer, Howard J. and Siscoe, George L. (PDF). Space Weather (Geophysical Monograph). American Geophysical Union. pp. 73–88. ISBN 978-0-87590-984-4. http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/personnel/russell/papers/SolWindTutorial.pdf.
- ^ A.G, Emslie; J.A., Miller (2003). "Particle Acceleration". In Dwivedi, B.N.. Dynamic Sun. Cambridge University Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-521-81057-9. http://books.google.de/books?id=W_oZYFplXX0C&pg=PA275.
- ^ "The Distortion of the Heliosphere: Our Interstellar Magnetic Compass" (Press release). European Space Agency. 2005. http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=16394. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ "The Mean Magnetic Field of the Sun". Wilcox Solar Observatory. 2006. http://wso.stanford.edu/#MeanField. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
- ^ Zirker, Jack B. (2002). Journey from the Center of the Sun. Princeton University Press. pp. 119–120. ISBN 978-0-691-05781-1.
- ^ Zirker, Jack B. (2002). Journey from the Center of the Sun. Princeton University Press. pp. 120–127. ISBN 978-0-691-05781-1.
- ^ Phillips, Kenneth J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–15, 34–38. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9.
- ^ "Sci-Tech – Space – Sun flips magnetic field". CNN. 2001-02-16. http://archives.cnn.com/2001/TECH/space/02/16/sun.flips/index.html. Retrieved 2009-07-11.
- ^ "The Sun Does a Flip". Science.nasa.gov. 2001-02-15. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast15feb_1.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-11.
- ^ Wang, Y.-M.; Sheeley, N.R. (2003). "Modeling the Sun's Large-Scale Magnetic Field during the Maunder Minimum". The Astrophysical Journal 591 (2): 1248–56. Bibcode 2003ApJ...591.1248W. DOI:10.1086/375449.
- ^ a b Lodders, Katharina (July 10, 2003). "Solar System Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the Elements" (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal (The American Astronomical Society) 591 (2): 1220–1247. Bibcode 2003ApJ...591.1220L. DOI:10.1086/375492. http://weft.astro.washington.edu/courses/astro557/LODDERS.pdf. edit
Lodders, K. (2003). "Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the Elements" (PDF). Meteoritics & Planetary Science 38 (suppl.): 5272. Bibcode 2003M&PSA..38.5272L. http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/metsoc2003/pdf/5272.pdf.
- ^ Hansen, C.J.; Kawaler, S.A.; Trimble, V. (2004). Stellar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 19–20. ISBN 0-387-20089-4.
- ^ Hansen, C.J.; Kawaler, S.A.; Trimble, V. (2004). Stellar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 77–78. ISBN 0-387-20089-4.
- ^ Aller, L.H. (1968). "The chemical composition of the Sun and the solar system". Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of Australia 1: 133. Bibcode 1968PASAu...1..133A.
- ^ Hansen, C.J.; Kawaler, S.A.; Trimble, V. (2004). Stellar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution (2nd ed.). Springer. § 9.2.3. ISBN 0-387-20089-4.
- ^ a b c Biemont, E. (1978). "Abundances of singly ionized elements of the iron group in the Sun". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 184: 683–694. Bibcode 1978MNRAS.184..683B.
- ^ Ross and Aller 1976, Withbroe 1976, Hauge and Engvold 1977, cited in Biemont 1978.
- ^ Corliss and Bozman (1962 cited in Biemont 1978) and Warner (1967 cited in Biemont 1978)
- ^ Smith (1976 cited in Biemont 1978)
- ^ Signer and Suess 1963; Manuel 1967; Marti 1969; Kuroda and Manuel 1970; Srinivasan and Manuel 1971, all cited in Manuel and Hwaung 1983
- ^ Kuroda and Manuel 1970 cited in Manuel and Hwaung 1983:7
- ^ a b Manuel, O.K.; Hwaung, G. (1983). "Solar abundances of the elements". Meteoritics 18 (3): 209. Bibcode 1983Metic..18..209M.
