North Atlantic right whale[1]
Mother and calf
Size comparison against an average human
Conservation status
Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[2]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Cetacea
Family:	Balaenidae
Genus:	Eubalaena
Species:	E. glacialis (Müller, 1776)
Binomial name
Eubalaena glacialis
Range map
Synonyms
biscayensis (Eschricht, 1860) nordcaper (Lacépède, 1804)

The North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis), which means "good, or true, whale of the ice", is a baleen whale, one of three right whale species belonging to the genus Eubalaena,^[1] formerly classified as a single species. With only 400 in existence, North Atlantic right whales are among the most endangered whales in the world. They are protected under the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973 and the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. Vessel strikes and entanglement in fixed fishing gear are the two greatest threats to their recovery.^[3]

About four hundred right whales live in the North Atlantic Ocean. They migrate between feeding grounds in the Gulf of Maine and their winter calving areas off Georgia and Florida, an ocean area with heavy shipping traffic.

Like other right whales, the North Atlantic right whale, also known as the northern right whale or black right whale^[2], is readily distinguished from other whales by the callosities on its head, a broad back without a dorsal fin, and a long arching mouth that begins above the eye. The body of the whale is very dark grey or black, occasionally with white patches on the belly. The right whale's callosities appear white due to large colonies of cyamids or whale lice.

Adult right whales average 45–55 feet (14–17 m) in length and weigh up to seventy tons (63,500 kg); the largest measured specimens have been 60 feet (18 m) long and 117 tons (106,000 kg). Females are larger than males.

Forty percent of a right whale's body weight is blubber, which is of relatively low density. Consequently, unlike many other species of whale, dead right whales float.

There is little data on their life span, but it is believed to be at least fifty years, and some may live more than a century.

Behavior[link]

Vocalization[link]

North Atlantic right whales recordings are available online.^[4][5]

Reproduction[link]

They first give birth at age nine or ten after a year-long gestation; the interval between births seems to have increased in recent years and now averages three to six years. Calves are 13–15 feet (4.0–4.6 m) long at birth and weigh approximately 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg).^[6]

Feeding[link]

Right whales feed mainly on copepods and other small invertebrates such as krill, pteropods, and larval barnacles, generally by slowly skimming through patches of concentrated prey at or below the ocean surface.^[2]

Whaling[link]

Right whales were so-named because whalers thought they were the "right" whale to hunt. As the "right" whale continued to float long after being killed, which made it possible to 'flech' or strip the whale of blubber without having to take it onboard ship. Combined with the right whale's lack of speed through water, feeding habits, and coastal habitat, they were easy to catch, even for whalers equipped only with wooden boats and hand-held harpoons.^[7]

Whaling in small wooden boats with hand harpoons was a hazardous enterprise, even when hunting the "right" whale.

North Atlantic right whale skeleton found on the Thames in 2010 at Bay Wharf, Greenwich

Basques were the first to commercially hunt this species. They began whaling in the Bay of Biscay as early as the eleventh century.^[8] The whales were hunted initially for whale oil but, as meat preservation technology improved, their value as food increased. Basque whalers reached eastern Canada by 1530.^[9] The last Basque whaling voyages were made prior to the commencement of the Seven Year's War (1756–1763). A few attempts were made to revive the trade, but they failed. Shore whaling continued sporadically into the 19th century. It had previously been assumed that Basque whaling in eastern Canada had been the primary cause for the depletion of the sub-population in the western North Atlantic, but later genetic studies disproved this.^[10][11]

Setting out from Nantucket and New Bedford in Massachusetts and from Long Island, New York, Americans took up to one hundred right whales each year, with the records including one report of 29 whales killed in Cape Cod Bay in a single day during January 1700.^[12] By 1750, the North Atlantic right whale population was, for commercial purposes, depleted. Yankee whalers moved into the South Atlantic before the end of the 18th century. The population was so low by the mid-19th century that the famous Whitby whaler Rev. William Scoresby, son of the successful British whaler William Scoresby senior (1760–1829), claimed to have never seen a right whale (although he mainly hunted bowhead whales off eastern Greenland, outside the normal range of right whales).^[13]

Based on back calculations using the present population size and growth rate, the population may have numbered fewer than 100 individuals by 1935.^[12] As it became clear that hunting right whales was unsustainable, international protection for right whales came into effect, as the practice was banned globally in 1937. The ban was largely successful, although violations continued for several decades. Madeira took its last two right whales in 1968.

