Traditional way of making coconut oil using an Ox-powered mill in Seychelles

Coconut oil is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconuts harvested from the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). Throughout the tropical world, it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry. Coconut oil is very heat-stable, which makes it suited to methods of cooking at high temperatures like frying. Because of its stability, it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidity, lasting up to two years due to high saturated fat content.^[1] As with dairy and meat products, the United States Food and Drug Administration,^[2] World Health Organization,^[3] International College of Nutrition,^[4] United States Department of Health and Human Services,^[5] American Dietetic Association,^[6] American Heart Association,^[7] British National Health Service,^[8] and Dietitians of Canada^[6] recommend limiting the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fat.

Production[link]

Dry process[link]

Coconut oil can be extracted through "dry" or "wet" processing. Dry processing requires the meat to be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, or kilns to create copra.^[9] The copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of poor quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants; there is no process to extract protein from the mash. The preparation and storage of copra often occurs in unhygienic conditions, yielding poor quality oil that requires refining. A portion of the oil extracted from copra is lost to spoilage, to insects or rodents, and to the process of extraction.

Wet process[link]

The all-wet process uses raw coconut rather than dried copra, and the protein in the coconut creates an emulsion of oil and water. The more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. This used to be done by prolonged boiling, but this produces a discolored oil and is not economical; modern techniques use centrifuges and pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, or some combination of them. Despite numerous variations and technologies, wet processing is less viable than dry processing due to a 10-15% lower yield, even compared to the losses due to spoilage and pests with dry processing. Wet processes also require investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs.^[10]

Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked) makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process. Copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields.^[11] Conventional coconut oil uses hexane as a solvent to extract up to 10% more oil than just using rotary mills and expellers. The oil is then refined to remove certain free fatty acids, in order to reduce susceptibility to rancidification. Other processes to increase shelf life include using copra with a moisture content below 6%, keeping the moisture content of the oil below 0.2%, heating the oil to 130–150 °C (266–302 °F) and adding salt or citric acid.^[12] Virgin coconut oil (VCO) can be produced from fresh coconut meat, milk or residue. Producing it from the fresh meat involves removing the shell and washing, then either wet-milling or drying the residue and using a screw press to extract the oil. VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10-12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, then squeezing out the oil. The milk can also be fermented for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids. Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk.^[12]

A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 8,640 kilograms (19,000 lb) yields around 170 kilograms (370 lb) of copra from which around 70 litres (15 imp gal) of coconut oil can be extracted.^[13]

RBD[link]

Coconuts sundried in Kozhikode, Kerala for making copra, which is used for making coconut oil

Coconut oil expelled from copra at an oil mill in Tripunithura, Kerala, India

RBD stands for "refined, bleached, and deodorized." RBD oil is usually made from copra (dried coconut kernel).

The dried copra is placed in a hydraulic press with added heat and the oil is extracted. This yields up practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut.^[14]

This "crude" coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering.

Another method for extraction of a "high-quality" coconut oil involves the enzymatic action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases, and proteases on diluted coconut paste.^[15]

Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no coconut taste or aroma. RBD oil is used for home cooking, commercial food processing, and cosmetic, industrial, and pharmaceutical purposes.

Hydrogenation[link]

RBD coconut oil can be processed further into partially or fully hydrogenated oil to increase its melting point. Since virgin and RBD coconut oils melt at 76 °F (24 °C), foods containing coconut oil tend to melt in warm climates. A higher melting point is desirable in these warm climates, so the oil is hydrogenated. The melting point of hydrogenated coconut oil is 97–104 °F (36–40 °C).

In the process of hydrogenation, unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids) are combined with hydrogen in a catalytic process to make them more saturated. Coconut oil contains only 6% monounsaturated and 2% polyunsaturated fatty acids. In this process, some of these are transformed into trans fatty acids.