- ^ "The Largest Sunspot in Ten Years". Goddard Space Flight Center. 30 March 2001. Archived from the original on August 23, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070823050403/http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/spacesci/solarexp/sunspot.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-10.
- ^ "NASA Satellites Capture Start of New Solar Cycle". PhysOrg. 4 January 2008. http://www.physorg.com/news119271347.html. Retrieved 2009-07-10.
- ^ Willson, R. C.; Hudson, H. S. (1991). "The Sun's luminosity over a complete solar cycle". Nature 351 (6321): 42–4. Bibcode 1991Natur.351...42W. DOI:10.1038/351042a0.
- ^ Lean, J.; Skumanich, A.; White, O. (1992). "Estimating the Sun's radiative output during the Maunder Minimum". Geophysical Research Letters 19 (15): 1591–1594. Bibcode 1992GeoRL..19.1591L. DOI:10.1029/92GL01578.
- ^ Mackay, R. M.; Khalil, M. A. K (2000). "Greenhouse gases and global warming". In Singh, S. N.. Trace Gas Emissions and Plants. Springer. pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-0-7923-6545-7. http://books.google.com/?id=tQBS3bAX8fUC&pg=PA1&dq=solar+minimum+dendochronology.
- ^ Ehrlich, R. (2007). "Solar Resonant Diffusion Waves as a Driver of Terrestrial Climate Change". Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 69 (7): 759. arXiv:astro-ph/0701117. Bibcode 2007JASTP..69..759E. DOI:10.1016/j.jastp.2007.01.005.
- ^ Clark, S. (2007). "Sun's fickle heart may leave us cold". New Scientist 193 (2588): 12. DOI:10.1016/S0262-4079(07)60196-1. http://environment.newscientist.com/channel/earth/mg19325884.500-suns-fickle-heart-may-leave-us-cold.html.
- ^ Ribas, Ignasi (February 2010), "The Sun and stars as the primary energy input in planetary atmospheres", Solar and Stellar Variability: Impact on Earth and Planets, Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, IAU Symposium, 264, pp. 3–18, Bibcode 2010IAUS..264....3R, DOI:10.1017/S1743921309992298
- ^ Zirker, Jack B. (2002). Journey from the Center of the Sun. Princeton University Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-691-05781-1.
- ^ Amelin, Y.; Krot, A.; Hutcheon, I.; Ulyanov, A. (2002). "Lead isotopic ages of chondrules and calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions.". Science 297 (5587): 1678–1683. Bibcode 2002Sci...297.1678A. DOI:10.1126/science.1073950. PMID 12215641.
- ^ Baker, J.; Bizzarro, M.; Wittig, N.; Connelly, J.; Haack, H. (2005). "Early planetesimal melting from an age of 4.5662 Gyr for differentiated meteorites". Nature 436 (7054): 1127–1131. Bibcode 2005Natur.436.1127B. DOI:10.1038/nature03882. PMID 16121173.
- ^ Williams, J. (2010). "The astrophysical environment of the solar birthplace". Contemporary Physics 51 (5): 381–396. Bibcode 2010ConPh..51..381W. DOI:10.1080/00107511003764725. edit
- ^ Goldsmith, D.; Owen, T. (2001). The search for life in the universe. University Science Books. p. 96. ISBN 978-1-891389-16-0. http://books.google.com/?id=Q17NmHY6wloC&pg=PA96.
- ^ Pogge, R.W. (1997). "The Once and Future Sun". New Vistas in Astronomy. Ohio State University (Department of Astronomy). http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Lectures/vistas97.html. Retrieved 2005-12-07.
- ^ Sackmann, I.-J.; Boothroyd, A.I.; Kraemer, K.E. (1993). "Our Sun. III. Present and Future". Astrophysical Journal 418: 457. Bibcode 1993ApJ...418..457S. DOI:10.1086/173407.
- ^ a b c Schröder, K.-P.; Smith, R.C. (2008). "Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 386 (1): 155. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode 2008MNRAS.386..155S. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. See also Palmer, J. (2008). "Hope dims that Earth will survive Sun's death". New Scientist. http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn13369-hope-dims-that-earth-will-survive-suns-death.html?feedId=online-news_rss20. Retrieved 2008-03-24.
