A flight management system (FMS) is a fundamental part of a modern airliner's avionics. An FMS is a specialized computer system that automates a wide variety of in-flight tasks, reducing the workload on the flight crew to the point that modern aircraft no longer carry flight engineers or navigators. A primary function is in-flight management of the flight plan. Using various sensors (such as GPS and INS often backed up by radionavigation) to determine the aircraft's position, the FMS can guide the aircraft along the flight plan. From the cockpit, the FMS is normally controlled through a Control Display Unit (CDU) which incorporates a small screen and keyboard or touchscreen. The FMS sends the flight plan for display on the EFIS, Navigation Display (ND) or Multifunction Display (MFD).

The modern FMS was introduced on the Boeing 767^[1], though earlier navigation computers did exist. Now, systems similar to FMS exist on aircraft as small as the Cessna 182. In its evolution an FMS has had many different sizes, capabilities and controls. However certain characteristics are common to all FMS.

Navigation database[link]

All FMS contain a navigation database. The navigation database contains the elements from which the flight plan is constructed. These are defined via the ARINC 424 standard. The navigation database (NDB) is normally updated every 28 days, in order to ensure that its contents are current. Each FMS contains only a subset of the ARINC data, relevant to the capabilities of the FMS.

The NDB contains all of the information required for building a flight plan, consisting of:

• Waypoints/Intersection
• Airways (highways in the sky)
• Radio navigation aids including distance measuring equipment (DME), VHF omnidirectional range (VOR), non-directional beacons (NDBs) and instrument landing systems (ILSs).
• Airports
• Runways
• Standard instrument departure (SID)
• Standard terminal arrival (STAR)
• Holding patterns (only as part of IAPs-although can be entered by command of ATC or at pilot's discretion)
• Instrument approach procedure (IAP)

Waypoints can also be defined by the pilot(s) along the route or by reference to other waypoints with entry of a place in the form of a waypoint (e.g. a VOR, NDB, ILS, airport or waypoint/intersection)

Flight plan[link]

The flight plan is generally determined on the ground, before departure either by the pilot for smaller aircraft or a professional dispatcher for airliners. It is entered into the FMS either by typing it in, selecting it from a saved library of common routes (Company Routes) or via an ACARS datalink with the airline dispatch center.

During preflight, other information relevant to managing the flight plan is entered. This can include performance information such as gross weight, fuel weight and center of gravity. It will include altitudes including the initial cruise altitude. For aircraft that do not have a GPS, the initial position is also required.

The pilot uses the FMS to modify the flight plan in flight for a variety of reasons. Significant engineering design minimizes the keystrokes in order to minimize pilot workload in flight and eliminate any confusing information (Hazardously Misleading Information). The FMS also sends the flight plan information for display on the Navigation Display (ND) of the flight deck instruments Electronic Flight Instrument System(EFIS). The flight plan generally appears as a magenta line, with other airports, radio aids and waypoints displayed.

Special flight plans, often for tactical requirements including search patterns, rendezvous’, in-flight refueling tanker orbits, calculated air release points (CARP) for accurate parachute jumps are just a few of the special flight plans some FMS can calculate.

Position determination[link]

Once in flight, a principal task of the FMS is to determine the aircraft's position and the accuracy of that position. Simple FMS use a single sensor, generally GPS in order to determine position. But modern FMS use as many sensors as they can, such as VORs, in order to determine and validate their exact position. Some FMS use a Kalman filter to integrate the positions from the various sensors into a single position. Common sensors include:

• Airline quality GPS receivers act as the primary sensor as they have the highest accuracy and integrity.
• Radio aids designed for aircraft navigation act as the second highest quality sensors. These include;
  • Scanning DME (distance measuring equipment) that check the distances from five different DME stations simultaneously in order to determine one position every 10 seconds or so.^[2]
  • VORs (VHF omnidirectional radio range) that supply a bearing. With two VOR stations the aircraft position can be determined, but the accuracy is limited.
• Inertial reference systems (IRS) use ring laser gyros and accelerometers in order to calculate the aircraft position. They are highly accurate and independent of outside sources. Airliners use the weighted average of three independent IRS to determine the “triple mixed IRS” position.