If hydrogenation is taken to completion (i.e., the oil is "fully hydrogenated"), there are no trans fats remaining. There are no natural cis-fats either. Only partial hydrogenation produces trans fats.

Fractionation[link]

Fractionated coconut oil is a fraction of the whole oil, in which the different medium-chain fatty acids are separated for specific uses. Lauric acid, a 12-carbon chain fatty acid, is often removed because of its high value for industrial and medical purposes. Fractionated coconut oil may also be referred to as caprylic/capric triglyceride oil or medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) oil because it is primarily the medium-chain caprylic (8 carbons) and capric (10 carbons) acids that make up the bulk of the oil. MCT oil is most frequently used for medical applications and special diets.

Figures[link]

The United States Department of Agriculture has published estimated production figures for coconut oil as follows; tabulated years are from October 1 through September 30:^[16]

Coconut oil makes up around 2.5% of world vegetable oil production.

Standards[link]

The World Health Organization's Codex Alimentarius guidelines on food, food production and food safety, published by the Food and Agriculture Organization, includes standards for commercial partners who produce coconut oil for human consumption.^[17] The Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC), whose 17 members produce about 90% of the coconut sold commercially,^[18] has published its standards for virgin coconut oil (virgin coconut oil is obtained from fresh, mature coconut kernels through means which do not "lead to alteration of the oil").^[19]

Composition and comparison[link]

The following table provides information about the composition of coconut oil and how it compares with other vegetable oils.

Health[link]

The United States Food and Drug Administration,^[2] World Health Organization,^[3] International College of Nutrition,^[4] the United States Department of Health and Human Services,^[5] American Dietetic Association,^[6] American Heart Association,^[7] British National Health Service,^[8] and Dietitians of Canada^[6] recommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fat. Advocacy against coconut and palm oils in the 1970s and 80s due to their perceived danger as a saturated fat caused companies to instead substitute trans fats, unaware of their health-damaging effects.^[26]

Coconut oil contains a large proportion of lauric acid, a saturated fat that raises blood cholesterol levels by increasing the amount of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol^[27] that is also found in significant amounts in breast milk and sebaceous gland secretions.^[28] This may create a more favourable blood cholesterol profile, though it is unclear if coconut oil may promote atherosclerosis through other pathways.^[27] Because much of the saturated fat of coconut oil is in the form of lauric acid, coconut oil may be a better alternative to partially hydrogenated vegetable oil when solid fats are required.^[29] In addition, virgin coconut oil is composed mainly of medium-chain triglycerides,^[30] which may not carry the same risks as other saturated fats.^[29][31] Early studies on the health effects of coconut oil used partially hydrogenated coconut oil, which creates trans fats, and not virgin coconut oil, which has a different health risk profile.^[32]

A repellent made from coconut oil can be used to prevent tungiasis-causing sand fleas from invading the body.^[33]

Uses[link]

Coconut oil

Fractionated coconut oil
Nutritional value per serving
Serving size	100g
Energy	3,607 kJ (862 kcal)
Fat	100
- saturated	86.5
- monounsaturated	5.8
- polyunsaturated	1.8
Vitamin E	0.09 mg (1%)
Vitamin K	0.5 μg (0%)
Iron	0.04 mg (0%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Solidified "coconut butter" sold by a Norwegian company

Solidified coconut oil in a jar

In food[link]

Coconut oil is commonly used in cooking, especially for frying and is a common flavor in many South Asian curries. In recent years, virgin coconut oil has increasingly become popular in natural food circles and with vegans. It was described in a New York Times article as having a "haunting, nutty," flavor that also has a touch of sweetness, which works well in baked goods, pastries, and sautés.^[34] Coconut oil is used by movie theatre chains to pop popcorn, adding a large amount of saturated fat in the process.^[35] Coconut oil contains a large proportion of lauric acid, which is converted to monolaurin in the body, a fat found otherwise only in human breast milk.^[36] It is also often used in infant formula.^[37] Other culinary uses include replacing solid fats produced through hydrogenation in baked and confectionery goods.^[29]

Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated coconut oil is often used in non-dairy creamers, and snack foods including popcorn. Hydrogenated coconut oil is also sold in Australia under the brand-name Copha and is the main ingredient in Australian snacks such as Chocolate crackles and White Christmas.