- ^ Carrington, D. (2000-02-21). "Date set for desert Earth". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm. Retrieved 2007-03-31.
- ^ "Construction of a Composite Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) Time Series from 1978 to present". http://www.pmodwrc.ch/pmod.php?topic=tsi/composite/SolarConstant. Retrieved 2005-10-05.
- ^ El-Sharkawi, Mohamed A. (2005). Electric energy. CRC Press. pp. 87–88. ISBN 978-0-8493-3078-0.
- ^ Phillips, Kenneth J. H. (1995). Guide to the Sun. Cambridge University Press. pp. 319–321. ISBN 978-0-521-39788-9.
- ^ Reid, M.J. (1993). "The distance to the center of the Galaxy". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 31 (1): 345–372. Bibcode 1993ARA&A..31..345R. DOI:10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002021.
- ^ Eisenhauer, F.; et al. (2003). "A Geometric Determination of the Distance to the Galactic Center". Astrophysical Journal 597 (2): L121–L124. arXiv:astro-ph/0306220. Bibcode 2003ApJ...597L.121E. DOI:10.1086/380188.
- ^ Horrobin, M.; et al. (2004). "First results from SPIFFI. I: The Galactic Center" (PDF). Astronomische Nachrichten 325 (2): 120–123. Bibcode 2004AN....325...88H. DOI:10.1002/asna.200310181. http://www.mpe.mpg.de/SPIFFI/preprints/first_result_an1.pdf.
- ^ Eisenhauer, F.; et al. (2005). "SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month". Astrophysical Journal 628 (1): 246–259. arXiv:astro-ph/0502129. Bibcode 2005ApJ...628..246E. DOI:10.1086/430667.
- ^ Gehrels, Neil; Chen, Wan; Mereghetti, S. (February 25, 1993). "The Geminga supernova as a possible cause of the local interstellar bubble". Nature 361 (6414): 706–707. Bibcode 1993Natur.361..704B. DOI:10.1038/361704a0.
- ^ English, J. (2000). "Exposing the Stuff Between the Stars" (Press release). Hubble News Desk. http://www.ras.ucalgary.ca/CGPS/press/aas00/pr/pr_14012000/pr_14012000map1.html. Retrieved 2007-05-10.
- ^ Gillman, M.; Erenler, H. (2008). "The galactic cycle of extinction". International Journal of Astrobiology 7 (1): 17–26. Bibcode 2008IJAsB...7...17G. DOI:10.1017/S1473550408004047.
- ^ Leong, S. (2002). "Period of the Sun's Orbit around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year)". The Physics Factbook. http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2002/StacyLeong.shtml. Retrieved 2007-05-10.
- ^ Croswell, K. (2008). "Milky Way keeps tight grip on its neighbor". New Scientist (2669): 8. http://space.newscientist.com/article/mg19926693.900-milky-way-keeps-tight-grip-on-its-neighbour.html.
- ^ Garlick, M.A. (2002). The Story of the Solar System. Cambridge University Press. p. 46. ISBN 0-521-80336-5.
- ^ Javaraiah (2005). "Sun's retrograde motion and violation of even-odd cycle rule in sunspot activity". Mon.Not.Roy.Astron.Soc.362:1311–1318,2005 362 (4): 1311–1318. arXiv:astro-ph/0507269. Bibcode 2005MNRAS.362.1311J. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09403.x.
- ^ Haxton, W.C. (1995). "The Solar Neutrino Problem". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 33 (1): 459–504. arXiv:hep-ph/9503430. Bibcode 1995ARA&A..33..459H. DOI:10.1146/annurev.aa.33.090195.002331.
- ^ a b c MacDonald, A.B. (2004). "Solar neutrinos". New Journal of Physics 6 (1): 121. arXiv:astro-ph/0406253. Bibcode 2004NJPh....6..121M. DOI:10.1088/1367-2630/6/1/121.