The FMS constantly crosschecks the various sensors and determines a single aircraft position and accuracy. The accuracy is described as the Actual Navigation Performance (ANP) a circle that the aircraft can be anywhere within measured as the diameter in nautical miles. Modern airspace has a set required navigation performance (RNP). The aircraft must have its ANP less than its RNP in order to operate in certain high-level airspace.

Guidance[link]

Given the flight plan and the aircraft's position, the FMS calculates the course to follow. The pilot can follow this course manually (much like following a VOR radial), or the autopilot can be set to follow the course.

The FMS mode is normally called LNAV or Lateral Navigation for the lateral flight plan and VNAV or vertical navigation for the vertical flight plan. VNAV provides speed and pitch or altitude targets and LNAV provides roll steering command to the autopilot.

VNAV[link]

Sophisticated aircraft, generally airliners such as the Airbus A320 or Boeing 737 and larger, have full performance VNAV or Vertical Navigation. The purpose of VNAV is to predict and optimize the vertical path. Guidance includes control of the pitch axis and control of the throttle.

In order to have the information necessary to accomplish this, the FMS must have a detailed flight and engine model. With this information, the function can build a predicted vertical path along the lateral flight plan. This detailed flight model is generally only available from the aircraft manufacturer.

During pre-flight, the FMS builds the vertical profile. It uses the initial aircraft empty weight, fuel weight, centre of gravity and initial cruise altitude, plus the lateral flight plan. A vertical path starts with a climb to cruise altitude. Some SID waypoints have vertical constraints such as "At or ABOVE 8,000". The climb may use a reduced thrust(derated) or "FLEX" climb to save stress on the engines. Each must be considered in the predictions of the vertical profile.

Implementation of an accurate VNAV is difficult and expensive, but it pays off in fuel savings primarily in cruise and descent. In cruise, where most of the fuel is burned, there are multiple methods for fuel savings.

As an aircraft burns fuel it gets lighter and can cruise higher where it is generally more efficient. Step climbs or cruise climbs facilitate this. VNAV can determine where the step or cruise climbs (where the aircraft drifts up) should occur to minimize fuel consumption.

Performance optimization allows the FMS to determine the best or most economical speed to fly in level flight. This is often called the ECON speed. This is based on the cost index, which is entered to give a weighting between speed and fuel efficiency. Generally a cost index of 999 gives ECON speeds as fast as possible without consideration of fuel and a cost index of Zero gives maximum efficiency. ECON mode is the VNAV speed used by most airliners in cruise.

RTA or required time of arrival allows the VNAV system to target arrival at a particular waypoint at a defined time. This is often useful for airport arrival slot scheduling. In this case, VNAV regulates the cruise speed or cost index to ensure the RTA is met.

The first thing the VNAV calculates for the descent is the top of descent point (TOD). This is the point where an efficient and comfortable descent begins. Normally this will involve an idle descent, but for some aircraft an idle descent is too steep and uncomfortable. The FMS calculates the TOD by “flying” the descent backwards from touchdown through the approach and up to cruise. It does this using the flight plan, the aircraft flight model and descent winds. For airline FMS, this is a very sophisticated and accurate prediction, for simple FMS (on smaller aircraft) it can be determined by a “rule of thumb” such as a 3 degree descent path.

From the TOD, the VNAV determines a four dimensional predicted path. As the VNAV commands the throttles to idle, the aircraft begins its descent along the VNAV path. If either the predicted path is incorrect or the downpath winds different than the predictions, then the aircraft will not perfectly follow the path. The aircraft varies the pitch in order to maintain the path. Since the throttles are at idle this will modulate the speed. Normally the FMS allows the speed to within a small band. After this, either the throttles advance (if the aircraft is below path) or the FMS requests speed brakes with a message such as “ADD DRAG” (if the aircraft is above path).