Threats[link]

For the period of 1970 to October 2006, humans have been responsible for 48% of the 73 documented mortalities of the North Atlantic right whale.^[14] A 2001 forecast showed a declining population trend in the late 1990s, and indicated a high probability that North Atlantic right whales would go extinct within 200 years if the then-existing anthropogenic mortality rate was not curtailed.^[15] The combined factors of small population size and low annual reproductive rate of right whales means that a single death represents a significant mortality rate. Conversely, significant reduction in mortality rate can be obtained by preventing just a few deaths. It was calculated that preventing the deaths of just two females per year would enable the population to stabilize.^[15] The data suggests, therefore, that human sources of mortality may have a greater effect relative to population growth rates of North Atlantic right whales than for other whales. The principal factors believed to be retarding growth and recovery of the population are ship strikes and entanglement with fishing gear.^[12]

Ship Strikes & Ship Noise[link]

The single greatest danger to this species is injury sustained from ship strikes.^[16] Between 1970 and October 2006, 37% of all recorded North Atlantic right whale deaths were attributed to collisions.^[7][14] During the years 1999–2003, incidents of mortality and serious injury attributed to ship strikes averaged 1 per year. For the years 2004–2006, that number increased to 2.6.^[2] Additionally, it is possible that the official figures actually underestimate the actual ship-strike mortality rates, since whales struck in offshore areas may never be sighted due to low search effort.^[14]

In 2002, the International Maritime Organization shifted the location of the Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS, i.e. shipping lanes) in the Bay of Fundy (and approaches) from an area with the highest density of North Atlantic right whales to an area of lower density.^[17] This was the first time the IMO had changed a TSS to help protect marine mammals.^[18] In 2006, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) established a set of recommended vessel routes to reduce ship strikes in four important eastern-US right whale habitats.^[19] In 2007, and again on June 1, 2009, NOAA changed the TSS servicing Boston to reduce vessel collisions with right whales and other whale species.^[20] NOAA estimated that implementing an "Area To Be Avoided" (ATBA) and narrowing the TSS by 1 nautical mile (1.9 km) would reduce the relative risk of right whale ship strikes by 74% during April–July (63% from the ATBA and 11% from the narrowing of the TSS).^[21]

A 2011 analysis of data collected in the Bay of Fundy has shown that exposure to low-frequency ship noise may be associated with chronic physiological stress in North Atlantic right whales.^[22]

Fishing Gear Entanglement[link]

The other known source of human-induced mortality is entanglement in fixed fishing gear such as bottom-set groundfish gillnet gear, cod traps and lobster pots. Between 1970 and October 2006, there have been 8 instances where entanglements have been the direct cause of death of North Atlantic right whales. This represents 11% of all deaths documented during that period. From 1986 to 2005, there were a total of 61 confirmed reports of entanglements, including the aforementioned mortalities. It is likely that official figures underestimate the actual impacts of entanglement. It is believed that chronically entangled animals may in fact sink upon death, due to loss of buoyancy from depleted blubber reserves, and therefore escape detection.^[14]

Beyond direct mortality, it is believed that whales that survive entanglement episodes may suffer other negative effects that may weaken it, reduce fertility, or otherwise affect it so that it is more likely to become vulnerable to further injury. Because whales often free themselves of gear following an entanglement event, scarring may be a better indicator of fisheries interaction than entanglement records. Recent analysis of the scarification of right whales showed that over 75% of whales examined during 1980-2002 were scarred at least once by fishing gear. Further research has indicated that between 14% and 51% of right whales are involved in entanglement each year.^[12]

In 2007, so as to protect northern right whales from serious injury or mortality from entanglement in gillnet gear in their calving area in Atlantic Ocean waters off the southeast United States, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) revised regulations implementing the Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction Plan (ALWTRP). This plan expands the restricted area to include the waters off of South Carolina, Georgia, and Northern Florida. It also prohibits gillnet fishing or even gillnet possession in those waters for a period of 5 months, beginning on November 15 of each year, which coincides with the annual right whale calving season.^[23]

When entanglement prevention efforts fail, disentanglement efforts occasionally succeed, despite the fact that such efforts are more frequently impossible or unsuccessful. Nevertheless, they do in fact make a significant difference. During the period 2004-2008 there were at least four documented cases of entanglements for which the intervention of disentanglement teams averted a likely death of a right whale.^[12] For the first time in 2009 and again in 2011, scientists successfully used chemical sedation of an entangled whale to reduce stress on the animal and to reduce the time spent working with it. After disentangling the whale, scientists attached a satellite tracking tag, administered a dose of antibiotics to treat entanglement wounds and then another drug to reverse the sedation.^[3]

Population and distribution[link]

According to a census of individual whales identified using photo-identification techniques, the latest available stock assessment data (December 2010) indicates that a minimum of 361 recognized individuals were known to be alive in 2005.^[12] Up to four hundred North Atlantic right whales are thus thought to exist at present, almost all living in the western North Atlantic Ocean. In spring, summer and autumn, they feed in a range stretching from New York to Nova Scotia. Particularly popular feeding areas are the Bay of Fundy, the Gulf of Maine and Cape Cod Bay. In winter, they head south towards Georgia and Florida to give birth.