The smoke point of coconut oil is 177 °C (351 °F).^[38]

Industry[link]

Coconut oil has been tested for use as a feedstock for biodiesel to be used as a diesel engine fuel. In this manner, it can be applied to power generators and transport using diesel engines. Since straight coconut oil has a high gelling temperature (22–25 °C), a high viscosity, and a minimum combustion chamber temperature of 500 °C (932 °F) (to avoid polymerization of the fuel), coconut oil is typically transesterified to make biodiesel. Use of B100 (100% biodiesel) is possible only in temperate climates, as the gel point is approximately 10 °C (50 °F). The oil must meet the Weihenstephan standard^{[39][better source needed]} for pure vegetable oil used as a fuel, otherwise moderate to severe damage from carbonisation and clogging will occur in an unmodified engine.

The Philippines, Vanuatu, Samoa, and several other tropical island countries are using coconut oil as an alternative fuel source to run automobiles, trucks, and buses, and to power generators.^{[40][better source needed]} Coconut oil is currently used as a fuel for transport in the Philippines.^[41] Further research into the oil's potential as a fuel for electricity generation is being carried out in the islands of the Pacific, though to date it appears it is not useful as a fuel source due to the cost of labour and supply constraints.^[42]

Coconut oil has been tested for use as an engine lubricant^[43] and a transformer oil.^[44]

Acids derived from coconut oil can be used as herbicides.^[45]

Coconut oil (and derivatives, such as coconut fatty acid) are used as raw materials in the manufacture of surfactants such as cocamidopropyl betaine, cocamide MEA and cocamide DEA.

Personal uses[link]

Homemade coconut healing oil, made from pure coconut milk (extracted from fresh mature grated coconut meat) in the Philippines.

Coconut oil is sold in cylindrical containers rather than bottles due to its inability to be poured

Coconut oil can be used as a skin moisturizer, helping with dry skin^[46] and reduces protein loss when used in hair.^[47] Coconut oil might also be used as personal lubricant, although it can damage latex condoms.

Before the advent of electrical lighting, coconut oil was the primary oil used for illumination in India and was exported as cochin oil.^[48]

Coconut oil is an important base ingredient for the manufacture of soap. Soap made with coconut oil tends to be hard, although it retains more water than those made with other oils and therefore increases manufacturer yields. It is more soluble in hard water and salt water than other soaps allowing it to lather more easily.^[49] A basic coconut oil soap is clear when melted and a bright white when hardened.^[50]

See also[link]

• Copha
• Copra
• Lipid hypothesis
• Palm oil
• KERAFED

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Adkins SW; Foale M and Samosir YMS, ed. (2006). Coconut revival – new possibilities for the ‘tree of life’. Proceedings of the International Coconut Forum, 22–24 November 2005. Cairns, Australia: ACIAR Proceedings. ISBN 1-86320-515-2. http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/748/PR125%20full%20text.pdf. 
• Salunkhe, D.K., J.K. Chavan, R.N. Adsule, and S.S. Kadam. (1992). World Oilseeds – Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization. Springer. ISBN 978-0-442-00112-4.

Ian Warwick Blair, Baron Blair of Boughton, QPM (born 19 March 1953) is a retired British police policeman who held the position of commissioner of police of the metropolis from 2005 to 2008 and was the highest ranking officer within the Metropolitan Police Service.

