Illustration of a Cartesian coordinate plane. Four points are marked and labeled with their coordinates: (2, 3) in green, (−3, 1) in red, (−1.5, −2.5) in blue, and the origin (0, 0) in purple.

A Cartesian coordinate system specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances from the point to two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length. Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin, usually at ordered pair (0,0). The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as signed distances from the origin.

One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines). In general, one can specify a point in a space of any dimension n by use of n Cartesian coordinates, the signed distances from n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes.

Cartesian coordinate system with a circle of radius 2 centered at the origin marked in red. The equation of a circle is (x − a)² + (y − b)² = r² where a and b are the coordinates of the center (a, b) and r is the radius.

The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes (Latinized name: Cartesius) revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, a circle of radius 2 may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates x and y satisfy the equation x² + y² = 4.

Cartesian coordinates are the foundation of analytic geometry, and provide enlightening geometric interpretations for many other branches of mathematics, such as linear algebra, complex analysis, differential geometry, multivariate calculus, group theory, and more. A familiar example is the concept of the graph of a function. Cartesian coordinates are also essential tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including astronomy, physics, engineering, and many more. They are the most common coordinate system used in computer graphics, computer-aided geometric design, and other geometry-related data processing.

History[link]

The adjective Cartesian refers to the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (who used the name Cartesius in Latin).

The idea of this system was developed in 1637 in writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat, although Fermat also worked in three dimensions, and did not publish the discovery.^[1] Both authors used a single axis in their treatments and have a variable length measured in reference to this axis. The concept of using a pair of axes was introduced in later work by commentators who were trying to clarify the ideas contained in Descartes' La Géométrie.

The development of the Cartesian coordinate system would play an intrinsic role in the development of the calculus by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.^[2]

Nicole Oresme, a French cleric and friend of the dauphin (later to become King Charles V) of the 14th Century, used constructions similar to Cartesian coordinates well before the time of Descartes and Fermat.

Many other coordinate systems have been developed since Descartes, such as the polar coordinates for the plane, and the spherical and cylindrical coordinates for three-dimensional space.

Definitions[link]

Number line[link]

Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space—that is, for a straight line—means choosing a point O of the line (the origin), a unit of length, and an orientation for the line. An orientation chooses which of the two half-lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative; we then say that the line "is oriented" (or "points") from the negative half towards the positive half. Then each point p of the line can be specified by its distance from O, taken with a + or − sign depending on which half-line contains p.

A line with a chosen Cartesian system is called a number line. Every real number, whether integer, rational, or irrational, has a unique location on the line. Conversely, every point on the line can be interpreted as a number in an ordered continuum which includes the real numbers.

Cartesian coordinates in two dimensions[link]

The modern Cartesian coordinate system in two dimensions (also called a rectangular coordinate system) is defined by an ordered pair of perpendicular lines (axes), a single unit of length for both axes, and an orientation for each axis. (Early systems allowed "oblique" axes, that is, axes that did not meet at right angles.) The lines are commonly referred to as the x and y-axes where the x-axis is taken to be horizontal and the y-axis is taken to be vertical. The point where the axes meet is taken as the origin for both, thus turning each axis into a number line. For a given point P, a line is drawn through P perpendicular to the x-axis to meet it at X and second line is drawn through P perpendicular to the y-axis to meet it at Y. The coordinates of P are then X and Y interpreted as numbers x and y on the corresponding number lines. The coordinates are written as an ordered pair (x, y).

The point where the axes meet is the common origin of the two number lines and is simply called the origin. It is often labeled O and if so then the axes are called Ox and Oy. A plane with x and y-axes defined is often referred to as the Cartesian plane or xy plane. The value of x is called the x-coordinate or abscissa and the value of y is called the y-coordinate or ordinate.

The choices of letters come from the original convention, which is to use the latter part of the alphabet to indicate unknown values. The first part of the alphabet was used to designate known values.

In the Cartesian plane, reference is sometimes made to a unit circle or a unit hyperbola.

Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions[link]

A three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, with origin O and axis lines X, Y and Z, oriented as shown by the arrows. The tick marks on the axes are one length unit apart. The black dot shows the point with coordinates X = 2, Y = 3, and Z = 4, or (2,3,4).

Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a three-dimensional space means choosing an ordered triplet of lines (axes), any two of them being perpendicular; a single unit of length for all three axes; and an orientation for each axis. As in the two-dimensional case, each axis becomes a number line. The coordinates of a point p are obtained by drawing a line through p perpendicular to each coordinate axis, and reading the points where these lines meet the axes as three numbers of these number lines.

Alternatively, the coordinates of a point p can also be taken as the (signed) distances from p to the three planes defined by the three axes. If the axes are named x, y, and z, then the x coordinate is the distance from the plane defined by the y and z axes. The distance is to be taken with the + or − sign, depending on which of the two half-spaces separated by that plane contains p. The y and z coordinates can be obtained in the same way from the (x,z) and (x,y) planes, respectively.

The coordinate surfaces of the Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z). The z-axis is vertical and the x-axis is highlighted in green. Thus, the red plane shows the points with x=1, the blue plane shows the points with z=1, and the yellow plane shows the points with y=−1. The three surfaces intersect at the point P (shown as a black sphere) with the Cartesian coordinates (1, −1, 1).

Generalizations[link]

One can generalize the concept of Cartesian coordinates to allow axes that are not perpendicular to each other, and/or different units along each axis. In that case, each coordinate is obtained by projecting the point onto one axis along a direction that is parallel to the other axis (or, in general, to the hyperplane defined by all the other axes). In those oblique coordinate systems the computations of distances and angles is more complicated than in standard Cartesian systems, and many standard formulas (such as the Pythagorean formula for the distance) do not hold.

Notations and conventions[link]

The Cartesian coordinates of a point are usually written in parentheses and separated by commas, as in (10,5) or (3,5,7). The origin is often labelled with the capital letter O. In analytic geometry, unknown or generic coordinates are often denoted by the letters x and y on the plane, and x, y, and z in three-dimensional space. w is often used for four-dimensional space, but the rarity of such usage precludes concrete convention here. This custom comes from an old convention of algebra, to use letters near the end of the alphabet for unknown values (such as were the coordinates of points in many geometric problems), and letters near the beginning for given quantities.

These conventional names are often used in other domains, such as physics and engineering. However, other letters may be used too. For example, in a graph showing how a pressure varies with time, the graph coordinates may be denoted t and P. Each axis is usually named after the coordinate which is measured along it; so one says the x-axis, the y-axis, the t-axis, etc.

Another common convention for coordinate naming is to use subscripts, as in x₁, x₂, ... x_n for the n coordinates in an n-dimensional space; especially when n is greater than 3, or variable. Some authors (and many programmers) prefer the numbering x₀, x₁, ... x_n−1. These notations are especially advantageous in computer programming: by storing the coordinates of a point as an array, instead of a record, one can use iterative commands or procedure parameters instead of repeating the same commands for each coordinate.

In mathematical illustrations of two-dimensional Cartesian systems, the first coordinate (traditionally called the abscissa) is measured along a horizontal axis, oriented from left to right. The second coordinate (the ordinate) is then measured along a vertical axis, usually oriented from bottom to top.

However, in computer graphics and image processing one often uses a coordinate system with the y axis pointing down (as displayed on the computer's screen). This convention developed in the 1960s (or earlier) from the way that images were originally stored in display buffers.

For three-dimensional systems, the z axis is often shown vertical and pointing up (positive up), so that the x and y axes lie on a horizontal plane. If a diagram (3D projection or 2D perspective drawing) shows the x and y axis horizontally and vertically, respectively, then the z axis should be shown pointing "out of the page" towards the viewer or camera. In such a 2D diagram of a 3D coordinate system, the z axis would appear as a line or ray pointing down and to the left or down and to the right, depending on the presumed viewer or camera perspective. In any diagram or display, the orientation of the three axes, as a whole, is arbitrary. However, the orientation of the axes relative to each other should always comply with the right-hand rule, unless specifically stated otherwise. All laws of physics and math assume this right-handedness, which ensures consistency. For 3D diagrams, the names "abscissa" and "ordinate" are rarely used for x and y, respectively. When they are, the z-coordinate is sometimes called the applicate.