There have been a few sightings further east over the past few decades, with several sightings close to Iceland in 2003. There was speculation that these could be the remains of a virtually extinct Eastern Atlantic stock, but examination of old whalers' records suggest that they are more likely to be strays from further west.^[9] A few are sighted regularly in waters adjacent to Norway, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, and the Canary Islands.

In January 2009, one animal was sighted off Pico Island, Azores, the first confirmed appearance there since 1888. It was later revealed that this animal, which was named as "Pico", is a female from the western Atlantic group.^[24] Right whales have rarely been observed in the Mediterranean. In May 1991 Fiorenzo Mogno, a petty officer of the Italian Navy and a diver, happened to be in the water with his camera about 13 km off the small island of Sant' Antioco (southwestern Sardinia), when a large, light-gray coloured whale happened to swim by, almost at touching distance. His two successive photographs unmistakably depict a right whale. the first in the 20th Century. Earlier known occurrences of right whales in the Mediterranean include the stranding of a juvenile near Taranto (southeastern Italy) in 1877 and the sighting of two (one of which was later captured) in the bay of Castiglione (Algiers)in 1888.^{[25] [26]} and Portugal.^[27] The Norway sightings appear to be of vagrants, or strays from the western Atlantic stock.^[28] In 2009, right whales appeared in waters around Greenland^[29] although their origin was not confirmed.^[30] Prior to this, no right whales had been killed or confirmed present off the coast of Greenland for around two hundred years.^[31]

In early 2009, scientists recorded a record number of births among the western North Atlantic population. 39 new calves were recorded, born off the Atlantic coast of Florida and Georgia.

"Right whales, for the first time in a long time, are doing their part: they're having the babies; they're having record numbers of babies. We need to be vigilant and still do our part to prevent the whales from being killed."

— Monica Zani, New England Aquarium, Endangered right whales appear to be on the rebound, CNN.com^[6]

Conservation status[link]

In the United States, this species is listed as “endangered” by the NMFS under the Endangered Species Act. It is also listed as “depleted” under the Marine Mammal Protection Act.

On a global level, the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS, or the “Bonn Convention”) is a multilateral treaty specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats and migration routes. CMS has listed the North Atlantic right whale on Appendix I, which identifies it as a migratory species threatened with extinction.^[32] This obligates member nations to strive towards strict protection of these animals, habitat conservation or restoration, mitigation of obstacles to migration, and control of other factors that might endanger them.

Additionally, CMS encourages concerted action among the range states of many Appendix I species. To that end, a small portion of the eastern Atlantic population's range is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS). The Atlantic area bounded on the west by a line running from Cape St. Vincent in southwest Portugal to Casablanca, Morocco, and on the east by the Straight of Gibraltar.

Another multilateral treaty, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, (CITES, or the “Washington Convention”), also lists the North Atlantic right whale on its own Appendix I. Being so listed prohibits international trade (import or export) in specimens of this species or any derivative products (e.g. food or drug products, bones, trophies), except for scientific research and other exceptional cases with a permit specific to that specimen.^[33]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS or Bonn Convention)
• Official website of the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area
• North Atlantic Right Whale Consortium
• North Atlantic Right Whale Research at the New England Aquarium
• North Atlantic Right Whale species information at the Smithsonian Ocean Portal
• NOAA - National Marine Fisheries Service - North Atlantic Right Whale
• "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (version 2011.1) – Eubalaena glacialis (North Atlantic Right Whale)" has an authoritative and detailed population analysis and history.
• NOAA's Northeast US Right Whale Sighting Advisory System (SAS) has both current and archived maps of sightings and statistics.
• "North Atlantic Right Whale Conservation"
• "Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society"
• "Giants in the Balance: The Race to Save the North Atlantic Right Whale"
• Hear right whale audio (U. of R.I., Office of Marine Programs)
• Watch video of northern right whales
• Research showing the need for speed restrictions to save the North Atlantic Right Whale
• American Cetacean Society
• Provincetown Center for Coastal Studies - Whale Rescue / Disentanglement
• Right Whale Listening Network has acoustic autobuoys in between the lanes of the Traffic Separation Scheme approaching Boston.
• World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) – species profile for the North Atlantic right whale
• Smithsonian Institution - North American Mammals: Eubalaena glacialis