An ideal idle descent, also known as a “green descent” uses the minimum fuel, minimizes pollution (both at high altitude and local to the airport) and minimizes local noise. While most modern FMS of large airliners are capable of idle descents, most air traffic control systems cannot handle multiple aircraft each using its own optimum descent path to the airport, at this time. Thus the use of idle descents is minimized by Air Traffic Control.

References[link]

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2009)

• ARINC 702A, Advanced Flight Management Computer System
• Avionics, Element, Software and Functions Ch 20, Carl Spitzer, ISBN 0-8493-8438-9
• FMC User’s Guide B737, Ch 1, Bill Bulfer, Leading Edge Libraries

1. ^ http://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/articles/qtr_02_09/article_05_1.html
2. ^ Avionics, Element, Software and Functions Ch 20, Carl Spitzer, ISBN 0-8493-8438-9, page 20-6 (20.2.1)

Further Reading[link]

• Casner, S.M. The Pilot's Guide to the Modern Airline Cockpit. Newcastle WA, Aviation Supplies and Academics, 2007. ISBN 1-56027-683-5.

• Chappell, A.R. et al. "The VNAV Tutor: Addressing a Mode Awareness Difficulty for Pilots of Glass Cockpit Aircraft." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics Part A, Systems and Humans, vol. 27, no.3, May 1997, pp. 372-385.

See also[link]

• Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics
• Strategic Lateral Offset Procedure

External links[link]

Makers

• CMC Electronics
• GE Aviation Systems
• Honeywell
• Rockwell Collins
• Thales Aerospace
• Universal Avionics

A management system is the framework of processes and procedures used to ensure that an organization can fulfill all tasks required to achieve its objectives.^[1]

For instance, an environmental management system enables organizations to improve their environmental performance through a process of continuous improvement. An oversimplification is "Plan, Do, Check, Act". A more complete system would include accountability (an assignment of personal responsibility) and a schedule for activities to be completed, as well as auditing tools to implement corrective actions in addition to scheduled activities, creating an upward spiral of continuous improvement.

Also as in the aforementioned management system, an occupational health and safety management system (OHSMS) enables an organization to control its occupational health and safety risks and to improve its performance by means of continuous improvement.

Examples of management system standards include:

• ISO 9001 Quality Management,
• ISO 14001 Environmental Management,
• ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management,
• SA8000 Social Accountability.

See also[link]

• Environmental Management System (EMS)
• Green Globe CSR/TBL System
• Lean Integration
• Occupational Health & Safety Management System (OHSMS)
• Total Quality Management (TQM)
• Welfare Management System (WMS)

References[link]

1. ^ Anderson, Chris. How to Build Effective Management Systems, Bizmanualz, January 26, 2005.

Further reading[link]

• International Organization for Standardization (2001) Guidelines for the justification and development of management system standards. International Standard ISO Guide 72, Geneva, Switzerland.
• International Organization for Standardization (1996) Environmental Management Systems-Specifications with Guidance for Use. International Standard ISO 14001, Geneva, Switzerland.
• International Organization for Standardization (2004) Environmental Management Systems-Specifications with Guidance for Use. International Standard ISO 14001, Geneva, Switzerland.
• Commission for Environmental Cooperation (2000): “Improving Environmental Performance and Compliance: 10 Elements of Effective Environmental Management Systems.” Report.
• British Standards Institution (1996): Occupational Health & Safety Management Systems; BS 8800:1996. 389 Chiswick High Road, London, W4 4AL, United Kingdom.
• British Standards Institution (1999): Occupational health & safety management systems - Specification; OHSAS 18001:1999. 389 Chiswick High Road, London, W4 4AL, United Kingdom.
• International Organization for Standardization (2000) Quality Systems - Model for Quality Assurance in Design, Development, Production, Installation and Servicing. International Standard ISO 9001:2000(E), Geneva, Switzerland.
• United States Department of Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Administration (1989); "Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines." Federal Register, January 26, 1989.
• United States Environmental Protection Agency (2001): “Integrated Environmental Management Systems: Implementation Guide.” Report written by ABT Associates for the USEPA’s Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, Design for the Environment Program; Economics, Exposure, and Technology Division. Washington, DC.
• United States Department of Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Administration (1988); Voluntary Protection Programs to Supplement Enforcement and to Provide Safe and Healthful Working Conditions." Federal Register, July 12, 1988; 53:133 pp. 26339–26348.
• Redinger C.F. (2002): Implementation Guidance Manual; For the ILO Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems ILO-OSH 2001. International Labour Office, Geneva.
• Business Publication on Management Systems Management Systems (MS Magazine)
• Quality Management International, Inc. How to develop a process-based management system [1]