The words abscissa, ordinate and applicate are sometimes used to refer to coordinate axes rather than values.^[3]

Quadrants and octants[link]

The four quadrants of a Cartesian coordinate system.

The axes of a two-dimensional Cartesian system divide the plane into four infinite regions, called quadrants, each bounded by two half-axes. These are often numbered from 1st to 4th and denoted by Roman numerals: I (where the signs of the two coordinates are I (+,+), II (−,+), III (−,−), and IV (+,−). When the axes are drawn according to the mathematical custom, the numbering goes counter-clockwise starting from the upper right ("northeast") quadrant.

Similarly, a three-dimensional Cartesian system defines a division of space into eight regions or octants, according to the signs of the coordinates of the points. The octant where all three coordinates are positive is sometimes called the first octant; however, there is no established nomenclature for the other octants. The n-dimensional generalization of the quadrant and octant is the orthant.

Cartesian space[link]

A Euclidean plane with a chosen Cartesian system is called a Cartesian plane. Since Cartesian coordinates are unique and non-ambiguous, the points of a Cartesian plane can be identified with all possible pairs of real numbers; that is with the Cartesian product Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \R^2 = \R\times\R , where Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \R

is the set of all reals.  In the same way one defines a Cartesian space of any dimension n, whose points can be identified with the tuples (lists) of n real numbers, that is, with Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \R^n

.

Cartesian formulas for the plane[link]

Distance between two points[link]

The Euclidean distance between two points of the plane with Cartesian coordinates Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x_1,y_1)

and Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x_2,y_2)
is

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): d = \sqrt{(x_2-x_1)^2 + (y_2-y_1)^2}.

This is the Cartesian version of Pythagoras' theorem. In three-dimensional space, the distance between points Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x_1,y_1,z_1)

and Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x_2,y_2,z_2)
is

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): d = \sqrt{(x_2-x_1)^2 + (y_2-y_1)^2+ (z_2-z_1)^2}

which can be obtained by two consecutive applications of Pythagoras' theorem.

Euclidean transformations[link]

The Euclidean transformations or Euclidean motions are the (bijective) mappings of points of the Euclidean plane to themselves which preserve distances between points. There are four types of these mappings (also called isometries): translations, rotations, reflections and glide reflections.^[4]

Translation[link]

Translating a set of points of the plane, preserving the distances and directions between them, is equivalent to adding a fixed pair of numbers (a,b) to the Cartesian coordinates of every point in the set. That is, if the original coordinates of a point are (x,y), after the translation they will be

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x',y') = (x + a, y + b).\,

Rotation[link]

To rotate a figure counterclockwise around the origin by some angle Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \theta

is equivalent to replacing every point with coordinates (x,y) by the point with coordinates  (x',y'), where

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): x'=x \cos \theta - y \sin \theta\,

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): y'=x \sin \theta + y \cos \theta.\,

Thus: Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x',y') = ((x \cos \theta - y \sin \theta\,) , (x \sin \theta + y \cos \theta\,)).

Reflection[link]

If (x, y) are the Cartesian coordinates of a point, then (−x, y) are the coordinates of its reflection across the second coordinate axis (the Y axis), as if that line were a mirror. Likewise, (x, −y) are the coordinates of its reflection across the first coordinate axis (the X axis). In more generality, reflection across a line through the origin making an angle Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \theta

with the x-axis, is equivalent to replacing every point with coordinates (x,y) by the point with coordinates  (x',y'), where

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): x'=x \cos 2\theta + y \sin 2\theta\,

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): y'=x \sin 2\theta - y \cos 2\theta.\,

Thus: Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x',y') = ((x \cos 2\theta + y \sin 2\theta\,) , (x \sin 2\theta - y \cos 2\theta\,)).

Glide reflection[link]

A glide reflection is the composition of a reflection across a line followed by a translation in the direction of that line. It can be seen that the order of these operations does not matter (the translation can come first, followed by the reflection).