Right whales[1]
A female North Atlantic Right Whale with her calf in the ocean.
Size comparison against an average human
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Cetacea
Suborder:	Mysticeti
Family:	Balaenidae
Genus:	Eubalaena Gray, 1864
Type species
Balaena australis Desmoulins, 1822
Species
E. australis – Southern right whale[2] E. glacialis – North Atlantic right whale[3] E. japonica – North Pacific right whale[4]
Ranges of the three Eubalaena species.
Synonyms
Halibalaena Gray, 1873 Hunterius Gray, 1866

Right whales are three species of large baleen whales consisting of the genus Eubalaena in the family Balaenidae of order Cetacea. Their bodies are very dark gray or black and rotund.

A popular explanation for the name "right whales" is that they were the "right" ones to hunt,^[5] as they float when killed and often swim within sight of shore. They are quite docile, and do not tend to shy away from approaching boats. As such, they were hunted nearly to extinction during the active years of the whaling industry. This origin is apocryphal, however. In his history of American whaling, Eric Jay Dolin writes: "Despite this highly plausible rationale, nobody actually knows how the right whale got its name. The earliest references to the right whale offer no indication why it was called that, and some who have studied the issue point out that the word 'right' in this context might just as likely be intended "to connote 'true' or 'proper,' meaning typical of the group.""^[6]

Genetic evidence appears to have settled a long-standing question about whether to include the largest, the Arctic-dwelling bowhead whale, with the rest. Although all four are included in the taxonomic family Balaenidae, that whale is not included in the genus Eubalaena, and will therefore not be covered here.^[7]

Taxonomy[link]

The bowhead whale is currently considered a separate species and was given its own genus Balaena by Gray in 1821. The other three species occupy genus Eubalaena.

Authorities have repeatedly re-categorized the three populations of Eubalaena right whales, in one, two or three species. In the whaling era, there was thought to be a single species. Later, morphological factors such as differences in the skull shape of northern and southern animals indicated that there were at least two species—one in the northern hemisphere, the other in the Southern Ocean.^[8] Right whales are not thought to cross equatorial waters to make contact with the other (sub)species or (inter)breed.^[9]

Southern right whale in the breeding grounds atPeninsula Valdés in Patagonia

[edit] Three Eubalaena species theory

Genetic evidence demonstrates that the northern and southern populations have not interbred for between 3 million and 12 million years, confirming that the southern right whale is a distinct species. More surprising was the discovery that the northern hemisphere Pacific and Atlantic populations are also distinct, and that the Pacific species (now known as the North Pacific right whale) is more closely related to the southern right whale than to the North Atlantic right whale. While Rice continued to list two species in his 1998 classification,^[10] Rosenbaum et al. disagreed in 2000^[11] and Brownell et al. in 2001.^[12] In 2005, Mammal Species of the World listed three species, indicating a shift to this conclusion.^[1]

Orange whale lice on a right whale.

Whale lice, parasitic cyamid crustaceans that live off skin debris, offer further information through their own genetics. Because these lice reproduce much more quickly than whales, their genetic diversity is greater. Marine biologists at the University of Utah examined these louse genes and determined that their hosts split into three species 5–6 million years ago, and that these species were all equally abundant before whaling began in the 11th century.^[13] The communities first split because of the joining of North and South America. The heat of the equator then created a second split, into northern and southern groups. "This puts an end to the long debate about whether there are three [Eubalaena] species of right whale. They really are separate beyond a doubt", Jon Seger, the project's leader, told BBC News.^[14]

A 2007 study by Churchill provided further evidence to conclude that the three living right whale species do comprise a phylogenetic lineage distinct from the bowhead and are rightly classified into a separate genus.^[7]

Others[link]

The pygmy right whale (Capera marginata), a much smaller whale of the southern hemisphere, was also included in the Balaenidae family, but has recently been found to warrant a separate family, Neobalaenidae.

Yet another species of right whale was proposed by Emmanuel Swedenborg in the 18th century - the so called "Swedenborg whale". The description of this species was based on a collection of fossil bones unearthed at Norra Vånga, Sweden, in 1705 and believed to be those of giants. The bones were examined by Swedenborg who realized that they belong to a species of whale. The existence of this species has been and is currently debated. Further evidence for this species was discovered during the construction of a motorway inStrömstad, Sweden in 2009.^[15]

Synonyms and common names[link]

Due to their familiarity to whalers over a number of centuries the right whales have had many names. These names were used throughout the world, reflecting the fact that only one species was recognized at the time. In his novel Moby-Dick, Herman Melville writes:

"Among the fishermen, the whale regularly hunted for oil is indiscriminately designated by all the following titles: The Whale; the Greenland whale; the black whale; the great whale; the true whale; the right whale."