This systems-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Niki Lauda

Lauda at the Nürburgring in 1973
Born	(1949-02-22) 22 February 1949 (age 63)
Formula One World Championship career
Nationality	Austrian
Active years	1971 - 1979, 1982 - 1985
Teams	March, BRM, Ferrari, Brabham, McLaren
Races	177 (171 starts)
Championships	3 (1975, 1977, 1984)
Wins	25
Podiums	54
Career points	420.5
Pole positions	24
Fastest laps	24
First race	1971 Austrian Grand Prix
First win	1974 Spanish Grand Prix
Last win	1985 Dutch Grand Prix
Last race	1985 Australian Grand Prix

Andreas Nikolaus "Niki" Lauda (born February 22, 1949 in Vienna) is an Austrian former Formula One racing driver and three-time F1 World Champion. More recently an aviation entrepreneur, he has founded and run two airlines and was manager of the Jaguar Formula One racing team for two years.

Early years in racing[link]

Lauda was born in Vienna, Austria, to a wealthy family. His paternal grandfather was the Viennese-born businessman Hans Lauda.^[1][2]

Lauda became a racing driver despite his family's disapproval. After starting out with a Mini, Lauda moved on into Formula Vee, as was normal in Central Europe, but rapidly moved up to drive in private Porsche and Chevron sports cars. His career seemed to be going nowhere in particular until he took out a large bank loan, secured by a life insurance policy, to buy his way into the fledgling March team as a Formula 2 (F2) driver in 1971. He was quickly promoted to the F1 team and drove for March in both F1 and F2 in 1972. Although the F2 cars were good (and Lauda's test-driving skills impressed March principal Robin Herd), March's 1972 F1 season was catastrophic and Lauda, in despair and deep debt, briefly contemplated suicide but finally took out yet another bank loan to buy his way into the BRM team in 1973. Lauda was instantly quick but the team was in decline; his big break came when his BRM team-mate Clay Regazzoni rejoined Ferrari in 1974 and team owner Enzo Ferrari asked him what he thought of Lauda. Regazzoni spoke favourably of Lauda, so Ferrari promptly went and signed him, paying Niki enough to clear his debts.

Ferrari 1974-1977[link]

After an unsuccessful start to the 1970s culminating in a disastrous start to the 1973 season, Ferrari regrouped completely under Luca di Montezemolo and were resurgent in 1974. The team's faith in the little-known Lauda was quickly rewarded by a second-place finish in his début race for the team, the season-opening Argentine Grand Prix. His first Grand Prix (GP) victory – and the first for Ferrari since 1972 – followed only three races later in Spain. Although Lauda became the season's pacesetter, achieving six consecutive pole positions, a mixture of inexperience and mechanical unreliability meant Lauda won only one more race that year, the Dutch GP. He finished fourth in the Drivers' Championship and demonstrated immense commitment to testing and improving the car.