General matrix form of the transformations[link]

These Euclidean transformations of the plane can all be described in a uniform way by using matrices. The result Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x', y')

of applying a Euclidean transformation to a point Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x,y)
is given by the formula

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x',y') = (x,y) A + b\,

where A is a 2×2 orthogonal matrix and b = (b₁, b₂) is an arbitrary ordered pair of numbers;^[5] that is,

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): x' = x A_{1 1} + y A_{2 1} + b_{1}\,

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): y' = x A_{1 2} + y A_{2 2} + b_{2},\,

where

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): A = \begin{pmatrix} A_{11} & A_{12} \\ A_{21} & A_{22} \end{pmatrix}.

[Note the use of row vectors for point coordinates and that the matrix is written on the right.]

To be orthogonal, the matrix A must have orthogonal rows with same Euclidean length of one, that is,

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): A_{1 1} A_{2 1} + A_{1 2} A_{2 2} = 0\,

and

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): A_{1 1}^2 + A_{1 2}^2 = A_{2 1}^2 + A_{2 2}^2 = 1.

This is equivalent to saying that A times its transpose must be the identity matrix. If these conditions do not hold, the formula describes a more general affine transformation of the plane provided that the determinant of A is not zero.

The formula defines a translation if and only if A is the identity matrix. The transformation is a rotation around some point if and only if A is a rotation matrix, meaning that

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): A_{1 1} A_{2 2} - A_{2 1} A_{1 2} = 1.\,

A reflection or glide reflection is obtained when,

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): A_{1 1} A_{2 2} - A_{2 1} A_{1 2} = -1.\,

Assuming that translation is not used transformations can be combined by simply multiplying the associated transformation matrices.

Affine Transformation[link]

Another way to represent coordinate transformations in Cartesian coordinates is through affine transformations. In affine transformations an extra dimension is added and all points are given a value of 1 for this extra dimension. The advantage of doing this is that then all of the euclidean transformations become linear transformations and can be represented using matrix multiplication. The affine transformation is given by:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \begin{pmatrix} A_{11} & A_{21} & b_{1} \\ A_{12} & A_{22} & b_{2} \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} x \\ y \\ 1 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} x' \\ y' \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}.

[Note the A matrix from above was transposed. The matrix is on the left and column vectors for point coordinates are used.]

Using affine transformations multiple different euclidean transformations including translation can be combined by simply multiplying the corresponding matrices.

Scaling[link]

An example of an affine transformation which is not a Euclidean motion is given by scaling. To make a figure larger or smaller is equivalent to multiplying the Cartesian coordinates of every point by the same positive number m. If (x,y) are the coordinates of a point on the original figure, the corresponding point on the scaled figure has coordinates

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x',y') = (m x, m y).\,

If m is greater than 1, the figure becomes larger; if m is between 0 and 1, it becomes smaller.

Shearing[link]

A shearing transformation will push the top of a square sideways to form a parallelogram. Horizontal shearing is defined by:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x',y') = (x+y s, y)\,

Shearing can also be applied vertically:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x',y') = (x, x s+y)\,

Orientation and handedness[link]

In two dimensions[link]

The right hand rule.

Fixing or choosing the x-axis determines the y-axis up to direction. Namely, the y-axis is necessarily the perpendicular to the x-axis through the point marked 0 on the x-axis. But there is a choice of which of the two half lines on the perpendicular to designate as positive and which as negative. Each of these two choices determines a different orientation (also called handedness) of the Cartesian plane.

The usual way of orienting the axes, with the positive x-axis pointing right and the positive y-axis pointing up (and the x-axis being the "first" and the y-axis the "second" axis) is considered the positive or standard orientation, also called the right-handed orientation.

A commonly used mnemonic for defining the positive orientation is the right hand rule. Placing a somewhat closed right hand on the plane with the thumb pointing up, the fingers point from the x-axis to the y-axis, in a positively oriented coordinate system.

The other way of orienting the axes is following the left hand rule, placing the left hand on the plane with the thumb pointing up.

When pointing the thumb away from the origin along an axis, the curvature of the fingers indicates a positive rotation along that axis.

Regardless of the rule used to orient the axes, rotating the coordinate system will preserve the orientation. Switching any two axes will reverse the orientation.

In three dimensions[link]

Fig. 7 – The left-handed orientation is shown on the left, and the right-handed on the right.

