Map of Caucasus region prepared by the U.S. State Department, 1994.

The South Caucasus is a geopolitical region located on the border^[1] of Eastern Europe^[2] and Southwest Asia^[3][4][5][6] also referred to as Transcaucasia, or The Trans-Caucasus. More specifically, the South Caucasus area spans the southern portion of the Caucasus Mountains and its lowlands, straddles the border between the two continents of Europe and Asia, extends from the southern part of the Greater Caucasus mountain range of southwestern Russia southerly to the Turkish and Armenian borders, and from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea coast of Iran. The area includes the southern part of the Greater Caucasus Mountain range, the entire Lesser Caucasus Mountain range, the Colchis Lowlands and Kura-Aras Lowlands, the Talysh Mountains, the Lenkoran Lowlands, Javakheti and the Armenian highlands. The Transcaucasus, or South Caucasus area, is a part of the entire Caucasus geographical region that essentially divides the Eurasian transcontinent into two.

All of Armenia is in Southern Caucasus; the majority of Georgia and Azerbaijan, including the exclave of Naxçivan, fall within this area. The countries of the region are producers of oil, manganese ore, tea, citrus fruits, and wine.

In Western languages, the terms Transcaucasus and Transcaucasia are translations of the Russian zakavkazie meaning "the area beyond the Caucasus Mountains", i.e., as seen from the Russian capital (analogous to the Roman terms Transalpine and Transpadana). The region remains one of the most complicated in the post-Soviet area, and comprises three heavily disputed areas – Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Georgia, and Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan. Several wars, including the 2008 South Ossetia war, Ossetian-Georgian conflict, and the Nagorno-Karabakh war have been waged in this region.

History[link]

Present administrative map of Caucasus.

Administrative map of Caucasus in USSR, 1957–1991.

Located on the peripheries of Turkey, Iran and Russia, the region has been an arena for political, military, religious, and cultural rivalries and expansionism for centuries. However, throughout history the Caucasus has usually been incorporated in political entities belonging to the Iranian world; at the beginning of the 19th century, Russia took it, along with the Transcaucasus, from the Qajars (1779–1924), severing those historical ties.^[7]

Ancient kingdoms of the region included Armenia, Albania, and Iberia, among others. These kingdoms were later incorporated into various Iranian empires, including Achaemenid Empire, Parthian Empire, Sassanid Empire, during which Zoroastrianism became the dominant religion in the region. However, after the rise of Christianity and conversion of Caucasian kingdoms to the new religion, Zoroastrianism lost its prevalence and only survived because of Persian power and influence still lingering in the region. Thus South Caucasus became the area of not only military, but also religious convergence, which often led to bitter conflicts with successive Persian Empires on the one side and the Roman (later Byzantine) Empire on the other.

In the 8th century, most of South Caucasus became part of the Caliphate and Islam spread throughout the region. In the middle centuries, Kingdom of Georgia dominated the most of South Caucasus. The region was later conquered by the Seljuks, Mongols, Turkic, Safavid and the Ottoman dynasties.

In the first quarter of the 19th century, after two Russo-Persian wars, the region was conquered by the Russian Empire.^[8]

The region was unified as a single political entity twice – during the Russian Civil War (Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic) from 9 April 1918 to 26 May 1918, and under the Soviet rule (Transcaucasian SFSR) from 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936.

Transcaucasia, in particular where modern day Georgia and Armenia are located, is one of the native areas of the wine-producing vine Vitis vinifera. Some experts speculate that it may be the birthplace of wine production.^[9] Archaeological excavation and carbon dating of grape pips from the area have dated back to 7000–5000 BC.^[10]

See also[link]

• Caucasus
• North Caucasus (Ciscaucasia)
• Ibero-Caucasian languages
• Peoples of the Caucasus

References[link]

Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (July 2010)

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Transcaucasus

• Caucasian Review of International Affairs - an academic journal on the South Caucasus
• Caucasus Analytical Digest - Journal on the South Caucasus
• Transcaucasia (The Columbia Encyclopedia article)

Mountainous landscape near Khinalug in Azerbaijan.

A map of the Caucasus region.

The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia (for endonyms, see below), is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, which contain Europe's highest mountain, Mt. Elbrus. Politically, the Caucasus region is separated between northern and southern parts.

Names[link]

• Avar: Кавказ - كافكاز Kavkaz
• Azerbaijani: Qafqaz
• Chechen: Kovk-Aze
• Persian: قفقاز‎ qafqâz
• Armenian: Կովկաս Kovkas
• Georgian: კავკასია k'avk'asia
• Lezgian: Кавказ Kavkaz
• Russian: Кавказ Kavkaz
• Slovak: Kaukaz
• Turkish: Kafkasya

Geography and ecology[link]

Armenia's capital Yerevan

The village of Ushguli in Georgia.