On 2 October 2008 Blair announced that he would officially step down from the post on 1 December after disagreements with Boris Johnson, the Mayor of London. He was succeeded by Sir Paul Stephenson on 28 January 2009.^[2]

Early life[link]

Blair was born in Chester to Jim and Sheila in 1953. His father spent most of his career working for Lever Brothers, eventually rising to manage the dock at Port Sunlight in Merseyside. His mother was from Sheffield and her father had made a living as a steel merchant until he suffered major losses in the Great Depression in the 1930s. Both Blair and his brother, six years his senior, were sent to independent school at the expense of one of their father's brothers, who was a successful doctor. Blair's brother, Sandy, left school early to work for a solicitors' firm.^[3]

Blair was sent to Wrekin College in Wellington, Shropshire. Jim had been determined that his son would become a doctor—as his father (Ian's grandfather) had been. However, Blair rebelled against his father and refused to take O-Level biology, knowing it would disqualify him from a potential medical career. He initially had no aspiration to go to university, as neither of his parents nor his brother had had a university education. However, he was inspired by a teacher at Wrekin to apply to Christ Church, Oxford.^[3]

Early police career[link]

Blair joined the Metropolitan Police in 1974, under the High Potential Developer Scheme for Graduates. He joined as the rank of Constable, based in Soho, London. Eventually over the next 10 years serving as a sergeant and inspector in both uniform and CID in central London.^[4]

In 1985 Blair was promoted to detective chief inspector in Kentish Town, North London. He was responsible for identifying the victims of the 1987 King's Cross fire. In 1988 he reached the rank of superintendent, heading a project designed to reorganise criminal investigations. He obtained the rank of chief superintendent in 1991, as staff officer in HM Inspectorate of Constabulary.^[4]

In 1994, he transferred to Thames Valley Police as assistant Chief Constable, later becoming deputy chief constable in 1997, and during the same year took charge of policing the protests over the construction of the Newbury bypass. He was awarded the Queen's Police Medal in 1999 and received a Knighthood in the Queen's Birthday Honours, 2003, for his service.^[4]

Blair was formerly deputy commissioner of the Metropolitan Police under the then commissioner Sir John Stevens, and before that chief constable of Surrey Police.^[4]

While serving as deputy commissioner, he gained a reputation for being a "thinking man's policeman". He called for more female, ethnic minority and gay recruits. In 2002 he publicly stated that "Society cannot duck the fact that most muggers are black", and in response the National Black Police Association stated that black recruits could be deterred by such comments.^[5]

Shooting of Jean Charles de Menezes[link]

Several months into his tenure, Jean Charles de Menezes was shot and killed by armed police who mistakenly believed he was a suicide bomber.

After the shooting Blair telephoned the Chairman of the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) and wrote a letter to the Home Office stating that "the shooting that has just occurred at Stockwell is not to be referred to the IPCC and that they will be given no access to the scene at the present time".^[6]

Blair also claimed that a warning had been issued prior to the shooting. The IPCC held an investigation into what later turned out to be a false statement, and into allegations of attempts to delay an inquiry. On 2 August 2007 the IPCC announced its findings that the allegations against Blair couldn't be substantiated, instead placing the blame for misleading the public on Assistant Commissioner Andy Hayman, who had failed to report his suspicions that an innocent man had been killed, and had released contradictory statements to the press.^[7]

After Blair learned that the shooting of de Menezes had been a case of mistaken identity, he briefly considered resigning.^[8]

During the investigation by the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) into the wrongful shooting, one of his Deputy Assistant Commissioners Brian Paddick stated that a member of Blair's private office team had believed the wrong man had been targeted just six hours after the shooting.^[9] This allegation was contradicted by New Scotland Yard, and Paddick said that this amounted to accusing him of lying.^[9] On 28 March 2006, Paddick accepted a statement from the Metropolitan Police that it "did not intend to imply" a senior officer had misled the probe into the shooting and that "any misunderstanding is regretted".^[10]

In June 2006, a leaked copy of the Independent Police Complaints Commission report sparked further criticism and calls to quit.^[11]