- ^ Ahmad, QR; et al. (2001-07-25). "Measurement of the Rate of νe + d --> p + p + e– Interactions Produced by 8B Solar Neutrinos at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory". Physical Review Letters (American Physical Society) 87 (7): 071301. arXiv:nucl-ex/0106015. Bibcode 2001PhRvL..87g1301A. DOI:10.1103/PhysRevLett.87.071301.
- ^ "Sudbury Neutrino Observatory First Scientific Results". 2001-07-03. http://www.sno.phy.queensu.ca/sno/first_results/. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
- ^ Alfvén, H. (1947). "Magneto-hydrodynamic waves, and the heating of the solar corona". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 107 (2): 211. Bibcode 1947MNRAS.107..211A.
- ^ Parker, E.N. (1988). "Nanoflares and the solar X-ray corona". Astrophysical Journal 330 (1): 474. Bibcode 1988ApJ...330..474P. DOI:10.1086/166485.
- ^ Sturrock, P.A.; Uchida, Y. (1981). "Coronal heating by stochastic magnetic pumping". Astrophysical Journal 246 (1): 331. Bibcode 1981ApJ...246..331S. DOI:10.1086/158926.
- ^ Kasting, J.F.; Ackerman, T.P. (1986). "Climatic Consequences of Very High Carbon Dioxide Levels in the Earth’s Early Atmosphere". Science 234 (4782): 1383–1385. DOI:10.1126/science.11539665. PMID 11539665.
- ^ Robert Zimmerman, "What's Wrong with Our Sun?", Sky and Telescope August 2009
- ^ Deep Solar Minimum – NASA Science. Science.nasa.gov. Retrieved on 2011-08-30.
- ^ NASA, "The Sun's Sneaky Variability", October 27, 2009
- ^ Sarah Gibson; Janet Kozyra, Giuliana de Toma, Barbara Emery, Terry Onsager and Barbara Thompson (2009). "WHI vs WSM and comparative solar minima: If the Sun is so quiet, why is the Earth still ringing?". International Astronomical Union. p. 3. http://ihy2007.org/WHI/RIO_PRES/Gibson_WHI_WSM_JD16.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-06. "Ulysses during polar passes: lower magnetic field (35%), density (20%), speed (3%)(McComas et al., 2008; Balogh and Smith, 2008; Issaultier et al., 2008)"
- ^ "planet, n.". Oxford English Dictionary. December 2007. http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50180718?query_type=word&queryword=planet. Retrieved 2008-02-07. Note: select the Etymology tab
- ^ Goldstein, Bernard R. (1997). "Saving the phenomena : the background to Ptolemy's planetary theory". Journal for the History of Astronomy (Cambridge (UK)) 28 (1): 1–12. Bibcode 1997JHA....28....1G.
- ^ Ptolemy; Toomer, G. J. (1998). Ptolemy's Almagest. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00260-6.
- ^ David Leverington (2003). Babylon to Voyager and beyond: a history of planetary astronomy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–7. ISBN 0-521-80840-5
- ^ Sider, D. (1973). "Anaxagoras on the Size of the Sun". Classical Philology 68 (2): 128–129. DOI:10.1086/365951. JSTOR 269068.
- ^ Goldstein, B.R. (1967). "The Arabic Version of Ptolemy's Planetary Hypotheses". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 57 (4): 9–12. DOI:10.2307/1006040. JSTOR 1006040.
- ^ "Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/galilei_galileo.shtml. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ Ead, Hamed A.. Averroes As A Physician. University of Cairo.
- ^ A short History of scientific ideas to 1900, C. Singer, Oxford University Press, 1959, p. 151.
- ^ The Arabian Science, C. Ronan, pp. 201–244 in The Cambridge Illustrated History of the World's Science, Cambridge University Press, 1983; at pp. 213–214.
- ^ Goldstein, Bernard R. (March 1972). "Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy". Isis (University of Chicago Press) 63 (1): 39–47 [44]. DOI:10.1086/350839.