Halibalaena (Gray, 1873) and Hunterius (Gray, 1866) are junior synonyms for the genus Eubalaena. E. australis is the type species.^[1]

The species-level synonyms are:^[1]

• For E. australis: antarctica (Lesson, 1828), antipodarum (Gray, 1843), temminckii (Gray, 1864)
• For E. glacialis: biscayensis (Eschricht, 1860), nordcaper (Lacepede, 1804)
• For E. japonica: sieboldii (Gray, 1864)

North Atlantic Right Whale, clearly showing the distinctivecallosities and curved mouth

Description[link]

Unlike other whales, right whales have distinctive callosities (roughened patches of skin) on their heads, along with a broad back without a dorsal fin, occasionally with white belly patches, and a long arching rostrum, or upper jaw, that begins above the eye. The callosities appear white due to large colonies of cyamids (whale lice).^[16][17] Right whales can grow up to 18 m (59 ft) long and weigh up to 100 short tons (91 t), significantly larger than humpbacks or grays, but smaller than blues.

An unusually large forty percent of body weight is blubber, which is of relatively low density. Consequently, unlike many other species of whale, dead right whales float.^[18][19]

The distinctive V-shaped blow of a right whale.

Anatomy[link]

Adults may be between 11–18 m (36–59 ft) in length and typically weigh 60–80 short tons (54–73 t). The most typical lengths are 13–16 m (43–52 ft). The body is extremely thick with girth as much as 60% of total body length in some cases. The tail fluke is broad (up to 40% of body length). The North Pacific species is on average the largest of the three species. The largest specimens may weigh 100 short tons (91 t).

Right whales have a distinctive wide V-shaped blow, caused by the widely spaced blowholes on the top of the head. The blow rises 5 m (16 ft) above the surface.^[20]

An example of baleen plates; there are about 50 plates in this photo.

Right whales have between 200 and 300 baleen plates on each side of the mouth. These are narrow and approximately 2 m (6.6 ft) long, and are covered in very thin hairs. The plates enable the whale to filter feed.

The penis on a right whale can be up to 2.7 m (8.9 ft) – the testes, at up to2 m (6.6 ft) in length, 78 cm (2.56 ft) in diameter, and weighing up to525 lb (238 kg), are also by far the largest of any animal on Earth.^[21] The blue whale may be the largest animal on the planet, but the testicle of the right whale is actually ten times the size of that of the blue whale. They also top the charts in terms of relative size as well – they are six times larger than would be predicted on the basis of body mass. Together, the testicles make up nearly one percent of the right whale's total body weight. This strongly suggests that sperm competition is important in mating, which correlates to the fact that right whales are highly promiscuous.^[20][22]

Life History[link]

Reproduction[link]

The mean age of first parturition in North Atlantic right whales is estimated at between 7.5^[23] to 9^[24] years. Females breed every 3–4 years.^[23][25] Both reproduction and calving take place during the winter months.^[26] Calves are approximately 1 short ton (0.91 t) in weight and 4–6 m (13–20 ft) in length at birth following a gestation period of 1 year. The right whale grows rapidly in its first year, typically doubling in length. Weaning occurs after eight months to one year and the growth rate in later years is not well understood—it may be highly dependent on whether a calf stays with its mother for a second year.^[27]

Lifespan[link]

Very little is known about the life span of right whales. One of the few well-documented cases is of a female North Atlantic right whale that was photographed with a baby in 1935, then photographed again in 1959, 1980, 1985, and 1992. Consistent callosity patterns ensured that it was the same animal. She was last photographed in 1995 with a seemingly fatal head wound, presumably from a ship strike. By conservative estimates (e.g. she was a new mother who had just reached sexual maturity in 1935), she was nearly 70 years of age, if not older. Research on the closely related bowhead whale suggests this lifespan is not uncommon and may even be exceeded.^[27][28]

Swimming[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Right whales swim slowly, reaching only 5 kn (9.3 km/h) at top speed, but are highly acrobatic and frequently breach (jump clear of the sea surface), tail-slap and lobtail. Like other baleen whales, the species is not gregarious and the typical group size is only two. Groups of up to twelve have been reported, but these were not close-knit and may have been transitory.

Parasitism[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Right whales are often marked by large scaly gray-white patches on their skin, whose patterns are unique from animal to animal. These patches, called callosities, are colonies of crustaceans known as whale lice which can exist in the tens of thousands upon each whale. The parasitic creatures subsist on algae and dead skin, and while they are irritants, they do not cause significant harm to the whale.