On 1 November 2007, a jury convicted the Metropolitan Police of violating health and safety laws, highlighting 19 "catastrophic errors" but said it was an "isolated breach under quite extraordinary circumstances".^[12] Blair rejected a vote of no confidence by the London Assembly a week later.^[13] Blair continued to receive the support of the Metropolitan Police Authority, the head of which said that he would not have accepted any resignation offered by Blair.^[13]

Operation Finnean[link]

In 2005 and 2006 Blair was involved in Operation Finnean, a £280,000 investigation into supermodel Kate Moss's alleged possession and distribution of a Class A drug. It has been alleged that the operation was systematically sabotaged by officers eager to undermine Blair and Ghaffur's high profile stance on celebrity drug taking, and thereby erode their authority.^[14]

Bonus pay[link]

In 2007 Blair was criticised by senior colleagues at New Scotland Yard after he sought a £25,000 performance bonus during criminal proceedings over the shooting of de Menezes,^[15] while on a salary of £228,000 and with rank-and-file officers facing the prospect of pay cuts.^[15][16]

Terrorism[link]

In November 2005, a controversy about detention without charge proposals led to Blair becoming involved in allegations of the police being "politicised", when he and other senior police officers were known to have lobbied MPs to support Government proposals to hold terrorist suspects for 90 days.^[17]

After the failure of the Forest Gate Raid, 2006, several sources once again called on Blair to resign. Prime Minister Tony Blair confirmed his support for the Commissioner.^[18]

In a BBC Radio 4 interview Blair stated that Islamic terrorism "is a far graver threat in terms of civilians than either the Cold War or the Second World War".^[19] Civilians killed in World War II totaled around 47 million.

IT contract[link]

The Metropolitan Police Authority requested on 28 July 2008 that Blair face an inquiry over a series of IT contracts with the Metropolitan Police worth £3 million won by Impact Plus, a consultancy owned by Andy Miller, who is a long-time friend of Blair.^[20] The commissioner denied any wrongdoing and said that he was "open and straightforward in informing both the Metropolitan Police Service and the MPA about [his] relationship [with Miller]". He said that he had set out in writing his connection with Miller and had no part in the evaluation process. It has however been reported in the press that on one occasion another company was turned down for a contract won by Impact Plus, despite its bid being a third of the winning offer.^[20]

Race relations[link]

In January 2006 he described the media as institutionally racist^[21] for its allegedly unbalanced coverage of crimes against white people, such as in the murder of Tom ap Rhys Pryce as compared to that given to crimes against those from ethnic minorities.^[22] As an example, he had referred to the murder of two young girls in Soham in 2002. He said "almost nobody" understood why it became such a big story. However, he was forced to issue a hurried apology to the parents of Holly Wells and Jessica Chapman.^[23]

During a passing-out ceremony of the Metropolitan Police held in December 2006, an unnamed female Muslim police officer refused to shake hands with Blair on religious grounds. She also refused to have a picture taken with him, for fear of its being used for "propaganda purposes". According to Scotland Yard, Blair questioned the validity of her refusal.^[24][25]

In June 2008, Commander Shabir Hussain alleged being repeatedly rejected for promotion owing to racial discrimination, explicitly suggesting that Ian Blair was using his influence to favour a "golden circle" of white officers and to turn down applications made by black and Asian candidates, who were better qualified for the promotion.^[26] In another case, the country's senior Asian police officer Tarique Ghaffur was considering commencing an employment tribunal over being sidelined by Sir Ian Blair in Olympics security planning, and being asked to keep quiet about his concerns about the new 42 days detention laws for terror suspects.^[27] In a subsequent press conference, Ghaffur claimed to have been victimised in a face-to-face meeting with Blair, who threatened to remove him from his post if he went ahead with his legal action.^[28]

Secretly taped telephone conversations[link]