Fig. 8 – The right-handed Cartesian coordinate system indicating the coordinate planes.

Once the x- and y-axes are specified, they determine the line along which the z-axis should lie, but there are two possible directions on this line. The two possible coordinate systems which result are called 'right-handed' and 'left-handed'. The standard orientation, where the xy-plane is horizontal and the z-axis points up (and the x- and the y-axis form a positively oriented two-dimensional coordinate system in the xy-plane if observed from above the xy-plane) is called right-handed or positive.

The name derives from the right-hand rule. If the index finger of the right hand is pointed forward, the middle finger bent inward at a right angle to it, and the thumb placed at a right angle to both, the three fingers indicate the relative directions of the x-, y-, and z-axes in a right-handed system. The thumb indicates the x-axis, the index finger the y-axis and the middle finger the z-axis. Conversely, if the same is done with the left hand, a left-handed system results.

Figure 7 depicts a left and a right-handed coordinate system. Because a three-dimensional object is represented on the two-dimensional screen, distortion and ambiguity result. The axis pointing downward (and to the right) is also meant to point towards the observer, whereas the "middle" axis is meant to point away from the observer. The red circle is parallel to the horizontal xy-plane and indicates rotation from the x-axis to the y-axis (in both cases). Hence the red arrow passes in front of the z-axis.

Figure 8 is another attempt at depicting a right-handed coordinate system. Again, there is an ambiguity caused by projecting the three-dimensional coordinate system into the plane. Many observers see Figure 8 as "flipping in and out" between a convex cube and a concave "corner". This corresponds to the two possible orientations of the coordinate system. Seeing the figure as convex gives a left-handed coordinate system. Thus the "correct" way to view Figure 8 is to imagine the x-axis as pointing towards the observer and thus seeing a concave corner.

Representing a vector in the standard basis[link]

A point in space in a Cartesian coordinate system may also be represented by a position vector, which can be thought of as an arrow pointing from the origin of the coordinate system to the point.^[6] If the coordinates represent spatial positions (displacements), it is common to represent the vector from the origin to the point of interest as Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{r} . In two dimensions, the vector from the origin to the point with Cartesian coordinates (x, y) can be written as:

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{r} = x \mathbf{i} + y \mathbf{j}

where Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{i} = (1,0) , and Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{j} = (0,1)

are unit vectors in the direction of the x-axis and y-axis respectively, generally referred to as the standard basis (in some application areas these may also be referred to as versors). Similarly, in three dimensions, the vector from the origin to the point with Cartesian coordinates Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): (x,y,z)
can be written as:[7]

Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{r} = x \mathbf{i} + y \mathbf{j} + z \mathbf{k}

where Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{k} = (0, 0, 1)

is the unit vector in the direction of the z-axis. 

There is no natural interpretation of multiplying vectors to obtain another vector that works in all dimensions, however there is a way to use complex numbers to provide such a multiplication. In a two dimensional cartesian plane, identify the point with coordinates (x, y) with the complex number z = x + iy. Here, i is the complex number whose square is the real number −1 and is identified with the point with coordinates (0,1), so it is not the unit vector in the direction of the x-axis (this confusion is just an unfortunate historical accident). Since the complex numbers can be multiplied giving another complex number, this identification provides a means to "multiply" vectors. In a three dimensional cartesian space a similar identification can be made with a subset of the quaternions.

Applications[link]

Each axis may have different units of measurement associated with it (such as kilograms, seconds, pounds, etc.). Although four- and higher-dimensional spaces are difficult to visualize, the algebra of Cartesian coordinates can be extended relatively easily to four or more variables, so that certain calculations involving many variables can be done. (This sort of algebraic extension is what is used to define the geometry of higher-dimensional spaces.) Conversely, it is often helpful to use the geometry of Cartesian coordinates in two or three dimensions to visualize algebraic relationships between two or three of many non-spatial variables.

The graph of a function or relation is the set of all points satisfying that function or relation. For a function of one variable, f, the set of all points (x,y) where y = f(x) is the graph of the function f. For a function of two variables, g, the set of all points (x,y,z) where z = g(x,y) is the graph of the function g. A sketch of the graph of such a function or relation would consist of all the salient parts of the function or relation which would include its relative extrema, its concavity and points of inflection, any points of discontinuity and its end behavior. All of these terms are more fully defined in calculus. Such graphs are useful in calculus to understand the nature and behavior of a function or relation.