The 1975 F1 season started slowly for Lauda, but after nothing better than a fifth-place finish in the first four races he then won four out of the next five races in the new Ferrari 312T. His first World Championship was confirmed with a fifth win at the last race of the year, the United States GP. He also became the first and only driver to lap the Nürburgring Nordschleife in under 7 minutes, which was considered a huge feat as the Nordschleife section of the Nürburgring was 2 miles longer than it is today.

Unlike 1975, Lauda dominated the start of the 1976 F1 season, winning four of the first six races and finishing second in the other two. By the time of his fifth win of the year at the British GP, he had more than double the points of his closest challengers Jody Scheckter and James Hunt, and a second consecutive World Championship appeared a formality. It would be a feat not achieved since Jack Brabham's victories in 1959 and 1960. He also looked set to win the most races in a season, a record held by the late Jim Clark since 1963.

Niki Lauda practicing at the Nürburgring during the 1976 German Grand Prix

A week before the 1976 German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring, (even though he was the fastest driver on that circuit at the time) Lauda tried to boycott the race, largely due to the 23 kilometer circuit's safety arrangements. Most of the other drivers voted against it and the race went ahead. On the second lap at the very fast left kink before Bergwerk, Lauda's Ferrari swerved off the track, due to a suspected rear suspension failure, hit an embankment and rolled back into the path of Brett Lunger's Surtees-Ford car. Lauda's Ferrari burst into flames, but, unlike Lunger, he was trapped in the wreckage. Drivers Arturo Merzario, Lunger, Guy Edwards and Harald Ertl arrived at the scene a few moments later, but before they were able to pull Lauda from his car, he suffered severe burns to his head and inhaled hot toxic gases that damaged his lungs and blood. Although Lauda was conscious and able to stand immediately after the accident, he later lapsed into a coma.^[3]

Lauda suffered extensive scarring from the burns. He only had enough reconstructive surgery to get his eyelids to work properly, but never felt a need to do any more. His right ear is mostly gone. Since the accident he has always worn a cap to cover the scars on his head. He has arranged for sponsors to use the cap for advertising.

With Lauda out of the contest, Ferrari boycotted the Austrian GP in protest at what they saw as preferential treatment shown towards McLaren driver James Hunt at the Spanish and British GPs. Carlos Reutemann was even taken on as a potential replacement.

Lauda returned to race only six weeks (two races) later, finishing fourth in the Italian GP. In Lauda's absence, Hunt had reduced his lead in the World Championship standings. Following wins in the Canadian and United States GPs, Hunt stood only three points behind Lauda before the final race of the season, the Japanese GP.

Lauda qualified third, one place behind Hunt, but on race day there was torrential rain and Lauda retired after 2 laps, stating that he felt it was unsafe to continue under these conditions. Hunt led much of the race before a late puncture dropped him down the order. He recovered to 3rd, thus winning the title by a single point. In spite of this, Lauda's move is seen as one of the bravest examples in motor racing.

Lauda's previously good relationship with Ferrari was severely affected by his decision to withdraw from the race, and he endured a difficult 1977 season, despite easily winning the championship through consistency rather than outright pace. Having announced his decision to quit Ferrari at season's end, Lauda left early due to the team's decision to run the then unknown Gilles Villeneuve in a third car at the Canadian Grand Prix.

Brabham, retirement, McLaren comeback and second retirement 1978-1985[link]

Five years after his first retirement, Lauda won his third title driving a McLaren MP4/2.

Having joined Brabham in 1978 for a $1 million salary, Lauda endured two unsuccessful seasons, notable mainly for his one race in the Brabham BT46B, a radical design known as the Fan Car: it won its first race, but Brabham did not use the car in F1 again, not wanting the car to be banned outright. At the 1979 Canadian Grand Prix, Lauda informed Brabham owner Bernie Ecclestone that he wished to retire immediately, as he had no more desire to "drive around in circles". Lauda, who had founded a charter airline, returned to Austria to run the company full-time.