In March 2006, it was revealed that in late 2005 he had secretly taped several telephone conversations, most notably with the Attorney General, Lord Goldsmith. Blair received an unprecedented written warning from his bosses,^[29] but the chairman of the Metropolitan Police Authority, while describing his actions as "totally unacceptable", said it was not a resigning matter.^[30][31] The recording was not illegal and it was said to be simply to enable an accurate record to be taken for him in the absence of a note taker.^[32]

Single police force[link]

Blair has stated that he would prefer to see a single police force for the whole of London, an opinion shared by Ken Livingstone, with the functions of both the City of London Police and the British Transport Police absorbed by the Metropolitan Police.^[33] Already, the duties and functions of one police force (the Royal Parks Constabulary) have been taken by the Met. However, both the City of London Police^[34] and BTP^[35] have expressed their strong objections to this proposal, while the Home Office has stated that reorganisation of policing in London is not on their agenda. The publication of reviews into the operation of the British Transport Police,^[36] and the national review of fraud by the Attorney General,^[37] combined with the ending of the police merger proposals for England and Wales, appear to rule out any possibility of police mergers in London for the foreseeable future.

Haringey comments[link]

In 2006 in comments to the Times newspaper, Blair claimed that the London Borough of Haringey is a safe enough place to leave doors unlocked. Metropolitan Police Authority member Damian Hockney described Sir Ian's remarks as "truly extraordinary".^[38]

Resignation and peerage[link]

In May 2008, it was reported in the press that Blair's contract as Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police Service would not be renewed when it expired in 2010.^[39] On 2 October 2008, Blair announced he would resign as Metropolitan Police Commissioner, with effect from 1 December 2008. He blamed a lack of support from London mayor Boris Johnson, saying that "without the mayor's backing I do not think I can continue". Home Secretary Jacqui Smith and Prime Minister Gordon Brown paid tribute to Blair's service. Sir Paul Stephenson took over on 28 November 2008.^[40][41] Blair is entitled to a full police pension, estimated to be worth about £160,000 per year, based on his £240,000 commissioner’s salary.^[42] Blair was eligible to continue to receive his £234,000-a-year salary until his contract expired in February 2010.^[43] However, he lost his chauffeur-driven car and use of a £1 million flat in south-west London.^[43]

In May 2010, Blair was appointed as a crossbench life peer, and became Baron Blair of Boughton in the County of Cheshire.^[44]

Commissions and enquiries[link]

In 2010, Blair served on the Commission on Assisted Dying run by Demos, subsequently speaking in favour of changing the law.^[45]

In the same year, Blair, along with Roma Hooper, Paul McDowell, Dame Anne Owers, Javed Khan, John Thornhill and Peter Oborne, formed an investigative panel which led the year-long Community or Custody National Enquiry^[46] investigating the effectiveness of community sentencing over short-term prison sentences for low-level offences.^[47]

Ranks & honours[link]

• PC Ian Blair (various ranks) (1974–1985)^[4]
• DCI Ian Blair (1985–1988)^[4]
• Supt. Ian Blair (1988–1991)^[4]
• Ch. Supt. Ian Blair (1991–1994)^[4]
• Asst. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1994–1997)^[4]
• Dep. Ch. Const. Ian Blair (1997–1998)^[4]
• Chief Constable Ian Blair (1998–1999)^[4]
• Chief Constable Ian Blair QPM (1999–2000)^[4]
• Dep. Comm. Ian Blair QPM (2000–2003)^[4]
• Dep. Comm. Sir Ian Blair QPM (2003–2005)^[4]
• Commissioner Sir Ian Blair QPM (2005–2008)^[4]
• Lord Blair

The various ranks that Blair would have held between 1974 and 1985 are Police Constable, Police Sergeant and Inspector. Although briefly mentioned in his autobiography, Policing Controversy, there is no authoritative document in the public domain at the time of writing that shows when he was appointed to these ranks. A single photograph in the book shows him as a uniformed Sergeant in 1977.^[4]

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• – Investigating Rape: A New Approach for Police (1985) – via – Google books

External links[link]

• Sir Ian Blair profile at BBC News