Ecology[link]

Feeding[link]

The right whales' diet consists primarily of zooplankton, primarily the tiny crustaceans calledcopepods, as well as krill, and pteropods, although they are occasionally opportunistic feeders.

As with other baleens, they feed by filtering prey from the water. They swim with an open mouth, filling it with water and prey. The whale then expels the water, using its baleen plates to retain the prey. Prey must occur in sufficient numbers to trigger the whale's interest; be large enough that the baleen plates can filter it; and be slow enough that it cannot escape.^[27] The "skimming" may take place on the surface, underwater, or even at the ocean's bottom, indicated by mud occasionally observed on right whales' bodies.^[27]

Predation[link]

The right whales' three known predators are humans, orcas, and sharks. When danger lurks, a group of right whales may cluster into a circle, and thrash their outwards-pointing tails. They may also head for shallow water, which sometimes proves to be an ineffective defense. The sheer size of this animal is its best defense, although a young calves are the most vulnerable to orca and shark attacks.^[20]

Range and habitat[link]

The three Eubalaena species inhabit three distinct areas of the globe: the North Atlantic in the western Atlantic Ocean, the North Pacific in a band from Japan to Alaska and all areas of the Southern Ocean. The whales can only cope with the moderate temperatures found between 20 and 60 degrees in latitude. The warm equatorial waters form a barrier that prevents mixing between the northern and southern groups. Although the Southern species in particular must travel across open ocean to reach its feeding grounds, the species is not considered to be pelagic. In general, they prefer to stay close to peninsulas and bays and on continental shelves, as these areas offer greater shelter and an abundance of their preferred foods.^[9]

Because the oceans are so large, it is very difficult to accurately gauge whale population sizes. Approximate figures:

• 400 to 450 North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) live in the North Atlantic;
• 30-50 North Pacific right whales live in the eastern North Pacific (Eubalaena japonica) and perhaps 100-200 more in the Sea of Okhotsk;
• 12,000 southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) are spread throughout the southern part of the Southern Hemisphere; and

North Atlantic right whale[link]

Almost all of the 400 North Atlantic right whales live in the western North Atlantic Ocean. In northern spring, summer and autumn, they feed in areas off the Canadian and north-east U.S. coasts in a range stretching from New York to Nova Scotia. Particularly popular feeding areas are the Bay of Fundy and Cape Cod Bay. In winter, they head south towards Georgia and Florida to give birth.

There have been a smattering of sightings further east over the past few decades; several sightings were made close to Iceland in 2003. It is possible that these are the remains of a virtually extinct eastern Atlantic stock, but examination of old whalers' records suggests that they are more likely to be strays.^[27]However, a few sightings are regular between Norway, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, the Canary Islands and even Italy^[29] and Sicily;^[30] at least the Norway individuals come from the Western stock.^[31]

North Pacific right whale[link]

The North Pacific right whale appears to occur in two populations. The population in the eastern North Pacific/Bering Sea is extremely low, numbering about 30 individuals.^[32] A larger western population of 100-200 appears to be surviving in the Sea of Okhotsk, but very little is known about this population. Thus, the two northern right whale species are the most endangered of all large whales and two of the most endangered animals in the world. Based on current population density trends, both species are predicted to become extinct within 200 years.^[33] The Pacific species was historically found in summer from the Sea of Okhotsk in the west to the Gulf of Alaska in the east, generally north of 50°N. Today, sightings are very rare and generally occur in the mouth of the Sea of Okhotsk and in the eastern Bering Sea. Although this species is very likely to be migratory like the other two species, its movement patterns are not known.

Southern right whale[link]

The last major population review of southern right whales by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was in 1998. Researchers used data about adult female populations from three surveys (one in each of Argentina, South Africa and Australia) and extrapolated to include unsurveyed areas and estimated counts of males and calves (using available male:female and adult:calf ratios), giving an estimated 1997 population of 7,500 animals. More recent data from 2007 indicates that those survey areas have shown evidence of strong recovery, with a population approaching twice that of a decade earlier. However, other breeding populations are still very small, and there is insufficient data to determine whether they too are recovering. ^[2]

The southern right whale spends the summer months in the far Southern Ocean feeding, probably close to Antarctica. It migrates north in winter for breeding and can be seen around the coasts of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Mozambique, New Zealand and South Africa.