Needing money to shore up his new business, in 1982 Lauda returned to racing, feeling that he still had a career in Formula One. After a successful test with McLaren, the only problem was in convincing then team sponsor Marlboro that he was still capable of winning. Lauda proved he was still quite capable when, in his third race back, he won the Long Beach Grand Prix. Lauda won a third world championship in 1984 by half a point over teammate Alain Prost, due to only half points being awarded for the shortened 1984 Monaco Grand Prix. His Austrian Grand Prix victory that year is the most recent and so far only time an Austrian has won his home Grand Prix.

1985 was a poor season for Lauda, with eleven retirements from the fourteen races he started, he did not start the Belgian Grand Prix at Spa-Francorchamps after crashing and breaking his wrist during practice, he also later missed the European Grand Prix at Brands Hatch; John Watson replaced him for that race. He did manage 4th at the San Marino Grand Prix, 5th at the German Grand Prix, and a single race win at the Dutch Grand Prix. This proved to be his last Grand Prix victory and also the last Formula One Grand Prix held in the Netherlands. He retired for good at the end of that season.

Helmet[link]

Lauda's helmet originally was a plain red with his full name written on the sides and the Raiffeisen Bank logo in the chin area. He wore a modified AGV helmet in the weeks following his Nürburgring accident so as the lining would not aggravate his burned scalp too badly. In 1982, upon his return for McLaren, his helmet became white with the red 'L' of Lauda Air on the sides, complete with branding from his personal sponsor Parmalat on the top. For 1983-1985, the red and white were reversed to evoke memories of his earlier design.

Life after F1 1986-[link]

Lauda returned to running his airline, Lauda Air, on his second Formula One retirement in 1985. During his time as airline manager, he was appointed consultant at Ferrari as part of an effort by Montezemolo to rejuvenate the team.^[4] Ousted from his airline by boardroom politics after a sale to majority partner Austrian Airlines in 1999, he managed the Jaguar Formula One racing team from 2001 to 2002. In late 2003, he started a new airline, Niki. Lauda holds a commercial pilot's license and from time to time acts as a captain on the flights of his airline.

He was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1993 and since 1996 has provided commentary on Grands Prix for Austrian and German television on RTL. He was, however, rapped for calling Robert Kubica a "polack" on air in May 2010 at the Monaco Grand Prix.^[5][6]

Niki Lauda has written five books: The Art and Science of Grand Prix Driving (titled Formula 1: The Art and Technicalities of Grand Prix Driving in some markets) (1975); My Years With Ferrari (1978); The New Formula One: A Turbo Age (1984); Meine Story (titled To Hell and Back in some markets) (1986); Das dritte Leben (1996).^[7] Lauda credits Austrian journalist Herbert Volker with editing the books.

Lauda is sometimes known by the nickname "the rat", "SuperRat" or "King Rat" because of his prominent bucked teeth. He has been associated with both Parmalat and Viessmann, sponsoring his ever faithful 'cappy' from 1976 onwards, used to hide the severe burns he sustained in his 1976 accident. Lauda admitted in a 2009 interview with the German newspaper Die Zeit that an advertiser currently pays €1.2m for the space on his famous red cap.^[8]

In 2008, American sports television network ESPN ranked him 22nd on their top drivers of all-time.^[9] In 2005 the Austrian post office issued a stamp honouring him.^[10]

Lauda is played by Daniel Bruhl in the 2012 Ron Howard film Rush about the 1976 Formula One season.

Personal life[link]

Lauda had two sons with his first wife, Marlene: Mathias, a racing driver himself, and Lukas, his brother's manager. They divorced in 1991. He also has an illegitimate son, Christoph. In 2008 he married Birgit, who was 30 years his junior and was formerly a flight attendant for his airline. She had also donated a kidney to Lauda when the kidney he received in a transplant from his brother years earlier failed. In September 2009 Birgit gave birth to twins, a boy and a girl.^[11]

Complete Formula One results[link]

(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap)

References[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Niki Lauda

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