The northern portion of the Caucasus is known as the Ciscaucasus and the southern portion as the Transcaucasus.

The Ciscaucasus contains the larger majority of the Greater Caucasus Mountain range, also known as the Major Caucasus mountains. It includes Southwestern Russia and northern parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan.

The Transcaucasus is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by the Black Sea and Turkey, on the east by the Caspian Sea, and on the south by Iran. It includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands. All of Armenia, Azerbaijan (excluding the northern parts) and Georgia (excluding the northern parts) are in South Caucasus.

The main Greater Caucasus range is generally perceived to be the dividing line between Asia and Europe. The highest peak in the Caucasus is Mount Elbrus (5,642 m) in the western Ciscaucasus in Russia, and is generally considered as the highest point in Europe.

The Caucasus is one of the most linguistically and culturally diverse regions on Earth. The nation states that comprise the Caucasus today are the post-Soviet states Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Russian divisions include Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai, and the autonomous republics of Adygea, Karachay–Cherkessia, Kabardino-Balkaria, North Ossetia, Ingushetia, Chechnya, and Dagestan. Three territories in the region claim independence but are recognized as such by only a handful or by no independent states: Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh and South Ossetia.

The Caucasus is an area of great ecological importance. It harbors some 6400 species of higher plants, 1600 of which are endemic to the region.^[1] Its wildlife includes leopards, brown bears, wolves, bison, marals, golden eagles and Hooded Crows. Among invertebrates, some 1000 spider species are recorded in the Caucasus.^[2] The natural landscape is one of mixed forest, with substantial areas of rocky ground above the treeline. The Caucasus Mountains are also noted for a dog breed, the Caucasian Shepherd Dog (Ovcharka).

History[link]

Petroglyphs in Gobustan, Azerbaijan, dating back to 10,000 BC indicating a thriving culture. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value"

Located on the peripheries of Turkey, Iran, and Russia, the region has been an arena for political, military, religious, and cultural rivalries and expansionism for centuries. Throughout its history, the Caucasus was usually incorporated into the Iranian world. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire conquered the territory from the Qajars.^[3]

Kingdom of Georgia at the peak of its power under Tamar of Georgia and George IV of Georgia (1184-1223).

Ancient kingdoms of the region included Armenia, Albania, Colchis and Iberia, among others. These kingdoms were later incorporated into various Iranian empires, including Media, Achaemenid Empire, Parthia, and Sassanid Empire. In 95-55 BC under the reign of Armenian king of kings Tigranes the Great, Kingdom of Armenia became an empire, including besides Kingdom of Armenia, vassals Iberia, Albania, Parthia and a few Arab tribes Atropatene, Mesopotamia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, Assyria, Nabataean kingdom, Judea and Atropatene, stretching from Caucasian Mountains to Egypt and from Mediterranean Sea to Caspian Sea, including a territory of 3,000,000 km² (1,158,000 sq mi), and becoming the last strong Hellenist king, and the strongest in the region by 67 BC. By this time, Zoroastrianism had become the dominant religion of the region (except Kingdom of Armenia); however, the region would go through two other religious transformations. Owing to the rivalry between Persia and Rome, and later Byzantium, the latter would invade the region several times, although it was never able to hold the region.

Etchmiadzin Cathedral in Armenia, completed in 303 AD, a religious centre of Armenia. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

However, because Kingdom of Armenia (301 AD, the first nation to adopt Christianity as state religion) Caucasian Albania and Georgia had become a Christian entity, Christianity began to overtake Zoroastrianism. With the Islamic conquest of Persia, the region came under the rule of the Arabs. And soon Emirate of Armenia was formed. But after several rebellions in 884\885 AD Kingdom of Armenia became independent, and several times crushed Arab armies. At that time Kingdom of Armenia capital was Ani, with a population of 200,000 and a city of "1001 churches". It was at its peak under the reign of Gagik I, when it stretched from Byzantine Empire to Caucasian Albania, from Caucasian Iberia to Mesopotamia, including also vassal states such as Caucasian Albania and Caucasian Iberia, until in 1045 AD the kingdom was conquered by Byzantine Empire. In the 7th century Georgian king David the Builder drove the Muslims out from Caucasus and made the Kingdom of Georgia a strong regional power. In 1194–1204 Georgian Queen Tamar's armies crushed new Turkish invasions from the south-east and south and launched several successful campaigns into Turkish-controlled Southern Armenia. Georgian Kingdom continued military campaigns outside of Caucasus. As a result of her military campaigns and the temporary fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1204, Georgia became the strongest Christian state in the whole Near East area. The region would later be conquered by the Ottomans, Mongols, local kingdoms and khanates, as well as, once again, Persia, until its conquest by Russia.

The region was unified as a single political entity twice – during the Russian Civil War (Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic) from 9 April 1918 to 26 May 1918, and under the Soviet rule (Transcaucasian SFSR) from 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936.