Since hunting of the southern right whale ceased, stocks are estimated to have grown by 7% a year. It appears that the South American, South African and Australasian groups intermix very little, if at all, because of the strong fidelity of mothers to their feeding and calving grounds. The mother passes these instincts to her calves.^[27]

In Brazil, more than 300 individuals have been cataloged through photo identification (using their distinctive head callosities) by the Brazilian Right Whale Project, maintained jointly by Petrobras (the Brazilian state-owned oil company) and the International Wildlife Coalition. The State of Santa Catarina hosts a concentration of breeding and calving right whales from June to November, and females from this population are also known to calve off Argentinian Patagonia.

Vocalization and hearing[link]

Vocalizations made by right whales are not elaborate compared to those made by other whale species. The whales make groans, pops and belches that are typically at frequencies around 500 Hertz. The purpose of the sounds is not known but may be a form of communication between whales within the same group.

Northern right whales responded to sounds similar to police sirens—sounds of much higher frequency than their own. On hearing the sounds they moved rapidly to the surface. The research was of particular interest because northern rights ignore most sounds, including those of approaching boats. Researchers speculate that this information may be useful in attempts to reduce the number of ship-whale collisions or to encourage the whales to surface for ease of harvesting.^[33][34]

Relationship to humans[link]

Whaling[link]

Whaling in small wooden boats with hand harpoons was a hazardous enterprise, even when hunting the "right" whale.

Right whales were so named because early whalers considered them the "right" whale to hunt. In the early centuries of shore-based whaling prior to 1712, right whales were virtually the only catchable large whales, for three reasons:

• They often swam close to shore where they could be spotted by beach lookouts, and hunted from beach-based whaleboats
• They are relatively slow swimmers, allowing whalers to catch up to them in their whaleboats
• Once killed by harpoons, they were more likely to float, and thus could be retrieved. However, many did sink when killed (10-30% in the North Pacific) and were lost unless they later stranded or surfaced.^[35]

Basque people were the first to commercially hunt right whales. They began as early as the 11th century in the Bay of Biscay. They initially sought oil, but as meat preservation technology improved the animal was also used for food. Basque whalers reached eastern Canada by 1530^[27] and the shores of Todos os Santos Bay (in Bahia, Brazil) by 1602. The last Basque voyages were made prior to the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). All attempts to revive the trade post-war failed. Basque shore whaling continued sporadically into the 19th century.

"Yankee whalers" from the new American colonies replaced the Basques. Setting out from Nantucket, Massachusetts and Long Island, New York, they took up to 100 animals in good years. By 1750 the commercial hunt of the North Atlantic right whale was basically over. The Yankee whalers moved into the South Atlantic before the end of the 18th century. The southernmost Brazilian whaling station was established in 1796, in Imbituba. Over the next hundred years, Yankee whaling spread into the Southern and Pacific Oceans, where the Americans were joined by fleets from several European nations. The beginning of the 20th century saw much greater industrialization of whaling, and the harvest grew rapidly. By 1937, there had been, according to whalers' records, 38,000 takes in the South Atlantic, 39,000 in the South Pacific, 1,300 in the Indian Ocean, and 15,000 in the north Pacific. The incompleteness of these records means that the actual take was somewhat higher.^[36]

As it became clear that stocks were nearly depleted, the world banned right whaling in 1937. The ban was largely successful, although violations continued for several decades. Madeira took its last two right whales in 1968. Japan took 23 Pacific right whales in the 1940s and more under scientific permit in the 1960s. Illegal whaling continued off the coast of Brazil for many years and the Imbituba land station processed right whales until 1973. The Soviet Union illegally took at least 3,212 southern right whales during the 1950s and '60s, although it reported taking only four.^[37]

Whale watching[link]

A southern right whale approaches close to whale watchers near Península Valdés in Patagonia.

The southern right whale has made Hermanus, South Africa one of the world centers for whale watching. During the winter months (July–October), southern right whales come so close to the shoreline that visitors can watch whales from strategically placed hotels. The town employs a "whale crier" (cf. town crier) to walk through the town announcing where whales have been seen. Southern Right Whales can also be watched at other winter breeding grounds.

In Brazil, Imbituba in Santa Catarina has been recognized as the National Right Whale Capital and holds annual Right Whale Week celebrations in September, when mothers and calves are more often seen. The old whaling station there has been converted to a museum documenting the history of right whales in Brazil. In winter in Argentina, Península Valdés in Patagonia hosts the largest breeding population of the species, with more than 2,000 animals catalogued by the Whale Conservation Institute and Ocean Alliance.^[38]

Threats[link]

The remains of a North Atlantic Right Whale after it collided with a ship propeller

The leading cause of death among the North Atlantic right whale, which migrates through some of the world's busiest shipping lanes while journeying off the east coast of the United States and Canada, is from being struck by ships.^[39] At least 16 ship strike deaths were reported between 1970 and 1999, and probably more remain unreported.^[27] According to NOAA, 25 of the 71 right whale deaths reported since 1970 resulted from ship strikes.^[40] Recognizing that this toll could tip the delicately balanced species towards extinction, in July 1997, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) introduced Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction Plan.^[41] A key part of the plan was the introduction of mandatory reporting of large whale sightings by ships using U.S. ports.

