Fortuna governs the circle of the four stages of life, the Wheel of Fortune, in a manuscript of Carmina Burana

Fortuna (equivalent to the Greek goddess Tyche) was the goddess of fortune and personification of luck in Roman religion. She might bring good luck or bad: she could be represented as veiled and blind, as in modern depictions of Justice, and came to represent life's capriciousness. She was also a goddess of fate: as Atrox Fortuna, she claimed the young lives of the princeps Augustus' grandsons Gaius and Lucius, prospective heirs to the Empire.^[1]

Her father was said to be Jupiter and like him, she could also be bountiful (Copia). As Annonaria she protected grain supplies. June 11 was sacred to her: on June 24 she was given cult at the festival of Fors Fortuna.^[2][3]

Cult[link]

Fortuna and Pontos

Fortuna's Roman cult was variously attributed to Servius Tullius – whose exceptional good fortune suggested their sexual intimacy^[4] – and to Ancus Marcius.^[5] The two earliest temples mentioned in Roman Calendars were outside the city, on the right bank of the Tiber (in Italian Trastevere). The first temple dedicated to Fors was attributed to the Etruscan Servius Tullius, while the second is known to have been built in 293 BC as the fullfilment of a Roman promise made during later Etruscan wars^[6] The date of dedication of her temples was 24 June, or Midsummer’s Day, when celebrants from Rome annually floated to the temples downstream from the city. After undisclosed rituals they then rowed back, garlanded and inebriated.^[7] Also Fortuna had a temple at the Forum Boarium. Here Fortuna was twinned with the cult of Mater Matuta (the goddesses shared a festival on 11 June), and the paired temples have been revealed in the excavation beside the church of Sant'Omobono: the cults are indeed archaic in date.^[8] Fortuna Primigenia of Praeneste was adopted by Romans at the end of 3rd BC in an important cult of Fortuna Publica Populi Romani (the Official Good Luck of the Roman People) on the Quirinalis outside the Porta Collina.^[9] No temple at Rome, however, rivalled the magnificence of the Praenestine sanctuary.

Fortuna's identity as personification of chance events was closely tied to virtus (strength of character). Public officials who lacked virtues invited ill-fortune on themselves and Rome: Sallust uses the infamous Catiline as illustration – "Truly, when in the place of work, idleness, in place of the spirit of measure and equity, caprice and pride invade, fortune is changed just as with morality".^[10]

An oracle at the Temple of Fortuna Primigena in Praeneste used a form of divination in which a small boy picked out one of various futures that were written on oak rods. Cults to Fortuna in her many forms are attested throughout the Roman world. Dedications have been found to Fortuna Dubia (doubtful fortune), Fortuna Brevis (fickle or wayward fortune) and Fortuna Mala (bad fortune).

She is found in a variety of domestic and personal contexts. During the early Empire, an amulet from the House of Menander in Pompeii links her to the Egyptian goddess Isis, as Isis-Fortuna.^[11] She is functionally related to the God Bonus Eventus,^[12] who is often represented as her counterpart: both appear on amulets and intaglio engraved gems across the Roman world.

Her name seems to derive from Vortumna (she who revolves the year): the earliest reference to the Wheel of Fortune, emblematic of the endless changes in life between prosperity and disaster, is 55 BCE.^[13] In Seneca's tragedy Agamemnon, a chorus addresses Fortuna in terms that would remain almost proverbial, and in a high heroic ranting mode that Renaissance writers would emulate:

"O Fortune, who dost bestow the throne’s high boon with mocking hand, in dangerous and doubtful state thou settest the too exalted. Never have sceptres obtained calm peace or certain tenure; care on care weighs them down, and ever do fresh storms vex their souls. ...great kingdoms sink of their own weight, and Fortune gives way ‘neath the burden of herself. Sails swollen with favouring breezes fear blasts too strongly theirs; the tower which rears its head to the very clouds is beaten by rainy Auster.... Whatever Fortune has raised on high, she lifts but to bring low. Modest estate has longer life; then happy he whoe’er, content with the common lot, with safe breeze hugs the shore, and, fearing to trust his skiff to the wider sea, with unambitious oar keeps close to land."^[14]

Ovid's description is typical of Roman representations: in a letter from exile^[15] he reflects ruefully on the "goddess who admits by her unsteady wheel her own fickleness; she always has its apex beneath her swaying foot."