- ^ S. M. Razaullah Ansari (2002). History of oriental astronomy: proceedings of the joint discussion-17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997. Springer. p. 137. ISBN 1-4020-0657-8
- ^ "Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727)". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/newton_isaac.shtml. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ "Herschel Discovers Infrared Light". Cool Cosmos. http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/classroom_activities/herschel_bio.html. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ a b Thomson, W. (1862). "On the Age of the Sun's Heat". Macmillan's Magazine 5: 388–393. http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_the_age_of_the_suns_heat.html.
- ^ Lockyer, J.N. (1890). The meteoritic hypothesis; a statement of the results of a spectroscopic inquiry into the origin of cosmical systems. Macmillan and Co. Bibcode 1890QB981.L78......
- ^ Darden, L. (1998). "The Nature of Scientific Inquiry". http://www.philosophy.umd.edu/Faculty/LDarden/sciinq/.
- ^ Hawking, S. W. (2001). The Universe in a Nutshell. Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-80202-X.
- ^ "Studying the stars, testing relativity: Sir Arthur Eddington". Space Science. European Space Agency. 2005. http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMDYPXO4HD_index_0.html. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
- ^ Bethe, H.; Critchfield, C. (1938). "On the Formation of Deuterons by Proton Combination". Physical Review 54 (10): 862–862. Bibcode 1938PhRv...54Q.862B. DOI:10.1103/PhysRev.54.862.2.
- ^ Bethe, H. (1939). "Energy Production in Stars". Physical Review 55 (1): 434–456. Bibcode 1939PhRv...55..434B. DOI:10.1103/PhysRev.55.434.
- ^ Burbidge, E.M.; Burbidge, G.R.; Fowler, W.A.; Hoyle, F. (1957). "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars". Reviews of Modern Physics 29 (4): 547–650. Bibcode 1957RvMP...29..547B. DOI:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547.
- ^ Phillips, T. (2007). "Stereo Eclipse". Science@NASA. NASA. http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/12mar_stereoeclipse.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-19.
- ^ Wade, M. (2008). "Pioneer 6-7-8-9-E". Encyclopedia Astronautica. http://www.astronautix.com/craft/pio6789e.htm. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ "Solar System Exploration: Missions: By Target: Our Solar System: Past: Pioneer 9". NASA. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Pioneer_09. Retrieved 2010-10-30. "NASA maintained contact with Pioneer 9 until May 1983"
- ^ a b Burlaga, L.F. (2001). "Magnetic Fields and plasmas in the inner heliosphere: Helios results". Planetary and Space Science 49 (14–15): 1619–27. Bibcode 2001P&SS...49.1619B. DOI:10.1016/S0032-0633(01)00098-8.
- ^ Burkepile, C. (1998). "Solar Maximum Mission Overview". Archived from the original on April 5, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060405183758/http://web.hao.ucar.edu/public/research/svosa/smm/smm_mission.html. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ "Result of Re-entry of the Solar X-ray Observatory "Yohkoh" (SOLAR-A) to the Earth's Atmosphere" (Press release). Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. 2005. http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2005/09/20050913_yohkoh_e.html. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ "Mission extensions approved for science missions". ESA Science and Technology. October 7, 2009. http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=45685. Retrieved February 16, 2010.
- ^ "NASA Successfully Launches a New Eye on the Sun". NASA Press Release Archives. February 11, 2010. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2010/feb/HQ_10-040_SDO_launch.html. Retrieved February 16, 2010.
- ^ "Sungrazing Comets". LASCO (US Naval Research Laboratory). http://sungrazer.nrl.navy.mil/. Retrieved 2009-03-19.
- ^ JPL/CALTECH (2005). "Ulysses: Primary Mission Results". NASA. http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/mission_primary.html. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ Calaway, M.J.; Stansbery, Eileen K.; Keller, Lindsay P. (2009). "Genesis capturing the Sun: Solar wind irradiation at Lagrange 1". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 267 (7): 1101. Bibcode 2009NIMPB.267.1101C. DOI:10.1016/j.nimb.2009.01.132.
- ^ "STEREO Spacecraft & Instruments". NASA Missions. March 8, 2006. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/stereo/spacecraft/index.html. Retrieved May 30, 2006.