Note that positions on a surface in navigation use latitude and longitude in a similar two dimensional system. However the co-ordinates are written in the opposite sequence, effectively (y,x).

See also[link]

• Jones diagram, which plots four variables rather than two.

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Brennan, David A.; Esplen, Matthew F.; Gray, Jeremy J. (1998), Geometry, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-59787-0 
• Smart, James R. (1998), Modern Geometries (5th Ed), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole, ISBN 0-534-35188-3 

Further reading[link]

• Descartes, René (2001). Discourse on Method, Optics, Geometry, and Meteorology. Trans. by Paul J. Oscamp (Revised ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-567-3. OCLC 488633510. http://books.google.com/books?id=XKVvclclrnwC. 
• Korn GA, Korn TM (1961). Mathematical Handbook for Scientists and Engineers (1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 55–79. LCCN 59-14456. OCLC 19959906. 
• Margenau H, Murphy GM (1956). The Mathematics of Physics and Chemistry. New York: D. van Nostrand. LCCN 55-10911. 
• Moon P, Spencer DE (1988). "Rectangular Coordinates (x, y, z)". Field Theory Handbook, Including Coordinate Systems, Differential Equations, and Their Solutions (corrected 2nd, 3rd print ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 9–11 (Table 1.01). ISBN 978-0-387-18430-2. 
• Morse PM, Feshbach H (1953). Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-043316-X. LCCN 52-11515. 
• Sauer R, Szabó I (1967). Mathematische Hilfsmittel des Ingenieurs. New York: Springer Verlag. LCCN 67-25285. 

External links[link]

• Cartesian Coordinate System
• Printable Cartesian Coordinates
• Cartesian coordinates, PlanetMath.org.
• MathWorld description of Cartesian coordinates
• Coordinate Converter – converts between polar, Cartesian and spherical coordinates
• Coordinates of a point Interactive tool to explore coordinates of a point

In geometry, a coordinate system is a system which uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of a point or other geometric element on a manifold such as Euclidean space.^[1][2] The order of the coordinates is significant and they are sometimes identified by their position in an ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in 'the x-coordinate'. In elementary mathematics the coordinates are taken to be real numbers, but may be complex numbers or elements of a more abstract system such as a commutative ring. The use of a coordinate system allows problems in geometry to be translated into problems about numbers and vice versa; this is the basis of analytic geometry.^[3]

An example in everyday use is the system of assigning longitude and latitude to geographical locations. In physics, a coordinate system used to describe points in space is called a frame of reference.

Number line[link]

The simplest example of a coordinate system is the identification of points on a line with real numbers using the number line. In this system, an arbitrary point O (the origin) is chosen on a given line. The coordinate of a point P is defined as the signed distance from O to P, where the signed distance is the distance taken as positive or negative depending on which side of the line P lies. Each point is given a unique coordinate and each real number is the coordinate of a unique point.^[4]

Cartesian coordinate system[link]

The Cartesian coordinate system in the plane.

The prototypical example of a coordinate system is the Cartesian coordinate system. In the plane, two perpendicular lines are chosen and the coordinates of a point are taken to be the signed distances to the lines.

In three dimensions, three perpendicular planes are chosen and the three coordinates of a point are the signed distances to each of the planes. This can be generalized to create n coordinates for any point in n-dimensional Euclidean space.

Polar coordinate system[link]

The Polar coordinate system in the plane.

Another common coordinate system for the plane is the Polar coordinate system. A point is chosen as the pole and a ray from this point is taken as the polar axis. For a given angle θ, there is a single line through the pole whose angle with the polar axis is θ (measured counterclockwise from the axis to the line). Then there is a unique point on this line whose signed distance from the origin is r for given number r. For a given pair of coordinates (r, θ) there is a single point, but any point is represented by many pairs of coordinates. For example (r, θ), (r, θ+2π) and (−r, θ+π) are all polar coordinates for the same point. The pole is represented by (0, θ) for any value of θ.

Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems[link]

There are two common methods for extending the polar coordinate system to three dimensions. In the cylindrical coordinate system, a z-coordinate with the same meaning as in Cartesian coordinates is added to the r and θ polar coordinates. Spherical coordinates take this a step further by converting the pair of cylindrical coordinates (r, z) to polar coordinates (ρ, φ) giving a triple (ρ, θ, φ)

Homogeneous coordinate system[link]

A point in the plane may be represented in homogeneous coordinates by a triple (x, y, z) where x/z and y/z are the Cartesian coordinates of the point. This introduces an "extra" coordinate since only two are needed to specify a point on the plane, but this system is useful in that it represents any point on the projective plane without the use of infinity. In general, a homogeneous coordinate system is one where only the ratios of the coordinates are significant and not the actual values.

Coordinates of other elements[link]

Coordinates systems are often used to specify the position of a point, but they may also be used to specify the position of more complex figures such as lines, planes, circles or spheres. For example Plücker coordinates are used to determine the position of a line in space. When there is a need, the type of figure being described is used to distinguish the type of coordinate system, for example the term line coordinates is used for any coordinate system that specifies the position of a line.

It may occur that systems of coordinates for two different sets of geometric figures are equivalent in terms of their analysis. An example of this is the systems of homogeneous coordinates for points and lines in the projective plane. The two systems in a case like this are said to be dualistic. Dualistic systems have the property that results from one system can be carried over to the other since these results are only different interpretations of the same analytical result; this is known as the principle of duality.^[5]

Transformations between coordinate systems[link]

Because there are often many different possible coordinate systems for describing geometrical figures, it is important to understand how they are related. Such relations are described by coordinate transformations which give formulas for the coordinates in one system in terms of the coordinates in another system. For example, in the plane, if Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates (r, θ) have the same origin, and the polar axis is the positive x axis, then the coordinate transformation from polar to Cartesian coordinates is given by x = r cosθ and y = r sinθ.

[edit] Coordinate curves and surfaces

Coordinate surfaces in the Spherical coordinate system

In two dimensions if all but one coordinate in a point coordinate system is held constant and the remaining coordinate is allowed to vary, then the resulting curve is called a coordinate curve (some authors use the phrase "coordinate line"). This procedure does not always make sense, for example there are no coordinate curves in a homogeneous coordinate system. In the Cartesian coordinate system the coordinate curves are, in fact, lines. Specifically, they are the lines parallel to one of the coordinate axes. For other coordinate systems the coordinates curves may be general curves. For example the coordinate curves in polar coordinates obtained by holding r constant are the circles with center at the origin. Coordinates systems for Euclidean space other than the Cartesian coordinate system is called curvilinear coordinate systems.^[6]

In three dimensional space, if one coordinate is held constant and the remaining coordinates are allowed to vary, then the resulting surface is called a coordinate surface. For example the coordinate surfaces obtained by holding ρ constant in the spherical coordinate system are the spheres with center at the origin. In three dimensional space the intersection of two coordinate surfaces is a coordinate curve. Coordinate hypersurfaces are defined similarly in higher dimensions.^[7]

Coordinate maps[link]

The concept of a coordinate map, or chart is central to the theory of manifolds. A coordinate map is essentially a coordinate system for a subset of a given space with the property that each point has exactly one set of coordinates. More precisely, a coordinate map is a homeomorphism from an open subset of a space X to an open subset of Rⁿ. It is often not possible to provide one consistent coordinate system for an entire space. In this case, a collection of coordinate maps are put together to form an atlas covering the space. A space equipped with such an atlas is called a manifold and additional structure can be defined on a manifold if the structure is consistent where the coordinate maps overlap. For example a differentiable manifold is a manifold where the change of coordinates from one coordinate map to another is always a differentiable function.

Change of coordinates[link]

In geometry and kinematics, coordinate systems are used not only to describe the (linear) position of points, but also to describe the angular position of axes, planes, and rigid bodies. In the latter case, the orientation of a second (typically referred to as "local") coordinate system, fixed to the node, is defined based on the first (typically referred to as "global" or "world" coordinate system). For instance, the orientation of a rigid body can be represented by an orientation matrix, which includes, in its three columns, the Cartesian coordinates of three points. These points are used to define the orientation of the axes of the local system; they are the tips of three unit vectors aligned with those axes.