Middle Ages[link]

The humiliation of Emperor Valerian by king Shapur I of Persia (260) passed into European cultural memory as an instance of the reversals of Fortuna. In Hans Holbein's pen-and-ink drawing (1521), the universal lesson is brought home by its contemporary setting.

Fortuna did not disappear from the popular imagination with the ascendancy of Christianity by any means.^[16] Saint Augustine took a stand against her continuing presence, in the City of God: "How, therefore, is she good, who without discernment comes to both the good and to the bad? ...It profits one nothing to worship her if she is truly fortune... let the bad worship her...this supposed deity".^[17] In the 6th century, the Consolation of Philosophy, by statesman and philosopher Boethius, written while he faced execution, reflected the Christian theology of casus, that the apparently random and often ruinous turns of Fortune's Wheel are in fact both inevitable and providential, that even the most coincidental events are part of God's hidden plan which one should not resist or try to change. Fortuna, then, was a servant of God,^[18] and events, individual decisions, the influence of the stars were all merely vehicles of Divine Will. In succeeding generations Boethius' Consolation was required reading for scholars and students. Fortune crept back in to popular acceptance, with a new iconographic trait, "two-faced Fortune", Fortuna bifrons; such depictions continue into the 15th century.^[19]

Albrecht Dürer's engraving of Fortuna, ca 1502

The ubiquitous image of the Wheel of Fortune found throughout the Middle Ages and beyond was a direct legacy of the second book of Boethius's Consolation. The Wheel appears in many renditions from tiny miniatures in manuscripts to huge stained glass windows in cathedrals, such as at Amiens. Lady Fortune is usually represented as larger than life to underscore her importance. The wheel characteristically has four shelves, or stages of life, with four human figures, usually labeled on the left regnabo (I shall reign), on the top regno (I reign) and is usually crowned, descending on the right regnavi (I have reigned) and the lowly figure on the bottom is marked sum sine regno (I have no kingdom). Medieval representations of Fortune emphasize her duality and instability, such as two faces side by side like Janus; one face smiling the other frowning; half the face white the other black; she may be blindfolded but without scales, blind to justice. She was associated with the cornucopia, ship's rudder, the ball and the wheel. The cornucopia is where plenty flows from, the Helmsman's rudder steers fate, the globe symbolizes chance (who gets good or bad luck), and the wheel symbolizes that luck, good or bad, never lasts.

Fortuna lightly balances the orb of sovereignty between thumb and finger in a Dutch painting of ca 1530 (Musée des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg)

Fortune would have many influences in cultural works throughout the Middle Ages. In Le Roman de la Rose, Fortune frustrates the hopes of a lover who has been helped by a personified character "Reason". In Dante's Inferno (vii.67-96) Virgil explains the nature of Fortune, both a devil and a ministring angel, subservient to God. Boccaccio's De Casibus Virorum Illustrium ("The Fortunes of Famous Men"), used by John Lydgate to compose his Fall of Princes, tells of many where the turn of Fortune's wheel brought those most high to disaster, and Boccaccio essay De remedii dell'una e dell'altra Fortuna, depends upon Boethius for the double nature of Fortuna. Fortune makes her appearance in Carmina Burana (see image). The Christianized Lady Fortune is not autonomous: illustrations for Boccaccio's Remedii show Fortuna enthroned in a triumphal car with reins that lead to heaven,^[20] and appears in chapter 25 of Machiavelli's The Prince, in which he says Fortune only rules one half of men's fate, the other half being of their own will. Machiavelli reminds the reader that Fortune is a woman, that she favours a strong, or even violent hand, and that she favours the more aggressive and bold young man than a timid elder. Even Shakespeare was no stranger to Lady Fortune:

When in disgrace with Fortune and men's eyes

I all alone beweep my outcast state ... — Sonnet 29

Pars Fortuna in Astrology[link]

llustration by Al-Biruni (973-1048) of different phases of the moon, from the Persian Kitab al-tafhim

In Astrology the term ‘Pars Fortuna’ represents a mathematical point in the zodiac derived by the longitudinal positions of the Sun, Moon and Ascendant (Rising sign) in the birth chart of an individual. It represents an especially beneficial point in the horoscopic chart. In Arabic Astrology, this point is called Arabian Parts.^[21]

The procedure followed for fixing one’s Pars Fortuna in ancient and traditional astrology depended on the time of birth, viz., during daylight or night time (whether the Sun was above or below the horizon). In modern western astrology the day time formula only was used for many years, but with more knowledge of ancient astrology, the two calculation methods are now often used.

The formula for calculating the day time Part of Fortune (PF) is (using the 360 degree positions for each point):

PF = Ascendant + Moon - Sun

The formula for the night-time Part of Fortune is PF = Ascendant + Sun - Moon

Each calculation method results in a different zodiac position for the Part of Fortune.^[22]

Al Biruni (973 – 1048), an 11th-century mathematician, astronomer and scholar, who was the greatest proponent of this system of prediction, listed a total of 97 Arabic Parts, which were widely used for astrological consultations. Paul Vachier has prepared an Arabic Parts Calculator for all the Arabic Parts.^[23]

Aspects of Fortuna[link]

Lady Fortune in a Boccaccio manuscript

• Fortuna Annonaria brought the luck of the harvest

• Fortuna Belli the fortune of war

• Fortuna Primigenia directed the fortune of a firstborn child at the moment of birth

• Fortuna Virilis attended a man's career

• Fortuna Redux brought one safely home

• Fortuna Respiciens the fortune of the provider

• Fortuna Muliebris the luck of a woman. Typical of Roman attitudes, the fortune of a woman in marriage, however, was Fortuna Virilis.

• Fortuna Victrix brought victory in battle

• Fortuna Augusta the fortune of the emperor^[24]
• Fortuna Balnearis the fortune of the baths.^[24]

• Fortuna Conservatrix the fortune of the Preserver^[25]

• Fortuna Equestris fortune of the Knights.^[25]

• Fortuna Huiusque fortune of the present day.^[25]

• Fortuna Obsequens fortune of indulgence.^[25]

• Fortuna Privata fortune of the private individual.^[25]

• Fortuna Publica fortune of the people.^[25]

• Fortuna Romana fortune of Rome.^[25]

• Fortuna Virgo fortune of the virgin.^[25]

• Pars Fortuna^[26]

See also[link]

• The Wheel of Fortune
• Fortune favours the bold
• Carmina Burana (Orff) (opening theme: O Fortuna)
• Column of the Goths

Notes[link]

References[link]

• David Plant, "Fortune, Spirit and the Lunation Cycle"
• www.cafeastrology.com Part of Fortune
• Howard Rollin Patch (1923), Fortuna in Old French Literature
• Lesley Adkins, Roy A. Adkins (2001) Dictionary of Roman Religion
• Howard Rollin Patch (1927, repr. 1967), The Goddess Fortuna in Medieval Literature
• Howard Rollin Patch (1922), The Tradition of the Goddess Fortuna in Medieval Philosophy and Literature
• J. Champeaux, Fortuna. Vol. I. Recherches sur le culte de la Fortuna à Rome et dans le monde romaine des origines à la mort de César; Vol. II. Les Transformations de Fortuna sous le République (Rome, École Française de Rome, 1982-1987).
• Narducci, Emanuele, Sergio Audano and Luca Fezzi (edd.), Aspetti della Fortuna dell'Antico nella Cultura Europea: atti della quarta giornata di studi, Sestri Levante, 16 marzo 2007 (Pisa: ETS, 2008) (Testi e studi di cultura classica, 41).

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Fortuna

• Michael Best, "Medieval tragedy"
• Arya, Darius Andre (January 27, 2006) [2002]. The Goddess Fortuna in Imperial Rome: Cult, Art, Text. Theses and Dissertations from The University of Texas at Austin. Austin: University of Texas at Austin. hdl:2152/152. 

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Carl Orff, aquatint etching

Carl Orff ((1895-07-10)July 10, 1895 – March 29, 1982(1982-03-29)) was a 20th-century German composer, best known for his cantata Carmina Burana (1937). In addition to his career as a composer, Orff developed an influential method of music education for children.

Life[link]

Early life[link]

Orff was born in Munich on July 10, 1895. His family was Bavarian and was active in the Army of the German Empire.

Orff started studying the piano at the age of five, and he also took organ and cello lessons. However, he was more interested in composing original music than in studying to be a performer. Orff wrote and staged puppet shows for his family, composing music for piano, violin, zither, and glockenspiel to accompany them. He had a short story published in a children's magazine in 1905 and started to write a book about nature. In his spare time he enjoyed collecting insects.

By the time he was a teenager, Orff was writing songs, although he had not studied harmony or composition; his mother helped him set down his first works in musical notation. Orff wrote his own texts and he learned the art of composing, without a teacher, by studying classical masterworks on his own.

In 1911, at age 16, some of Orff's music was published.^[1] Many of his youthful works were songs, often settings of German poetry. They fell into the style of Richard Strauss and other German composers of the day, but with hints of what would become Orff's distinctive musical language.

In 1911/1912, Orff wrote Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra), Op. 14, a large work for baritone voice, three choruses and orchestra, based on a passage from Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophical novel of the same title.^[2][3] The following year, he composed an opera, Gisei, das Opfer (Gisei, the Sacrifice). Influenced by the French Impressionist composer Claude Debussy, he began to use colorful, unusual combinations of instruments in his orchestration.

World War I[link]

Moser's Musik-Lexikon states that Orff studied at the Munich Academy of Music until 1914. He then served in the German Army during World War I, when he was severely injured and nearly killed in the cave in of a trench. Afterwards, he held various positions at opera houses in Mannheim and Darmstadt, later returning to Munich to pursue his music studies.

The 1920s[link]

In the mid-1920s, Orff began to formulate a concept he called "elementare Musik", or elemental music, which was based on the unity of the arts symbolized by the ancient Greek Muses and involved tone, dance, poetry, image, design, and theatrical gesture. Like many other composers of the time, he was influenced by the Russian-French émigré Igor Stravinsky. But while others followed the cool, balanced "neoclassic" works of Stravinsky, it was works like his Les noces (The Wedding), a pounding, quasi-folkloric evocation of prehistoric wedding rites, that appealed to Orff. He also began adapting musical works of earlier eras for contemporary theatrical presentation, including Claudio Monteverdi's opera L'Orfeo (1607). Orff's German version, Orpheus, was staged under Orff's direction in 1925 in Mannheim, Germany, using some of the instruments that had been used in the original 1607 performance. The passionately declaimed opera of Monteverdi's era was almost unknown in the 1920s, however, and Orff's production met with reactions ranging from incomprehension to ridicule.

In 1924 Dorothee Günther and Orff founded the Günther School for gymnastics, music, and dance in Munich. Orff was there as the head of a department from 1925 until the end of his life, and he worked with musical beginners. There he developed his theories of music education, having constant contact with children. In 1930, Orff published a manual titled Schulwerk, in which he shares his method of conducting. Before writing Carmina Burana, Orff also edited 17th-century operas. However, these various activities brought Orff very little money.

The Nazi era[link]

Orff's relationship with German fascism and the Nazi Party has been a matter of considerable debate and analysis. His Carmina Burana was hugely popular in Nazi Germany after its premiere in Frankfurt in 1937. Given Orff's previous lack of commercial success, the monetary factor of Carmina Burana's acclaim was significant to him. But the composition, with its unfamiliar rhythms, was also denounced with racist taunts.^[4] He was one of the few German composers under the Nazi regime who responded to the official call to write new incidental music for A Midsummer Night's Dream after the music of Felix Mendelssohn had been banned – others refused to cooperate in this.^[5] Defenders of Orff note that he had already composed music for this play as early as 1917 and 1927, long before this was a favor for the Nazi government.

Orff was a friend of Kurt Huber, one of the founders of the resistance movement Die Weiße Rose (the White Rose), who was condemned to death by the Volksgerichtshof and executed by the Nazis in 1943. Orff by happenstance called at Huber's house on the day after his arrest. Huber's distraught wife begged Orff to use his influence to help her husband, but Orff denied her request. If his friendship with Huber came out, he told her, he would be "ruined". Huber's wife never saw Orff again. Wracked by guilt, Orff would later write a letter to his late friend Huber, imploring him for forgiveness.^[6][7] According to Canadian historian Michael H. Kater, Orff claimed at the end of the war to his Allied interrogators that he was a founding member of the White Rose and was released.^[8] However, in Orff's denazification file, which has been discovered by Viennese historian Oliver Rathkolb in 1999, no remark on the White Rose is recorded.^[9]

Nonetheless, he had a long friendship with German-Jewish musicologist, composer and refugee Erich Katz,^[10] who fled Nazi Germany in 1939.

Following World War II[link]

Bust of Carl Orff in the Munich Hall of Fame (2009)

Following World War II, during his denazification process in Bad Homburg, Orff claimed to Newell Jenkins, an officer in the U.S. Army, and later an orchestra conductor, that he had helped establish the "White Rose" resistance movement in Germany.^[6] There was no evidence for this other than his own word, and other sources dispute his claim. The Canadian historian Michael H. Kater made a particularly strong case in his earlier writings that Orff collaborated with Nazi German authorities.^[11] However, in Composers of the Nazi Era: Eight Portraits (2000) Kater rescinded his earlier accusations to some extent. Orff's assertion that he had been anti-Nazi during the war was accepted by the American denazification authorities, who changed his previous category of "gray unacceptable" to "gray acceptable", enabling him to continue to compose for public presentation, and to enjoy the royalties that the popularity of Carmina Burana had earned for him.^[12]

Most of Orff's later works – Antigonae (1949), Oedipus der Tyrann (Oedipus the Tyrant, 1958), Prometheus (1968), and De temporum fine comoedia (Play on the End of Times, 1971) – were based on texts or topics from antiquity. They extend the language of Carmina Burana in interesting ways, but they are expensive to stage and (on Orff's own admission) are not operas in the conventional sense. Live performances of them have been few, even in Germany.

Personal life[link]

Orff was married four times: Alice Solscher (m. 1920, div. 1925), Alice Willert (m. 1939, div. 1953), Luise Rinser (m. 1954, div. 1959) and Liselotte Schmitz (m. 1960). His only child Godela, from his first marriage, was born in 1921. She was later rejected by the composer. "He had his life and that was that," she tells Tony Palmer in the documentary O Fortuna.^[13]

Death[link]

When Carl Orff died in Munich in 1982 at the age of 86, he had lived through four epochs in the course of his life: the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, Nazi Germany and the post World War II West German Bundesrepublik. Orff was buried in the Baroque church of the beer-brewing Benedictine priory of Andechs, south of Munich. His tombstone bears his name, his dates of birth and death, and the Latin inscription "Summus Finis" (the ultimate goal).

Works[link]

Musical work[link]

	Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi noicon 30 seconds from Carmina Burana by Carl Orff
Problems listening to this file? See media help.

Orff is most known for Carmina Burana (1936), a "scenic cantata". It is the first of a trilogy that also includes Catulli Carmina and Trionfo di Afrodite. Carmina Burana reflected his interest in medieval German poetry. Together the trilogy is called Trionfi, or "Triumphs". The composer described it as the celebration of the triumph of the human spirit through sexual and holistic balance. The work was based on thirteenth-century poetry found in a manuscript dubbed the Codex latinus monacensis found in the Benedictine monastery of Benediktbeuern in 1803 and written by the Goliards; this collection is also known as Carmina Burana. While "modern" in some of his compositional techniques, Orff was able to capture the spirit of the medieval period in this trilogy, with infectious rhythms and easy tonalities. The medieval poems, written in Latin and an early form of German, are often racy, but without descending into smut. "Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi", commonly known as "O Fortuna", from Carmina Burana is often used to denote primal forces, for example in the Oliver Stone movie The Doors..^[14] The work's association with fascism also led Pier Paolo Pasolini to use the movement "Veris Leta Facies" to accompany the concluding scenes of torture and murder in his final film Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom.^[15]

With the success of Carmina Burana, Orff disowned all of his previous works except for Catulli Carmina and the Entrata (an orchestration of "The Bells" by William Byrd (1539–1623)), which were rewritten until acceptable by Orff. Later on, however, many of these earlier works were released (some even with Orff's approval). As an historical aside, Carmina Burana is probably the most famous piece of music composed and premiered in Nazi Germany. Carmina Burana was in fact so popular that Orff received a commission in Frankfurt to compose incidental music for A Midsummer Night's Dream, which was supposed to replace the banned music by Mendelssohn. After the war, he claimed not to be satisfied with the music and reworked it into the final version that was first performed in 1964.

Orff was reluctant to term any of his works simply operas in the traditional sense. His works Der Mond (The Moon, 1939) and Die Kluge (The Wise Woman, 1943), for example, he referred to as "Märchenoper" ("fairytale operas"). Both compositions feature the same "timeless" sound in that they do not employ any of the musical techniques of the period in which they were composed, with the intent that they be difficult to define as belonging to a particular era. Their melodies, rhythms and, with them, text appear in a union of words and music.

About his Antigonae (1949), Orff said specifically that it was not an opera, rather a Vertonung, a "musical setting", of the ancient tragedy. The text is an excellent German translation, by Friedrich Hölderlin, of the Sophocles play of the same name. The orchestration relies heavily on the percussion section, and is otherwise fairly simple. It has been labelled by some as minimalistic, which is most adequate in terms of the melodic line. The story of Antigone has a haunting similarity to the history of Sophie Scholl, heroine of the White Rose, and Orff may have been memorializing her in his opera.

Orff's last work, De Temporum Fine Comoedia (Play on the End of Times), had its premiere at the Salzburg Festival on August 20, 1973, performed by Herbert von Karajan and the WDR Symphony Orchestra Cologne and Chorus. In this highly personal work, Orff presented a mystery play, in which he summarized his view on the end of time, sung in Greek, German, and Latin.

Gassenhauer, which Orff composed with Gunild Keetman, was used as the theme music for Terrence Malick's film Badlands (1973). Hans Zimmer later reworked this music for his True Romance (1993) score.

Pedagogic work[link]

In pedagogical circles he is probably best remembered for his Schulwerk (School Work). Originally a set of pieces composed and published for the Güntherschule (students ranging from 12 to 22),^[16] this title was also used for his books based on radio broadcasts in Bavaria in 1949. These pieces are collectively called Musik für Kinder [Music for Children], and also use the term "Schulwerk". The Music for Children volumes were not designed to be performance pieces for the average child. Many of the parts are challenging for teachers to play. They were designed as examples of pieces that show the use of ostinati, bordun, and appropriate texts for children. Teachers using the volumes are encouraged to simplify the pieces, write original texts for the pieces and modify the instrumentation to adapt to the teacher's classroom situation.

Orff's ideas were developed, together with Gunild Keetman, into a very innovative approach to music education for children, known as the Orff Schulwerk. The music is elemental and combines movement, singing, playing, and improvisation.

List of compositions[link]

• Lamenti
  • Orpheus (1924, reworked 1939)
  • Klage der Ariadne (1925, reworked 1940)
  • Tanz der Spröden (1925, reworked 1940)

• Entrata for orchestra, after "The Bells" by William Byrd (1539–1623) (1928, reworked 1941)

• Orff Schulwerk
  • Musik für Kinder (with Gunild Keetmann) (1930–35, reworked 1950–54)

• Trionfi
  • Carmina Burana (1937)
  • Catulli Carmina (1943)
  • Trionfo di Afrodite (1953)

• Märchenstücke (Fairy tales)
  • Der Mond (1939)
  • Die Kluge (1943)
  • Ein Sommernachtstraum (1952, reworked 1962)

• Bairisches Welttheater (Bavarian world theatre)
  • Die Bernauerin (1947)
  • Astutuli (1953)
  • Comoedia de Christi Resurrectione (1956) – Easter Play
  • Ludus de Nato Infante Mirificus (1961) – Nativity play

• Theatrum Mundi
  • Antigonae (1949)
  • Oedipus der Tyrann (1959)
  • Prometheus (1968)
  • De Temporum Fine Comoedia (1973, reworked 1977)

References[link]

1. ^ e.g. Early Songs published by Schott Music and Songs and Chants recorded by WERGO
2. ^ Chronology by Carl Orff Center Munich
3. ^ Alberto Fassone. "Orff, Carl." in Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online (accessed September 25, 2009) (Subscription required).
4. ^ "Carl Orff: Carmina Burana" Ev. Emmaus- Ölberg- Kirchengemeinde Berlin Kreuzberg. Retrieved June 26, 2011 (German)
5. ^ The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2009/07/09/arts/AP-EU-Germany-Nazis-Composers.html. ^{[dead link]}(Dead Link)
6. ^ ^{a b} Morrison, Richard (December 19, 2008). "Carl Orff the composer who lived a monstrous lie". The Times (UK). http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article5366154.ece. Retrieved March 27, 2010. 
7. ^ Duchen, Jessica (December 4, 2008). "Dark heart of a masterpiece: Carmina Burana's famous chorus hides a murky Nazi past". The Independent (UK). http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/theatre-dance/features/dark-heart-of-a-masterpiece-carmina-buranas-famous-chorus-hides-a-murky-nazi-past-1050503.html. Retrieved March 27, 2010. 
8. ^ http://www.h-net.org/~german/articles/dennis1.html
9. ^ Komponist sein in einer bösen Zeit. Die Welt 11 February 1999
10. ^ List of items in Erich Katz Collection (PDF) Regis University. p. 6. Retrieved November 1, 2011
11. ^ cf. Review of "Carl Orff im Dritten Reich" by David B. Dennis, Loyola University Chicago (January 25, 1996)
12. ^ Kater, Michael H. (1995). "Carl Orff im Dritten Reich [Carl Orff in the Third Reich]" (in German) (PDF, 1.6 MB). Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 43 (1): 1–35. ISSN 0042-5702. http://www.ifz-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1995_1_1_kater.pdf. 
13. ^ Martin Kettle "Secret of the White Rose", The Guardian, January 2, 2009
14. ^ IMDB entry for soundtrack of Oliver Stone's film The Doors (scroll to bottom)
15. ^ "Pasolini's Salo", review
16. ^ Carl Orff Documentation trans. Margaret Murray, published by Schott Music, 1978

Further reading[link]

• Michael H. Kater, "Carl Orff im Dritten Reich", Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 43, 1 (January 1995): 1–35.
• Michael H. Kater, Composers of the Nazi Era: Eight Portraits. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Carl Orff

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Carl Orff

• Carl Orff Foundation
• Orff Center, Munich
• Discography
• Carl Orff at the Internet Movie Database

André Rieu
Rieu in Atlantic City, NJ, in 2007
Background information
Birth name	André Léon Marie Nicolas Rieu
Born	(1949-10-01) 1 October 1949 (age 62)
Origin	Maastricht, Netherlands
Genres	Waltz
Occupations	Conductor, violinist
Instruments	Violin
Years active	1978–present
Labels	Denon Records , Philips
Website	www.andrerieu.com
Notable instruments
Stradivarius violin (1667)[1]

André Léon Marie Nicolas Rieu (born 1 October 1949) is a Dutch violinist, conductor, and composer best known for creating the waltz-playing Johann Strauss Orchestra.

Early life and studies[link]

The name Rieu is of French Huguenot origin.^[1] He began studying violin at the age of five. His father, of the same name, was conductor of the Maastricht Symphony Orchestra. From a very young age he developed a fascination with orchestra. He studied violin at the Conservatoire Royal in Liège and at the Conservatorium Maastricht, (1968–1973). His teachers included Jo Juda and Herman Krebbers. From 1974 to 1977, he attended the Music Academy in Brussels, studying with André Gertler, getting his degree "Premier Prix" from the Brussels Royal Conservatory.^[2]