In modern times, the Caucasus became a region of war among the Ottoman Empire, Iran and Russia, and was eventually conquered by the latter (see Caucasian Wars).

In the 1940s, the Chechens and Ingush (480,000 altogether), along with the Balkars, Karachays, Meskhetian Turks (120,000), Kurds and Caucasus Germans (almost 200,000) were deported en masse to Central Asia and Siberia. Eric D. Weitz wrote, "By 1948, according to Nicolas Werth, the mortality rate of the 600,000 people deported from the Caucasus between 1943 and 1944 had reached 25 percent."^[4]

Following the end of the Soviet Union, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia became independent in 1991. The Caucasus region has been subject to various territorial disputes since the collapse of the Soviet Union, leading to the Nagorno-Karabakh War (1988–1994), the Ossetian-Ingush conflict (1989–1991), the War in Abkhazia (1992–1993), the First Chechen War (1994–1996), the Second Chechen War (1999–2009), and the 2008 South Ossetia War.

Demographics[link]

Ethno-linguistic groups in the Caucasus region 2009.

Dagestani couple in traditional dress (early 20th century).

The region has many different languages and language families. There are more than 50 ethnic groups living in the region.^[5] No less than three language families are unique to the area, but also Indo-European languages, such as Armenian and Ossetic, and the Altaic language Azerbaijani are local to the area.

Today the peoples of the Northern and Southern Caucasus tend to be either Eastern Orthodox Christians, Oriental Orthodox Christians, or Sunni Muslims. Shia Islam has had many adherents historically in Azerbaijan, located in the eastern part of the region.

Mythology[link]

In Greek mythology the Caucasus, or Kaukasos, was one of the pillars supporting the world. After presenting man with the gift of fire, Prometheus (or Amirani in Georgian version) was chained there by Zeus, to have his liver eaten daily by an eagle as punishment for defying Zeus' wish of not giving the "secret of fire" to humans.

The Roman poet Ovid placed Caucasus in Scythia and depicted it as a cold and stony mountain which was the abode of personified hunger. The Greek hero Jason sailed to the west coast of the Caucasus in pursuit of the Golden Fleece, and there met Medea, a daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis.^{[clarification needed]}

Energy and mineral resources[link]

Caucasus has many economically important minerals and energy resources, such as: alunite, gold, chromium, copper, iron ore, mercury, manganese, molybdenum, lead, tungsten, uranium, zinc, oil, natural gas, and coal (both hard and brown).

See also[link]

	Geography portal
	Europe portal

	Book: Caucasus
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

• North Caucasus
• South Caucasus
• Culture of Armenia
• Culture of Azerbaijan
• Culture of Georgia
• History of the Caucasus
• Islam in Russia
• Languages of the Caucasus
• Peoples of the Caucasus
• Prometheism
• Transcontinental nations
• Ural Mountains
• Caucasian Emirate

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Caucasus: A Journey to the Land Between Christianity and Islam, by Nicholas Griffin
• Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus, by Svante E. Cornell
• The Caucasus, by Ivan Golovin
• de Waal, Thomas (2010), The Caucasus: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-539977-3 
• Coene, Frederick (2009), The Caucasus: An Introduction, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-48660-6 

Further reading[link]

• Nikolai F. Dubrovin. The history of wars and Russian domination in the Caucasus (История войны и владычества русских на Кавказе). Sankt-Petersburg, 1871–1888, at Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats.
• Gagarin, G. G. Costumes Caucasus (Костюмы Кавказа). Paris, 1840, at Runivers.ru in DjVu and PDF formats.
• Gasimov, Zaur: The Caucasus, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: November 18, 2011.
• Rostislav A. Fadeev. Sixty years of the Caucasian War (Шестьдесят лет Кавказской войны). Tiflis, 1860, at Runivers.ru in DjVu format.
• Kaziev Shapi. Caucasian highlanders (Повседневная жизнь горцев Cеверного Кавказа в XIX в.). Everyday life of the Caucasian highlanders. 19-th century (In the co-authorship with I. Karpeev). "Molodaya Gvardiy" publishers. Moscow, 2003. ISBN 5-235-02585-7

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Caucasia or Caucasus

• Ethnographic map of Caucasus
• Information for travellers and others about Caucasus and Georgia
• Caucasian Review of International Affairs—an academic journal on the South Caucasus
• BBC News: North Caucasus at a glance, 8 September 2005
• United Nations Environment Programme map: Landcover of the Caucasus
• United Nations Environment Programme map: Population density of the Caucasus
• Food Security in Caucasus (FAO)
• Caucasus and Iran entry in Encyclopaedia Iranica
• University of Turin-Observatory on Caucasus
• MA in Black Sea Cultural Studies. International Hellenic University-School of Humanities
• Circassians Caucasus Web (Turkish)