Transformations[link]

A coordinate transformation is a conversion from one system to another, to describe the same space.

With every bijection from the space to itself two coordinate transformations can be associated:

• such that the new coordinates of the image of each point are the same as the old coordinates of the original point (the formulas for the mapping are the inverse of those for the coordinate transformation)
• such that the old coordinates of the image of each point are the same as the new coordinates of the original point (the formulas for the mapping are the same as those for the coordinate transformation)

For example, in 1D, if the mapping is a translation of 3 to the right, the first moves the origin from 0 to 3, so that the coordinate of each point becomes 3 less, while the second moves the origin from 0 to -3, so that the coordinate of each point becomes 3 more.

Systems commonly used[link]

Some coordinate systems are the following:

• The Cartesian coordinate system (also called the "rectangular coordinate system"), which, for two- and three-dimensional spaces, uses two and three numbers (respectively) representing distances from the origin in three mutually perpendicular directions.
• Curvilinear coordinates are a generalization of coordinate systems generally; the system is based on the intersection of curves.
• Polar coordinate system represents a point in the plane by a distance from the origin and an angle measured from a reference line intersecting the origin.
• Log-polar coordinate system represents a point in the plane by the logarithm of the distance from the origin and an angle measured from a reference line intersecting the origin.
• Cylindrical coordinate system represents a point in three-space using two perpendicular axes; distance is measured along one axis, while the other axis formes the reference line for a polar coordinate representation of the remaining two components.
• Spherical coordinate system represents a point in three space by the distance from the origin and two angles measured from two reference lines which intersect the origin.
• Plücker coordinates are a way of representing lines in 3D Euclidean space using a six-tuple of numbers as homogeneous coordinates.
• Generalized coordinates are used in the Lagrangian treatment of mechanics.
• Canonical coordinates are used in the Hamiltonian treatment of mechanics.
• Parallel coordinates visualise a point in n-dimensional space as a polyline connecting points on n vertical lines.
• Barycentric coordinates (mathematics) as used for Ternary_plot

There are ways of describing curves without coordinates, using intrinsic equations that use invariant quantities such as curvature and arc length. These include:

• Whewell equation relates arc length and tangential angle.
• Cesàro equation relates arc length and curvature.

List of orthogonal coordinate systems[link]

In mathematics, two vectors are orthogonal if they are perpendicular. The following coordinate systems all have the properties of being orthogonal coordinate systems, that is the coordinate surfaces meet at right angles.

See also[link]

• Active and passive transformation
• Alpha-numeric grid
• Frame of reference
• Galilean transformation
• Coordinate-free
• Nomogram, graphical representations of different coordinate systems
• Geographic coordinate system
• Astronomical coordinate systems
• Axes conventions in engineering

References[link]

1. ^ Woods p. 1
2. ^ Weisstein, Eric W., "Coordinate System" from MathWorld.
3. ^ Weisstein, Eric W., "Coordinates" from MathWorld.
4. ^ Woods p. 8
5. ^ Woods p. 2
6. ^ Tang, K. T. (2006). Mathematical Methods for Engineers and Scientists. 2. Springer. p. 13. ISBN 3-540-30268-9. 
7. ^ Liseikin, Vladimir D. (2007). A Computational Differential Geometry Approach to Grid Generation. Springer. p. 38. ISBN 3-540-34235-4. 

• Voitsekhovskii, M.I.; Ivanov, A.B. (2001), "Coordinates", in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4, http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=C/c026470 
• Woods, Frederick S. (1922). Higher Geometry. Ginn and Co.. pp. 1ff. http://books.google.com/books?id=3ZULAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
• Shigeyuki Morita, Teruko Nagase, Katsumi Nomizu (2001). Geometry of Differential Forms. AMS Bookstore. p. 12. ISBN 0-8218-1045-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=5N33Of2RzjsC&pg=PA12. 

External links[link]

Look up coordinate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Hexagonal Coordinate System