Extraction of latex from a tree, for use in rubber production

Latex is the stable dispersion (emulsion) of polymer microparticles in an aqueous medium. Latexes may be natural or synthetic.

Latex as found in nature is a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms).^[1] It is a complex emulsion consisting of proteins, alkaloids, starches, sugars, oils, tannins, resins, and gums that coagulates on exposure to air. It is usually exuded after tissue injury. In most plants, latex is white, but some have yellow, orange, or scarlet latex. Since the 17th century, latex has been used as a term for the fluid substance in plants.^[2] It serves mainly as defense against herbivorous insects.^[1] Many people are allergic to latex.

The word is also used to refer to natural latex rubber; particularly for non-vulcanized rubber. Such is the case in products like latex gloves, latex condoms and latex clothing.

It can also be made synthetically by polymerizing a monomer such as styrene that has been emulsified with surfactants.

Biology[link]

Articulated Laticifers[link]

The cells (laticifers) in which latex is found make up the laticiferous system, which can form in two very different ways. In many plants, the laticiferous system is formed from rows of cells laid down in the meristem of the stem or root. The cell walls between these cells are dissolved so that continuous tubes, called latex vessels, are formed. Since these vessels are made of many cells, they are known as articulated laticifers. This method of formation is found in the poppy family, in the rubber trees (Para rubber tree and Castilla elastica), and in the Cichorieae, a clade in the Family Asteraceae distinguished by the presence of latex in its members. It is also found in Taraxacum kok-saghyz.^[3] It is also present in another member of the Asteraceae, the guayule plant.

Non-articulated Laticifers[link]

In the milkweed and spurge families, on the other hand, the laticiferous system is formed quite differently. Early in the development of the seedling latex cells differentiate, and as the plant grows these latex cells grow into a branching system extending throughout the plant. In many euphorbs, the entire structure is made from a single cell - this type of system is known as a non-articulated laticifer, to distinguish it from the multi-cellular structures discussed above. In the mature plant, the entire laticiferous system is descended from a single cell or group of cells present in the embryo.

The laticiferous system is present in all parts of the mature plant, including roots, stems, leaves, and sometimes the fruits. It is particularly noticeable in the cortical tissues. Latex is usually exuded as a white liquid, but is some cases it can be clear, yellow or red, as in Cannabaceae.^[1]

Productive species[link]

Latex is produced by 20,000 species from over 40 families occurring in multiple lineages in both dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous of plant. It is also found in conifers and pteridophytes. Several members of the fungal kingdom also produce latex upon injury, such as Lactarius deliciosus and other milk-caps. This suggests it is the product of convergent evolution and has been selected for on many separate occasions.^[1]

14% of tropical plant species create latex, as opposed to 6% of temperate plant species.^[4]

Defense function[link]

Rubber latex

Latex functions to protect the plant from herbivores. The idea was first proposed in 1887 by Joseph F. James who noted that latex

“. . . carries with it at the same time such disagreeable properties that it becomes a better protection to the plant from enemies than all the thorns, prickles, or hairs that could be provided. In this plant, so copious and so distasteful has the sap become that it serves a most important purpose in its economy.”^[5]

Evidence showing this defense function include the finding that slugs will eat leaves drained of their latex but not intact ones, that many insects sever the veins carrying latex before they feed, and that the latex of Asclepias humistrata (sandhill milkweed) kills by trapping 30% of newly hatched monarch butterfly caterpillars.^[1]

Other evidence is that latex contains 50–1000 higher concentrations of defense substances than other plant tissues. These toxins include ones that are also toxic to the plant and consist of a diverse range of chemicals that are either poisonous or "antinutritive". Latex is actively moved to the area of injury; in the case of Cryptostegia grandiflora, this can be more than 70 cm.^[1]

The clotting property of latex is functional in this defense since it limits wastage and its stickiness traps insects and their mouthparts.^[1]

It has been noted that while there exist other explanations for the existence of latex including storage and movement of plant nutrients, waste, and maintenance of water balance that "Essentially none of these functions remain credible and none have any empirical support."^[1]

Synthetic latices[link]

Examples of synthetic latexes are styrene-butadiene rubber, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, acrylic polymers, polyvinyl acetate.

Uses of latex[link]

Opium poppy exuding fresh latex from a cut

The latex of many species can be processed to produce many materials.

Natural rubber is the most important product obtained from latex; more than 12,000 plant species yield latex containing rubber, though in the vast majority of those species the rubber is not suitable for commercial use.^[6] This latex is used to make many other products as well, including mattresses, gloves, swim caps, condoms, catheters and balloons.

Balatá and gutta percha latex contain an inelastic polymer related to rubber.

Latex from the chicle and jelutong trees is used in chewing gum.

Dried latex from the opium poppy is opium, the source of many useful opiates and other alkaloids of high value.

Synthetic latexes are used in coatings (e.g. latex paint) and glues because they solidify by coalescence of the polymer particles as the water evaporates, and therefore can form films without releasing potentially toxic organic solvents in the environment. Other uses include cement additives. Latex, usually styrene based, is also used in immunoassays.

Latex is used to conceal information on scratchcards

Latex clothing[link]

Latex is used in many types of clothing. Worn on the body (or applied directly by painting) it tends to be skin-tight, producing a "second skin" effect.

Allergic reactions[link]

Some people have a serious latex allergy, and exposure to latex products such as latex gloves can cause anaphylactic shock. Guayule latex is hypoallergenic and is being researched as a substitute to the allergy-inducing Hevea latexes. Additionally, chemical processes may be employed to reduce the amount of antigenic protein in Hevea latex, yielding alternative materials such as Vytex Natural Rubber Latex which provide significantly reduced exposure to latex allergens.

Many people with spina bifida are also allergic to natural latex rubber, as well as people who have had multiple surgeries, and people who have had prolonged exposure to natural latex.

See also[link]

• Plant sap
• Rubber

References[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Latex

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2008)

Alexandra Potter is a British author.

Born in Bradford, Yorkshire, England, and educated at Liverpool University, she worked as a features writer and sub-editor for magazines in both the UK and Australia, before turning to fiction. To date she has written nine romantic comedies:

1. What's New, Pussycat?
2. Going La La
3. Calling Romeo
4. Do You Come Here Often?
5. Be Careful What You Wish For
6. Me and Mr Darcy
7. Who's That Girl?
8. You're The One That I Don't Want
9. Don't You Forget About Me

Her books have been published in both the UK (including the Commonwealth) and the US and have been translated and sold in twenty-one territories, including France, Germany, Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Turkey, Poland, Russia, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Indonesia, Brazil, Macedonia, Romania, Slovenia, China, Croatia and Serbia.

In 2007 she won the award for Best New Fiction at The Jane Austen World Regency World Awards for her bestselling novel, 'Me and Mr Darcy'.

She has sold the film rights to several of her novels, and 'You're The One That I Don't Want' is currently in pre-production.

She divides her time between London, New York and Los Angeles.

External links[link]

• Fantastic Fiction information
• http://www.alexandrapotter.com

]]

This article about a novelist from the United Kingdom is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Susan Wayland
On location in Greece
Born	(1980-06-23) June 23, 1980 (age 32) Leipzig, Germany
Other names	Sway
Ethnicity	Caucasian
Height	1.78 m (5 ft 10 in)
Weight	58 kg (130 lb)
Website
http://www.susanwayland.com

Susan Wayland (born June 23, 1980 in Leipzig, Germany) is a German fashion model who features in adult photography, especially in the area of latex fetishism. She has appeared in numerous international men's magazines, commercial advertising, award-winning music video,^[1] and film.^[2] She is considered one of the top models in the latex sector.^[3]

Biography[link]

As a teenager, Wayland (nicknamed "Sway") was interested in playing different characters and was involved in various theatre projects and dance groups. In 1999, she began collegiate study in Braunschweig and met glamour and fashion photographer Norman Richter. Richter and Sway developed a mutual interest in creating interesting and artistic visions and discovered latex as a clothing material. Working together, they developed this new hobby. Hobby soon turned to passion and in Sway's own words, "It was such a new, interesting and exciting feeling to model in latex and it takes no long time and I was totally addicted to that beautiful material which became an important part in my life".^[4]

Career[link]

Richter and Sway's work soon gained notice from prominent fetish and latex publications and sites. Soon Sway was gaining more exposure, experience, and was more actively modeling and performing. Sway soon was working with notable fetish and alternative photographers such as Peter W. Czernich and latex/fetish designers and companies including Patrice Catanzaro, Westwardbound, and Marquis. Since 2006, Sway has been one of the models for the Danish supplier of latex wear, Latexa Fashion.

Publications[link]

From 2004, Wayland's print career started to pick up, and Sway appeared on advertisements and flyers for Germany's biggest latex fetish events (for example, German Fetish Fair 2004 and multiple Lounge Bizarre flyers). Other credits include magazines, websites, calendars, and directories such as Full-size issue #3 (2005), Dark Spy issue #17 (2007), DDIMag issue #63 (2007), Fet-X issue #1 (2007), Gum issue #203, Marquis issue #37, Massad issue #227, Skin Two issue #52, Pirate issue #98, and the cover of FORUM (November 2009)^[5] while all the time continuing work with Norman Richter on their personal website. Sway has since worked on various video and photographic projects with well-known models like Bianca Beauchamp, Emily Marilyn, and Ancilla Tilia.

Video[link]

Wayland also performed in the award-winning music video Wrong Love by Smatka Molot^[6] The video won the 2006 Hollywood Award for the best music video^[7] and the 2007 New York Independent Film Festival's best international music video.

Wayland has gone on to become one of Germany's best known fetish models and performers, and Richter's photographic work has gained recognition with numerous write-ups in fetish and industry publications.^[8]

See also[link]

• Fetish photography
• Fetish model

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Susan Wayland at the Internet Movie Database