Coordinates: 42°15′40″N 44°07′16″E / 42.26111°N 44.12111°E / 42.26111; 44.12111

v t e Countries and regions of the Caucasus      Abkhazia 22x20px Adjara  Adygea  Armenia  Azerbaijan  Chechnya  Dagestan  Georgia  Ingushetia  Kabardino-Balkaria  Karachay-Cherkessia  Krasnodar Krai  Nagorno-Karabakh Nakhchivan  North Ossetia-Alania  South Ossetia  Stavropol Krai

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lez:Къавкъаз

Thomas Patrick Lowndes de Waal (born 1966, Nottingham, England), is a British journalist, writer and an expert on the Caucasus. Thomas is the son of Anglican priest Victor de Waal and of writer on religion Esther de Waal, brother of Africa specialist Alex de Waal, John de Waal, barrister and potter and writer Edmund de Waal.

Thomas de Waal has reported for, amongst others, the BBC World Service, the Moscow Times, and The Times.^[1] He was a Caucasus editor at the Institute for War and Peace Reporting (IWPR) in London until December 2008, and later as a research associate with the peace-building NGO, Conciliation Resources. Currently he is a senior associate in the Russia and Eurasia Program at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, specializing primarily in the South Caucasus region.^[2] He is the co-author of Chechnya: Calamity in the Caucasus (New York, 1998) and author of Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War (New York, 2003).^[3] He graduated from Balliol College, Oxford with a First Class Degree in Modern Languages (Russian and Modern Greek).

In 2006 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia denied an entry visa to De Waal, who was due to attend in Moscow the presentation of a Russian version of his book on the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, citing a law that says a visa can be refused "in the aims of ensuring state security."^[4] De Waal believes that his visa denial was retaliation for his critical reporting about the Russian war in Chechnya.^[5][6] De Waal wrote the introduction to Anna Politkovskaya’s first book in English, A Dirty War.

Reviews[link]

De Waal's book on the Nagorno Karabakh conflict was generally well received. According to Foreign Affairs journal review of Black Garden, de Waal "offers a deeper and more compelling account of the conflict than anyone before.... one likely to exercise give-no-quarters partisans on both sides."^[7] Transitions online analyst Richard Allen Greene added: "This book will undoubtedly infuriate partisans on both sides of the conflict. But for anyone who wants a thorough, sympathetic, readable, and fair account, it provides an essential introduction to a war that has left two countries in what De Waal aptly calls 'a kind of slow suicide pact.'"^[8]

Time magazine reviewer Paul Quinn-Judge called Black Garden a "brilliant book," and added further that "De Waal's book will infuriate blind partisans on both sides, but for anyone who truly wants to understand what happened in this part of the Caucasus, it will not be surpassed for many years. He is cautious, meticulous and even-handed, and the breadth of his research is remarkable".^[9]

Parameters journal review states: "Thomas de Waal, noted British journalist and specialist on the Caucasus, has ...[produced] a book that is both a poignant chronicle and a lucid, evenhanded analysis of the intricacies of this conflict".^[10] Neal Ascherson in his review of Black Garden in The New York Review of Books refers to de Waal as "a wise and patient reporter", and the book as "admirable and rigorous".^[11]

Criticism From Armenians[link]

In January 2009 Thomas de Waal published an analytical report titled "The Karabakh Trap: Threats and Dilemmas of the Nagorno Karabakh Conflict". One of the main conclusions of the report was that "there is no ‘military solution’ to the conflict - fighting would be catastrophic not just for Armenia, Azerbaijan and NK but for the wider region and its overall economic and political development".^[12]

In February 2009 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of unrecognized Nagorno-Karabakh Republic issued a commentary criticizing de Waal's report "The Karabakh Trap". According to Ministry, "de Waal had chosen the “scare tactics” as a means of persuading the Armenian party to the conflict". In the opinion of MFA, "Thomas de Waal ... under the cover of an expert-peacemaker practically calls Azerbaijan to unleash a new big war in the South Caucasus. Meanwhile, it seems to him that he and his like will not be responsible for anything. But he is mistaken…" ^[13]

The President of Armenian Academy of Political Research, Professor Alexander Manasyan, in reviewing Black Garden, wrote that de Waal "supports the point of view which is steered by the propaganda" of Baku.^[14]

Ephrussi family[link]

Through his grandmother, Elisabeth de Waal nee Ephrussi, Thomas de Waal is related to the Ephrussi family who were wealthy Jewish bankers and art patrons in pre-WWII Europe and whose fortunes started in 19th Century Odessa. He had done some research on the family's Russian branch, and helped in the researches on family history by his brother Edmund de Waal which led to the publication of the book "The Hare with Amber Eyes".

References[link]

External links[link]

• Thomas de Waal's "Black Garden": a critical review by Alexander Manasyan