- ^ Howard R. A., Moses J. D., Socker D. G., Dere K. P., Cook J. W. (2002). "Sun Earth Connection Coronal and Heliospheric Investigation (SECCHI)". Solar Variability and Solar Physics Missions Advances in Space Research 29 (12): 2017–2026.
- ^ "The Hindu". January 13,2008. http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/13/stories/2008011354801000.htm. Retrieved January 25,2012.
- ^ White, T.J.; Mainster, M.A.; Wilson, P.W.; Tips, J.H. (1971). "Chorioretinal temperature increases from solar observation". Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 33 (1): 1. DOI:10.1007/BF02476660.
- ^ Tso, M.O.M.; La Piana, F.G. (1975). "The Human Fovea After Sungazing". Transactions of the American Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology 79 (6): OP788. PMID 1209815.
- ^ Hope-Ross, M.W.; Mahon, GJ; Gardiner, TA; Archer, DB (1993). "Ultrastructural findings in solar retinopathy". Eye 7 (4): 29. DOI:10.1038/eye.1993.7. PMID 8325420.
- ^ Schatz, H.; Mendelblatt, F. (1973). "Solar Retinopathy from Sun-Gazing Under Influence of LSD". British Journal of Ophthalmology 57 (4): 270. DOI:10.1136/bjo.57.4.270. PMC 1214879. PMID 4707624. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1214879.
- ^ Chou, B.R. (2005). "Eye Safety During Solar Eclipses". http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhelp/safety2.html. "While environmental exposure to UV radiation is known to contribute to the accelerated aging of the outer layers of the eye and the development of cataracts, the concern over improper viewing of the Sun during an eclipse is for the development of "eclipse blindness" or retinal burns."
- ^ Ham, W.T. Jr.; Mueller, H.A.; Sliney, D.H. (1976). "Retinal sensitivity to damage from short wavelength light". Nature 260 (5547): 153. Bibcode 1976Natur.260..153H. DOI:10.1038/260153a0.
- ^ Ham, W.T. Jr.; Mueller, H.A.; Ruffolo, J.J. Jr.; Guerry, D. III, (1980). "Solar Retinopathy as a function of Wavelength: its Significance for Protective Eyewear". In Williams, T.P.; Baker, B.N.. The Effects of Constant Light on Visual Processes. Plenum Press. pp. 319–346. ISBN 0-306-40328-5.
- ^ Kardos, T. (2003). Earth science. J.W. Walch. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-8251-4500-1. http://books.google.com/?id=xI6EDV_PRr4C&pg=PT102.
- ^ Espenak, F. (2005). "Eye Safety During Solar Eclipses". NASA. http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhelp/safety.html. Retrieved 2006-03-22.
- ^ Haber, Jorg; Magnor, Marcus; Seidel, Hans-Peter (2005). "Physically based Simulation of Twilight Phenomena" (PDF). ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG) 24 (4): 1353–1373. DOI:10.1145/1095878.1095884. http://www.mpi-inf.mpg.de/~magnor/publications/tog05.pdf.
- ^ I.G. Piggin (1972). "Diurnal asymmetries in global radiation". Springer 20 (1): 41–48. Bibcode 1972AMGBB..20...41P. DOI:10.1007/BF02243313.
- ^ "The Green Flash". BBC. Archived from the original on 2008-12-16. http://web.archive.org/web/20081216135504/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/greenflash.shtml. Retrieved 2008-08-10.
- ^ Barsh, G.S. (2003). "What Controls Variation in Human Skin Color?". PLoS Biology 1 (1): e7. DOI:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000027. PMC 212702. PMID 14551921. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=212702.
|
|
|
| Current |
|
|
|
| Future |
|
|
| Completed |
|
|
| On hiatus |
|
|
| Cancelled |
|
|
lez:Рагъvep:Päiväine
![有弘吉行のSND [2013.7.7 SUN]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130726231117im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/5UyuhxntxiE/default.jpg "有弘吉行のSND [2013.7.7 SUN]")
.svg)
.jpg){kind=small}