A second major cause of morbidity and mortality in the North Atlantic right whale is entanglement in fishing gear. Right whales ingest plankton with wide open mouths, risking entanglement in any rope or net fixed in the water column. Rope wraps around upper jaws, flippers and tails. Most manage to escape with minor scarring, but some are seriously and persistently entangled. If observers notice, they can be successfully disentangled, but others die over a period of months. Animal welfare and extinction concerns align in emphasizing the harm of such entanglements.

Conservation[link]

North Atlantic Right Whale on a Faroese stamp

Both the North Atlantic and North Pacific species are listed as a "species threatened with extinction which [is] or may be affected by trade" (Appendix I) by CITES, and as Conservation Dependent by the IUCN Red List, and as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.

The U.S. and Brazil added new protections for right whales in the 2000s to address the two primary hazards. While environmental campaigners were, as reported in 2001, pleased about the plan's positive effects, they attempted to force the U.S. government to do more.^[42] In particular, they advocated 12 knots (22 km/h) speed limits for ships within 40 km (25 mi) of U.S. ports in times of high right whale presence. Citing concerns about excessive trade disruption, it did not comply. The Defenders of Wildlife, the Humane Society of the United States and the Ocean Conservancy sued the National Marine Fisheries Service (a NOAA sub-agency) in September 2005 for "failing to protect the critically endangered North Atlantic Right Whale, which the agency acknowledges is 'the rarest of all large whale species' and which federal agencies are required to protect by both the Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Endangered Species Act", demanding emergency protection measures.^[43] According to NOAA researchers, about 83 percent of right whale sightings in the mid-Atlantic region occur within20 nautical miles (37 km) of shore.

The southern right whale, listed as "endangered" by CITES and "lower risk - conservation dependent" by the IUCN, is protected in the jurisdictional waters of all countries with known breeding populations (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, New Zealand, South Africa and Uruguay). In Brazil, a federal Environmental Protection Area encompassing some 1,560 km² (600 sq mi) and 130 km (81 mi) of coastline in Santa Catarina State was established in 2000 to protect the species' main breeding grounds in Brazil and promote whale watching.^[44]

On February 6, 2006, NOAA proposed its Strategy to Reduce Ship Strikes to North Atlantic Right Whales.^[45] The proposal, opposed by some shipping interests, limited ship speeds during calving season. The proposal was implemented in 2008. On December 8, 2008, NOAA issued a press release that included the following:^[40]

• Effective January 2009 ships 65 feet (20 m) or longer are limited to 10 knots (19 km/h) in waters off New England when whales begin gathering in this area as part of their annual migration. The restriction extends to 20 nautical miles (37 km) around major mid-Atlantic ports.
• The speed restriction applies in waters off New England and the southeastern U.S., where whales gather seasonally.
  • Southeastern U.S. from St. Augustine, Fla. to Brunswick, Ga. from Nov 15 to April 15
  • Mid-Atlantic U.S. areas from Rhode Island to Georgia from Nov 1 to April 30.
  • Cape Cod Bay from Jan 1 to May 15
  • Off Race Point at northern end of Cape Cod from March 1 to April 30
  • Great South Channel of New England from April 1 to July 31
• Temporary voluntary speed limits in other areas or times when a group of three or more right whales is confirmed.
• Scientists will assess the rule's effectiveness before the rule expires in 2013."

The Stellwagen Bank area has implemented an autobuoy program to acoustically detect right whales in the Boston Approaches and notify mariners via the Right Whale Listening Network website.

Notes[link]

References[link]

Cetaceans portal

• Carwardine, Mark. Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises, ISBN 0-7513-2781-6.
• Collins Gem: Whales and Dolphins, ISBN 0-00-472273-6.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Balaenidae

• Congressional Research Service (CRS).[2]
• List of sightings of North Pacific Right Whales and annotated scientific bibliography
• IUCN Red List entry
• Whale & Dolphin Conservation Society (WDCS)
• Right Whale Lesson Plan from Smithsonian Education
• North Atlantic Right Whale Conservation
• Success in protecting right whale population
• Right whale information from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution