The 2003 Texas redistricting refers to a controversial mid-decade congressional redistricting plan appealed to the United States Supreme Court in League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry. On June 28, 2006, the Supreme Court upheld the statewide redistricting as Constitutional, but struck down Congressional District 23 as racial gerrymandering in violation of Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act.

Overview[link]

After Republicans won control of the Texas state legislature in 2002, for the first time in 130 years, they set their sights on establishing a majority of House of Representatives seats held by their party. After the 2002 election, Democrats had a 17–15 edge in House seats representing Texas, although the state's voters voted for Republicans in congressional races by a 17–15 margin.^[1] After a protracted partisan struggle, the legislature enacted a new congressional districting map, Plan 1374C, introduced in the Texas House by Representative Phil King of Weatherford. In the 2004 congressional elections, Republicans won 21 seats to the Democrats' 11.^[2]

The 2003 redistricting effort was extremely controversial, particularly because of the role played by Congressman Tom DeLay. Texas had never undertaken a mid-decade redistricting that was not ordered by a court. Legal challenges to the redistricting plan were mounted on several fronts. On June 28, 2006, the Supreme Court of the United States issued an opinion that threw out one of the districts in the plan as a violation of the Voting Rights Act and ordered the lower court to produce a remedial plan, which it did in Plan 1440C. The Supreme Court ruling was not seen as seriously threatening Republican gains from the 2004 elections.^[3]

2000–2003 evolution and DeLay's role[link]

Redistricting in Texas was traditionally done once every ten years, soon after the National Census. A redistricting occurred in 1991, when the Democrats held both the governor's seat (with Ann Richards) and a legislative majority. By 2000, Republican George W. Bush was governor, with Republican Rick Perry as his lieutenant governor.

After the 2000 elections, however, Democrats maintained their majority in the Texas legislature. In 2001, the Democrats and Republicans were unable to agree on a new district map to correspond with the 2000 census. Per state law, under these circumstances, the matter could be submitted to a panel of judges. The Republican minority recommended this solution. Accordingly, the matter was forwarded for this type of review, and the judges drew a new map, which maintained a 17 to 15 Democratic majority.^[4] Under the Texas Constitution, the Legislative Redistricting Board (LRB) convenes only when the state legislature is unable to approve a redistricting plan in the first legislative session following the National Census. In June, 2001, the redistricting task passed to the LRB after the state legislature failed to pass a redistricting plan.^[5]

In September, 2001, Texas Representative Tom DeLay organized Texans for a Republican Majority (TRMPAC), a political action committee designed to gather campaign funds for Republican candidates throughout Texas. TRMPAC was modeled closely after DeLay's Americans for a Republican Majority (ARMPAC), a federal-level organization created to raise funds for Republicans during the 2000 national elections.^[6] Simultaneously, as has been well documented in the media, DeLay played a key role in the ongoing Texas redistricting effort.

In 2002, a Republican majority was elected to the State House of Representatives, giving the GOP control of both chambers. (Republicans had had a majority in the State Senate since 1997.)

During the 2003 legislative session, under the encouragement of Tom DeLay and Governor Rick Perry, the Republican majority introduced legislation to redraw the districts from 2001. This legislation was taken to federal court, where a three judge panel declared that it violated neither the Texas Constitution nor the Voting Rights Act.^[7] Because the Democrats did not have enough votes to stop the legislature from passing the plan, 52 Democrats from the House of Representative left for Oklahoma in order to prevent a quorum. These 52 Democrats were known as the "Killer Ds". They later returned to the state after receiving a promise that redistricting would not be brought up in the regular session.

In the summer of 2003, Governor Rick Perry called a special legislative session in order to continue the redistricting effort. The Democrats had over 1/3 of the seats in the Senate and prevented the redistricting legislature from being voted on due to the two-thirds rule. After finding a way around the two-thirds rule, Governor Perry called for a second special session half an hour later. Eleven out of twelve of the Democratic Senators left for Albuquerque, New Mexico to prevent a quorum, and were nicknamed the Texas Eleven. After a month-long stand off, Senator John Whitmire returned to the Senate and the redistricting legislature was passed at a third special legislative session. After the 2004 elections, Texas's U.S. House delegation had a Republican majority for the first time since Reconstruction.

An article in the March 6, 2006, issue of The New Yorker magazine, written by Jeffrey Toobin, quoted Texas's junior Republican Senator John Cornyn as saying, "Everybody who knows Tom knows that he's a fighter and a competitor, and he saw an opportunity to help the Republicans stay in power in Washington." Toobin also noted that DeLay left Washington and returned to Texas to oversee the project while final voting was underway in the state legislature, and that "several times during the long days of negotiating sessions, DeLay personally shuttled proposed maps among House and Senate offices in Austin."^[8]

Texas Monthly editor Paul Burka, writing in the magazine's May 2006 issue, labelled the measure as "DeLay's midcensus congressional redistricting plan" and stated "in order to increase his Republican majority in Congress, he [DeLay] resorted to a midcensus redistricting plan."^[9]

Justice Department involvement[link]

U.S. congressional districts covering Travis County, Texas (outlined in red) in 2002, left, and 2004, right. In 2003, the majority of Republicans in the Texas legislature redistricted the state, diluting the voting power of the heavily Democratic county by parceling its residents out to more Republican districts.

In December 2005, the Washington Post reported, "Justice Department lawyers concluded that the landmark Texas congressional redistricting plan spearheaded by Rep. Tom DeLay violated the Voting Rights Act, according to a previously undisclosed memo" uncovered by the newspaper.^[10] The document, endorsed by six Justice Department attorneys, said "the redistricting plan illegally diluted black and Hispanic voting power in two congressional districts."

"The State of Texas has not met its burden in showing that the proposed congressional redistricting plan does not have a discriminatory effect," the memo noted. The article also stated that Justice Department lawyers "found that Republican lawmakers and state officials who helped craft the proposal were aware it posed a high risk of being ruled discriminatory compared with other options." Nonetheless, Texas legislators proceeded with the new plan "because it would maximize the number of Republican federal lawmakers in the state," the Post said about the document. The article also notes how the lawyers were overruled by senior officials in the Justice Department.

Criticism of the plan[link]

Democrats criticized the 2003 redistricting, citing the lack of precedent for redistricting twice in a decade, considering it had already been done in 2002, and argued that it was being done for purely political gain and was therefore gerrymandering. Statements by some Republicans lent support to this claim, since many publicly stated their expectations of picking up several Republican seats. Some minority groups argued the plan was unconstitutional, as it would dilute their influence and possibly violate the "one-person-one-vote" principle of redistricting. Republicans counterargued, however, that since most voters in the state were Republicans, it was appropriate that the party have a majority in the federal legislative delegation.

The results of the 2004 elections brought Texas Republicans a majority of House seats by a 21–11 margin, a 2/1 ratio in terms of seats. This is bigger than the 61/38 voting ratio in the Presidential race, with former State Governor Bush, and even more than the cumulated results in the 32 House races, at 56/40/3 (with the two main parties not running in four districts).^[11]

2006 Supreme Court review[link]

The Supreme Court of the United States issued an opinion on the case in League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry on June 28, 2006. While the Court said states are free to redistrict however often they like, the justices invalidated Texas's District 23, citing a Section 2 violation of the Voting Rights Act. This decision will require lawmakers to adjust boundaries in line with the Court's ruling.^[3]

On June 29, 2006, a U.S. District Judge as part of a three judge panel, under an order from the U.S. Court of Appeals, overseeing the redistricting ordered that both sides should submit proposed maps by July 14, respond to their opponents' maps by July 21, and that oral arguments will occur on August 3.^[12]

Democrats targeted by redistricting[link]

The 2003 redistricting targeted ten white, Democratic incumbents avoiding all seven minority Democratic incumbents.^[13]

• Max Sandlin (TX-1) was defeated in 2004 by Republican Louie Gohmert.
• Jim Turner (TX-2) did not seek reelection in 2004. His seat was won by Republican Ted Poe.
• Ralph Hall (TX-4) changed his party affiliation to Republican and was reelected in 2004.
• Nick Lampson (TX-9) was moved to the 2nd District as a result of the redistricting and was defeated by Ted Poe. He relocated to the Sugar Land area in 2006 and ran for the seat being vacated by Tom DeLay (who had resigned due to pending conspiracy and money laundering charges). He won election to the heavily Republican 22nd district, but was defeated in 2008 by Pete Olson.
• Lloyd Doggett (TX-10) was moved to the 25th district, a narrow strip of land running from Austin to the Mexican border derisively called the "fajita strip." Doggett won election in the new district, which later had to be redrawn for the 2006 elections after a Supreme Court ruling finding the district boundaries violated the Voting Rights Act.
• Chet Edwards (TX-11) was moved into the 17th district, which had been made considerably more Republican in its new form. Despite this, Edwards was re-elected in 2004, 2006 and 2008. It wasn't until the 2010 elections that he was defeated by Bill Flores.
• Charlie Stenholm (TX-17) was shifted into the heavily-Republican 19th district, and unsuccessfully ran against that district's Republican incumbent, Randy Neugebauer.
• Martin Frost (TX-24) saw his district split off into several newly drawn Dallas-area districts intended to elect Republicans. He changed his residency to run in the 32nd district and lost to the district's Republican incumbent, Pete Sessions. Frost's old district, in its redrawn form, was won by Kenny Marchant, a Republican state legislator from Carrollton.
• Chris Bell (TX-25) had his district renumbered as the 9th district, which was gerrymandered into a minority-majority district. Bell lost the Democratic primary to NAACP president Al Green, who easily won the general election.
• Gene Green (TX-29) was reelected in 2004. Of the Democrats affected by redistricting, Green is the only one who won reelection without being shifted to another district or changing parties. He was also the only white Democrat left among representatives from the Houston area.

In addition, the redistricting sought to protect Hispanic Republican Henry Bonilla (TX-23), who had faced a stiff challenge from conservative Democrat Henry Cuellar in 2002, and to neutralize liberal Democrat Ciro Rodriguez. This was done by putting the two Democrats in the same district and forcing them to run against each other for the Democratic nomination (Cuellar won). In 2006, however, Bonilla's district had to be redrawn due to a Supreme Court ruling concerning the representation of Hispanic voters in redistricting. This necessitated a special election, in which Bonilla faced six Democratic candidates and an independent in a jungle primary, and was then defeated by Ciro Rodriguez in the run-off.

See also[link]

• Call of the house
• Gerrymandering
• Killer Ds
• Texas Eleven
• Texas Five

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• "Drawing the Line – Will Tom Delay's Redistricting in Texas Cost Him His Seat?" by Jeffrey Toobin, The New Yorker magazine, March 6, 2006, pp. 32–37.
• "Mess With Texas – the Supreme Court Has Another Look at Partisan Gerrymanders", by Dahlia Lithwick, Slate, March 1, 2006.
• "Evidence of Political Manipulation at the Justice Department: How Tom DeLay's Redistricting Plan Avoided Voting Rights Act Disapproval", by Mark Posner, FindLaw.com Legal News, December 6, 2005.
• "Justice Staff Saw Texas Districting As Illegal", Washington Post, December 2, 2005, page A01
• "Republicans enlisted Department of Homeland Security in Texas political fight", WSW News, May 17, 2003.

External links[link]

• Northwestern University overview on pending Supreme Court case, with extensive further links
• United States Supreme Court oral argument transcript in pending case
• Texas Redistricting U.S. Supreme Court Cases Resource Center
• Current Texas election districts
• United States District Court decision in pending litigation

State of Texas
Flag Seal
Nickname(s): The Lone Star State
Motto(s): Friendship
Official language(s)	No official language (see Languages spoken in Texas)
Spoken language(s)	English 68.7% Spanish 27.0%[1]
Demonym	Texan Texian (archaic) Tejano
Capital	Austin
Largest city	Houston
Largest metro area	Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex[2]
Area	Ranked 2nd in the U.S.
- Total	268,581[3] sq mi (696,241 km2)
- Width	773[4] miles (1,244 km)
- Length	790 miles (1,270 km)
- % water	2.5
- Latitude	25° 50′ N to 36° 30′ N
- Longitude	93° 31′ W to 106° 39′ W
Population	Ranked 2nd in the U.S.
- Total	25,674,681 (2011 est)[5]
- Density	98.1/sq mi  (37.9/km2) Ranked 26th in the U.S.
Elevation
- Highest point	Guadalupe Peak[6][7][8] 8,751 ft (2667.4 m)
- Mean	1,700 ft  (520 m)
- Lowest point	Gulf of Mexico[7] sea level
Before statehood	Republic of Texas
Admission to Union	December 29, 1845 (28th)
Governor	Rick Perry (R)
Lieutenant Governor	David Dewhurst (R)
Legislature	Texas Legislature
- Upper house	Senate
- Lower house	House of Representatives
U.S. Senators	Kay Bailey Hutchison (R) John Cornyn (R)
U.S. House delegation	23 Republicans, 9 Democrats (list)
Time zones
- most of state	Central: UTC −6/−5
- tip of West Texas	Mountain: UTC −7/−6
Abbreviations	TX Tex. US-TX
Website	www.texas.gov

Texas (ⁱ/ˈtɛksəs/) (Alibamu: Teksi ^[9]) is the second most populous and the second most extensive of the 50 United States, and the most extensive state of the 48 contiguous United States. The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in East Texas.^[10] Located in the South Central United States, Texas shares an international border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south, and borders the US states of New Mexico to the west, Oklahoma to the north, Arkansas to the northeast, and Louisiana to the east. Texas has an area of 268,820 square miles (696,200 km²), and a growing population of 25.7 million residents.^[11]

During the Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas: La Provincia de Texas.^[12] Antonio Margil de Jesús was known to be the first person to use the name in a letter to the Viceroy of Mexico in July 20, 1716. The name was not popularly used in daily speech but often appeared in legal documents until the end of the 1800s.

Houston is the largest city in Texas and the fourth-largest in the United States, while San Antonio is the second largest in the state and seventh largest in the United States. Dallas–Fort Worth and Greater Houston are the fourth and fifth largest United States metropolitan areas, respectively. Other major cities include El Paso and Austin—the state capital. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify Texas as a former independent republic and as a reminder of the state's struggle for independence from Mexico. The "Lone Star" can be found on the Texas state flag and on the Texas state seal today.^[13]

Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, Texas contains diverse landscapes that resemble both the American South and Southwest.^[14] Although Texas is popularly associated with the Southwestern deserts, less than 10% of the land area is desert.^[15] Most of the population centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests, and the coastline. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, and finally the desert and mountains of the Big Bend.

The term "six flags over Texas" came from the several nations that had ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas. France held a short-lived colony in Texas. Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845 it joined the United States as the 28th state. The state's annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state, Texas declared its secession from the United States in early 1861, joining the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. After the war and its restoration to the Union, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation.

One Texas industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle. Due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The state's economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated an economic boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy and high tech industry in the mid-20th century. As of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57.^[16] With a growing base of industry, the state leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace, and biomedical sciences. It leads the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product.

Geography[link]

Guadalupe Mountains

Texas is the second largest U.S. state, behind Alaska, with an area of 268,820 square miles (696,200 km²). It is 10% larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, though it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were a country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile and Zambia.

Texas is in the south-central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers. The Rio Grande river forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south. The Red River forms a natural border with Oklahoma and Arkansas to the north. The Sabine River forms a natural border with Louisiana to the east. The Texas Panhandle has an eastern border with Oklahoma at 100° W, a northern border with Oklahoma at 36°30' N and a western border with New Mexico at 103° W. El Paso lies on the state's western tip at 32° N and the Rio Grande.^[17]

Hill Country

With 10 climatic regions, 14 soil regions, and 11 distinct ecological regions, regional classification becomes problematic with differences in soils, topography, geology, rainfall, and plant and animal communities.^[18] One classification system divides Texas, in order from southeast to west, into the following: Gulf Coastal Plains, Interior Lowlands, Great Plains, and Basin and Range Province. The Gulf Coastal Plains region wraps around the Gulf of Mexico on the southeast section of the state. Vegetation in this region consists of thick piney woods. The Interior Lowlands region consists of gently rolling to hilly forested land and is part of a larger pine-hardwood forest. The Great Plains region in central Texas is located in spans through the state's panhandle and Llano Estacado to the state's hill country near Austin. This region is dominated by prairie and steppe. "Far West Texas" or the "Trans-Pecos" region is the state's Basin and Range Province. The most varied of the regions, this area includes Sand Hills, the Stockton Plateau, desert valleys, wooded mountain slopes and desert grasslands.

Texas has 3,700 named streams and 15 major rivers.^[19][20] The largest of these rivers is the Rio Grande. Other major rivers include the Pecos, the Brazos, Colorado, and Red River, which forms the border with Oklahoma. While Texas has few natural lakes, Texans have built over 100 artificial reservoirs.^[21]

The size and unique history of Texas make its regional affiliation debatable: it can be fairly considered a Southern or a Southwestern state, or both. The vast geographic, economic, and cultural diversity within the state itself prohibits easy categorization of the whole state into a recognized region of the United States. Notable extremes range from East Texas which is often considered an extension of the Deep South, to Far West Texas which is generally acknowledged to be part of the interior Southwest.

Geology[link]

Shaded Relief Map of the Llano Estacado

Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. The continental crust forms a stable Mesoproterozoic craton which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true oceanic crust of the Gulf of Mexico. The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1,600 million years old. These Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie most of the state, and are exposed in three places: Llano uplift, Van Horn, and the Franklin Mountains, near El Paso. Sedimentary rocks overlay most of these ancient rocks. The oldest sediments were deposited on the flanks of a rifted continental margin, or passive margin that developed during Cambrian time. This margin existed until Laurasia and Gondwana collided in the Pennsylvanian subperiod to form Pangea. This is the buried crest of the Appalachian Mountains–Ouachita Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision. This orogenic crest is today buried beneath the Dallas–Waco—Austin–San Antonio trend.

The late Paleozoic mountains collapsed as rifting in the Jurassic period began to open the Gulf of Mexico. Pangea began to break up in the Triassic, but seafloor spreading to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid and late Jurassic. The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico passive margin began to form.

Palo Duro Canyon

Today 9 miles (14 km) to 12 miles (19 km) of sediments are buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US oil reserves are located here. At the start of its formation, the incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick evaporite deposits of Jurassic age. These salt deposits formed salt dome diapirs, and are found in East Texas along the Gulf coast.^[22]

East Texas outcrops consist of Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments which contain important deposits of Eocene lignite. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments in the north; Permian sediments in the west; and Cretaceous sediments in the east, along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf contain oil. Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas in the Big Bend area. A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer.^[23] Located far from an active plate tectonic boundary, Texas has no volcanoes and few earthquakes.^[24]

Climate[link]

Damage from the 1915 Galveston hurricane.

The large size of Texas and its location at the intersection of multiple climate zones gives the state highly variable weather. The Panhandle of the state has colder winters than North Texas, while the Gulf Coast has mild winters. Texas has wide variations in precipitation patterns. El Paso, on the western end of the state, averages 8.7 inches (220 mm) of annual rainfall,^[25] while parts of southeast Texas average as much as 64 inches (1,600 mm) per year.^[26] Dallas in the North Central region averages a more moderate 37 inches (940 mm) per year.

Snow falls multiple times each winter in the Panhandle and mountainous areas of West Texas, once or twice a year in North Texas, and once every few years in Central and East Texas. Snow rarely falls south of San Antonio or on the coast except in rare circumstances. Of note is the 2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm, when 6 inches (150 mm) of snow fell as far south as Kingsville, where the average high temperature in December is 65 °F.^[27]

Maximum temperatures in the summer months average from the 80s °F (26 °C) in the mountains of West Texas and on Galveston Island to around 100 °F (38 °C) in the Rio Grande Valley, but most areas of Texas see consistent summer high temperatures in the 90 °F (32 °C) range.

Night-time summer temperatures range from the upper 50s °F (14 °C) in the West Texas mountains^[28] to 80 °F (27 °C) in Galveston.^[29]

Thunderstorms strike Texas often, especially the eastern and northern portions of the state. Tornado Alley covers the northern section of Texas. The state experiences the most tornadoes in the United States, an average of 139 a year. These strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle.^[30] Tornadoes in Texas generally occur in the months of April, May, and June.^[31]

Some of the most destructive hurricanes in U.S. history have impacted Texas. A hurricane in 1875 killed approximately 400 people in Indianola, followed by another hurricane in 1886 that destroyed the town. These events allowed Galveston to take over as the chief port city. The Galveston hurricane of 1900 subsequently devastated that city, killing approximately 8,000 people (possibly as many as 12,000), making it the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history. Other devastating Texas hurricanes include the 1915 Galveston Hurricane, Hurricane Audrey in 1957 which killed over 600 people, Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Beulah in 1967, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, Hurricane Rita in 2005, and Hurricane Ike in 2008.^[32] Tropical storms have also caused their share of damage: Allison in 1989 and again during 2001, and Claudette in 1979 among them.

Texas emits the most greenhouse gases in the U.S.^[33][34][35] The state emits nearly 1.5 trillion pounds (680 billion kg) of carbon dioxide annually. As an independent nation, Texas would rank as the world's seventh-largest producer of greenhouse gases.^[34] Causes of the state's vast greenhouse gas emissions include the state's large number of coal power plants and the state's refining and manufacturing industries.^[34]

History[link]

History of Texas
This article is part of a series
Timeline
French Texas (1684–1689)
Spanish Texas (1690–1821)
Mexican Texas (1821–1836)
Republic of Texas (1836–1845)
Statehood (1845–1860)
Civil War Era (1861–1865)
Reconstruction and Gilded Age (1865–1899)
State of Texas
Texas Portal v t e

Pre-European era[link]

Texas lies between two major cultural spheres of Pre-Columbian North America: the Southwestern and the Plains areas. Archaeologists have found that three major indigenous cultures lived in this territory, and reached their developmental peak before the first European contact. These were:^[36]

• the Pueblo from the upper Rio Grande region, centered west of Texas;
• the Mississippian culture, also known as Mound Builder, which extended along the Mississippi River Valley east of Texas; and
• the civilizations of Mesoamerica, centered south of Texas. Influence of Teotihuacan in northern Mexico peaked around AD 500 and declined over the 8th to 10th centuries.

No culture was dominant in the present-day Texas region, and many peoples inhabited the area.^[36] Native American tribes that lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include the Alabama, Apache, Atakapan, Bidai, Caddo, Coahuiltecan, Comanche, Choctaw, Coushatta, Hasinai, Jumano, Karankawa, Kickapoo, Kiowa, Tonkawa, and Wichita.^[37][38] The name Texas derives from táyshaʔ, a word in the Caddoan language of the Hasinai, which means "friends" or "allies".^{[3][39][40][41][42]}

Whether a Native American tribe was friendly or warlike was critical to the fates of European explorers and settlers in that land.^[43] Friendly tribes taught newcomers how to grow indigenous crops, prepare foods, and hunt wild game. Warlike tribes made life difficult and dangerous for Europeans through their attacks and resistance to the newcomers.^[44]

Colonization[link]

Flag of the six nations that have had sovereignty over some or all of the current territory of Texas

Texas in 1718, Guillaume de L'Isle map, approximate state area highlighted, northern areas indefinite

Stephen F. Austin was the first American empresario given permission to operate a colony within Mexican Texas.

The first historical document related to Texas was a map of the Gulf Coast, created in 1519 by Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda.^[45][46] Nine years later, shipwrecked Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his cohort became the first Europeans in Texas.^[47][48] Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528, when the Spanish landed in Texas, “half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us.”^[49] European powers ignored Texas until accidentally settling there in 1685. Miscalculations by René Robert Cavelier de La Salle resulted in his establishing the colony of Fort Saint Louis at Matagorda Bay rather than along the Mississippi River.^[50] The colony lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives.^[51]

In 1690 Spanish authorities, concerned that France posed competitive threat, constructed several missions in East Texas.^[52] After Native American resistance, the Spanish missionaries returned to Mexico.^[53] When France began settling Louisiana, mostly in the southern part of the state, in 1716 Spanish authorities responded by founding a new series of missions in East Texas.^[54][55] Two years later, they created San Antonio as the first Spanish civilian settlement in Texas.^[56]

Hostile native tribes and distance from nearby Spanish colonies discouraged settlers from moving to Texas. It was one of New Spain's least populated provinces.^[57] In 1749, the Spanish peace treaty with the Lipan Apache^[58] angered many tribes, including the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai.^[59] The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785^[60] and later helped to defeat the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes.^[61][62] With more numerous missions being established, priests led a peaceful conversion of most tribes. By the end of the 18th century only a few nomadic tribes had not converted to Christianity.^[63]

When the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803, American authorities insisted that the agreement also included Texas. The boundary between New Spain and the United States was finally set at the Sabine River in 1819.^[64] Eager for new land, many United States settlers refused to recognize the agreement. Several filibusters raised armies to invade Texas.^[65] In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence included the Texas territory, which became part of Mexico.^[66] Due to its low population, Mexico made the area part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas.^[67]

Hoping that more settlers would reduce the near-constant Comanche raids, Mexican Texas liberalized its immigration policies to permit immigrants from outside Mexico and Spain.^[68] Under the Mexican immigration system, large swathes of land were allotted to empresarios, who recruited settlers from the United States, Europe, and the Mexican interior. The first grant, to Moses Austin, was passed to his son Stephen F. Austin after his death.

Austin's settlers, the Old Three Hundred, made places along the Brazos River in 1822.^[69] Twenty-three other empresarios brought settlers to the state, the majority of whom were from the United States.^[69][70] The population of Texas grew rapidly. In 1825, Texas had a population of approximately 3,500, with most of Mexican descent.^[71] By 1834, Texas had grown to approximately 37,800 people, with only 7,800 of Mexican descent.^[72]

Many immigrants openly flouted Mexican law, especially the prohibition against slavery. Combined with United States' attempts to purchase Texas, Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit continued immigration from the United States.^[73] New laws also called for the enforcement of customs duties angering both native Mexican citizens (Tejanos) and recent immigrants.^[74]

The Anahuac Disturbances in 1832 were the first open revolt against Mexican rule and they coincided with a revolt in Mexico against the nation's president.^[75] Texians sided with the federalists against the current government and drove all Mexican soldiers out of East Texas.^[76] They took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom. Texians met at the Convention of 1832 to discuss requesting independent statehood, among other issues.^[77] The following year, Texians reiterated their demands at the Convention of 1833.

Republic[link]

Republic of Texas. The present-day outlines of the U.S. states superimposed on the boundaries of 1836–1845

The surrender of Mexican General Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto

Proposals of 1850 for Texas northwestern boundary

Within Mexico, tensions continued between federalists and centralists. In early 1835, wary Texians formed Committees of Correspondence and Safety.^[78] The unrest erupted into armed conflict in late 1835 at the Battle of Gonzales.^[79] This launched the Texas Revolution, and over the next two months, the Texians successfully defeated all Mexican troops in the region.^[80] Texians elected delegates to the Consultation, which created a provisional government.^[81] The provisional government soon collapsed from infighting, and Texas was without clear governance for the first two months of 1836.^[82][83]

During this time of political turmoil, Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna personally led an army to end the revolt.^[84] The Mexican expedition was initially successful. General Jose de Urrea defeated all the Texian resistance along the coast culminating in the Goliad Massacre.^[85] Santa Anna's forces, after a thirteen-day siege, overwhelmed Texian defenders at the Battle of the Alamo. News of the defeats sparked panic amongst Texas settlers.^[86] The newly elected Texian delegates to the Convention of 1836 quickly signed a Declaration of Independence on March 2, forming the Republic of Texas. After electing interim officers, the Convention disbanded.^[87] The new government joined the other settlers in Texas in the Runaway Scrape, fleeing from the approaching Mexican army.^[86] After several weeks of retreat, the Texian Army commanded by Sam Houston attacked and defeated Santa Anna's forces at the Battle of San Jacinto.^[88] Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the Treaties of Velasco, ending the war.^[89]

While Texas had won their independence, political battles raged between two factions of the new Republic. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans, and the expansion of the Republic to the Pacific Ocean. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans. The conflict between the factions was typified by an incident known as the Texas Archive War.^[90] Mexico launched two small expeditions into Texas in 1842. The town of San Antonio was captured twice and Texans were defeated in battle in the Dawson Massacre. Despite these successes, Mexico did not keep an occupying force in Texas, and the republic survived.^[91] The republic's inability to defend itself added momentum to Texas's eventual annexation into the United States.

Statehood[link]

As early as 1837, the Republic made several attempts to negotiate annexation with the United States.^[92] Opposition within the republic from the nationalist faction, along with strong abolitionist opposition within the United States, slowed Texas's admission into the Union. Texas was finally annexed when the expansionist James K. Polk won the election of 1844.^[93] On December 29, 1845, Congress admitted Texas to the U.S. as a constituent state of the Union.^[94]

After Texas's annexation, Mexico broke diplomatic relations with the United States. While the United States claimed that Texas's border stretched to the Rio Grande, Mexico claimed it was the Nueces River. While the former Republic of Texas could not enforce its border claims, the United States had the military strength and the political will to do so. President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor south to the Rio Grande on January 13, 1846. A few months later Mexican troops routed an American cavalry patrol in the disputed area in the Thornton Affair starting the Mexican-American War. The first battles of the war were fought in Texas: the Siege of Fort Texas, Battle of Palo Alto and Battle of Resaca de la Palma. After these decisive victories, the United States invaded Mexican territory ending the fighting in Texas.^[95]

After a series of United States victories, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the two year war. In return, for US$18,250,000, Mexico gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, ceded the Mexican Cession in 1848, most of which today is called the American Southwest, and Texas's borders were established at the Rio Grande.^[95]

The Compromise of 1850 set Texas's boundaries at their present form. Texas ceded its claims to land which later became half of present day New Mexico, a third of Colorado, and small portions of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Wyoming to the federal government, in return for the assumption of $10 million of the old republic's debt.^[17] Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state.^[96]

Civil War and Reconstruction[link]

Civil war monument in Galveston, Texas

Texas was at war again after the election of 1860. Abraham Lincoln's election triggered South Carolina's declaration of secession from the Union, which was quickly followed by that of five other Lower South states. A State Convention considering secession opened in Austin on January 28, 1861. On February 1, by a vote of 166–8, the Convention adopted an Ordinance of Secession from the United States. Texas voters approved this Ordinance on February 23, 1861. Texas joined the Confederate States of America, ratifying the permanent C.S. Constitution on March 23, 1861.^[3][97] Not all Texans favored secession initially, although many of the same would later support the Southern cause. Texas's most notable unionist was the state Governor, Sam Houston. Not wanting to aggravate the situation, Houston refused two offers from President Lincoln for Union troops to keep him in office. After refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy, Houston was deposed as governor.^[98]

While far from the major battlefields of the American Civil War, Texas contributed large numbers of men and equipment to the rest of the Confederacy.^[99] Union troops briefly occupied the state's primary port, Galveston. Texas's border with Mexico was known as the "backdoor of the Confederacy" because trade occurred at the border, bypassing the Union blockade.^[100] The Confederacy repulsed all Union attempts to shut down this route,^[99] but Texas's role as a supply state was marginalized in mid-1863 after the Union capture of the Mississippi River. The final battle of the Civil War was fought near Brownsville, Texas at Palmito Ranch^[101] with a Confederate victory.

Texas descended into anarchy for two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger. Violence marked the early months of Reconstruction.^[102] Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Galveston by General Gordon Granger, over two and a half years after the original announcement.^[103][104] President Johnson, in 1866, declared the civilian government restored in Texas.^[105] Despite not meeting reconstruction requirements, Congress readmitted Texas into the Union in 1870. Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues.^[106]

20th century to present[link]

Spindletop

On January 10, 1901, the first major oil well in Texas, Spindletop, was found south of Beaumont. Other fields were later discovered nearby in East Texas, West Texas, and under the Gulf of Mexico. The resulting "Oil Boom" transformed Texas.^[107] Oil production eventually averaged three million barrels per day at its peak in 1972.^[108]

The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl dealt a double blow to the state's economy, which had significantly improved since the Civil War. Migrants abandoned the worst hit sections of Texas during the Dust Bowl years. Especially from this period on, blacks left Texas in the Great Migration to get work in the Northern United States or California and to escape the oppression of segregation.^[109] In 1940, Texas was 74% Anglo, 14.4% black, and 11.5% Hispanic.^[110]

World War II had a dramatic impact on Texas, as federal money poured in to build military bases, munitions factories, POW detention camps and Army hospitals; 750,000 young men left for service; the cities exploded with new industry; the colleges took on new roles; and hundreds of thousands of poor farmers left for much better paying war jobs, never to return to agriculture.^[111][112]

Texas modernized and expanded its system of higher education through the 1960s. The state created a comprehensive plan for higher education, funded in large part by oil revenues, and a central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently. These changes helped Texas universities receive federal research funds.^[113]

On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.^[114]

Government and politics[link]

The current Texas Constitution was adopted in 1876. Like many states, it explicitly provides for a separation of powers. The state's Bill of Rights is much larger than its federal counterpart, and has provisions unique to Texas.^[115]

State government[link]

Texas State Capitol at night.

Texas has a plural executive branch system limiting the power of the Governor. Except for the Secretary of State, voters elect executive officers independently; thus candidates are directly answerable to the public, not the Governor.^[116] This election system has led to some executive branches split between parties. When Republican President George W. Bush served as Texas's governor, the state had a Democratic Lieutenant Governor, Bob Bullock. The executive branch positions consist of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three-member Texas Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State.^[116]

The bicameral Texas Legislature consists of the House of Representatives, with 150 members, and a Senate, with 31 members. The Speaker of the House leads the House, and the Lieutenant Governor, the Senate.^[117] The Legislature meets in regular session biennially, but the Governor can call for special sessions as often as desired.^[118] The state's fiscal year spans from the previous calendar year's September 1 to the current year's August 31. Thus, the FY 2012 dates from September 1, 2011 through August 31, 2012.

The judicial system of Texas is one of the most complex in the United States, with many layers and overlapping jurisdictions. Texas has two courts of last resort: the Texas Supreme Court, for civil cases, and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals. Except for some municipal benches, partisan elections select judges at all levels of the judiciary; the Governor fills vacancies by appointment.^[119] Texas leads the nation in executions– 442 as of October 2009 (see Capital punishment in Texas).

The Texas Ranger Division of the Texas Department of Public Safety is a law enforcement agency with statewide jurisdiction. Over the years, the Texas Rangers have investigated crimes ranging from murder to political corruption. They have acted as riot police and as detectives, protected the Texas governor, tracked down fugitives, and functioned as a paramilitary force both for the republic and the state. The Texas Rangers were unofficially created by Stephen F. Austin in 1823 and formally constituted in 1835. The Rangers were part of several important events of Texas history and some of the best-known criminal cases in the history of the Old West.^[120]

Politics[link]

Lyndon B. Johnson, Texan and 36th president of the United States

As in other "Solid South" states, whites resented the Republican Party after the American Civil War, and the Democratic Party dominated Texas politics from the end of Reconstruction until the late 20th century. The state has since become a Republican stronghold.^[121]

The Texas political atmosphere leans towards fiscal and social conservatism.^[122][123] Since 1980, most Texas voters have supported Republican presidential candidates. In 2000 and 2004, Republican George W. Bush won Texas with 60.1% of the vote, partly due to his "favorite son" status as a former Governor of the state. John McCain won the state in 2008, but with a smaller margin of victory compared to Bush at 55% of the vote. Austin consistently leans Democratic in both local and statewide elections. Counties along the Rio Grande generally vote for Democrats, while most rural and suburban areas of Texas vote Republican.^[124][125]

The 2003 Texas redistricting of Congressional districts led by the Republican Tom Delay, was called by the New York Times "an extreme case of partisan gerrymandering".^[126] A group of Democratic legislators, the "Texas Eleven", fled the state in a quorum-busting effort.^[127] Despite these efforts, the legislature passed a map heavily in favor of Republicans. Protests of the redistricting reached the national Supreme Court in the case League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry, but the ruling went in the Republicans' favor.^[128]

As of the general elections of 2010, a large majority of the members of Texas's U.S. House delegation are Republican, along with both U.S. Senators. In the 112th United States Congress, of the 32 Congressional districts in Texas, 23 are held by Republicans and 9 by Democrats. Texas's Senators are Kay Bailey Hutchison and John Cornyn. Since 1994, Texans have not elected a Democrat to a statewide office. The state's Democratic presence comes primarily from some minority groups in East Texas and South Texas as well as urban voters, particularly in Beaumont, El Paso, Austin, San Antonio, Dallas, and Houston.

Administrative divisions[link]

Texas has 254 counties— the most nationwide. Each county runs on Commissioners' Court system consisting of four elected commissioners (one from each of four precincts in the county, roughly divided according to population) and a county judge elected at large from the entire county. County government runs similar to a "weak" mayor-council system; the county judge has no veto authority, but votes along with the other commissioners.

Although Texas permits cities and counties to enter "interlocal agreements" to share services, the state does not allow consolidated city-county governments, nor does it have metropolitan governments. Counties are not granted home rule status; their powers are strictly defined by state law. The state does not have townships— areas within a county are either incorporated or unincorporated. Incorporated areas are part of a municipality. The county provides limited services to unincorporated areas. Municipalities are classified either "general law" cities or "home rule".^[129] A municipality may elect home rule status once it exceeds 5,000 population with voter approval. Municipal elections are nonpartisan^[130] as are elections for school boards and community college districts.

Economy[link]

Astronaut training at the Johnson Space Center in Houston.

As of 2010, Texas had a gross state product (GSP) of $1.207 trillion, the second highest in the U.S.^[131] Its GSP is comparable to the GDP of India or Canada, which are the world's 12th- and 11th-largest economies, respectively. Texas' economy is the fourth-largest of any country subdivision globally, behind England (as part of the UK), California, and Tokyo Prefecture. Its Per Capita personal income in 2009 was $36,484, ranking 29th in the nation. Texas's large population, abundance of natural resources, thriving cities and leading centers of higher education have contributed to a large and diverse economy. Since oil was discovered, the state's economy has reflected the state of the petroleum industry. In recent times, urban centers of the state have increased in size, containing two-thirds of the population in 2005. The state's economic growth has led to urban sprawl and its associated symptoms.^[132]

As of November 2011, the state's unemployment rate is 8.1%.^[133]

Texas has a "low taxes, low services" reputation.^[122] According to the Tax Foundation, Texans' state and local tax burdens rank among the lowest in the nation, 7th lowest nationally; state and local taxes cost $3,580 per capita, or 8.4% of resident incomes.^[134] Texas is one of seven states that lack a state income tax.^[134][135] Instead, the state collects revenue from a state property tax and sales tax, which is charged at the rate of 6.25%,^[134][136] but local taxing jurisdictions (cities, counties, special purpose districts, and transit authorities) may also impose sales and use tax up to 2% for a total maximum combined rate of 8.25%.^[137] Texas is a "tax donor state"; in 2005, for every dollar Texans paid to the federal government in federal income taxes, the state received approximately $0.94 in benefits.^[134]

In 2010, Site Selection Magazine ranked Texas as the most business-friendly state in the nation, in part because of the state's three-billion-dollar Texas Enterprise Fund.^[138] Texas has the joint-highest number of Fortune 500 company headquarters in the United States, along with California.^[139][140]

In 2010, there were 346,000 millionaires in Texas, constituting the second-largest population of millionaires in the nation.^[141][142]

Agriculture and mining[link]

An oil well

Brazos Wind Farm in the plains of West Texas

Electronic Data Systems headquarters in Plano

Texas has the most farms and the highest acreage in the United States.^[143] Texas leads the nation in livestock production.^[143] Cattle is the state's most valuable agricultural product, and the state leads nationally in production of sheep and goat products. Texas leads the nation in production of cotton.^[143] The state grows significant amounts of cereal crops and produce.^[143] Texas has a large commercial fishing industry. With mineral resources, Texas leads in creating cement, crushed stone, lime, salt, sand and gravel.^[143]

Energy[link]

Ever since the discovery of oil at Spindletop, energy has been a dominant force politically and economically within the state.^[144] According to the Energy Information Administration, Texans consume the most energy in the nation per capita and as a whole.^[145] Unlike the rest of the nation, most of Texas is on its own alternating current power grid, the Texas Interconnection. Texas has a deregulated electric service.

The Railroad Commission of Texas, contrary to its name, regulates the state's oil and gas industry, gas utilities, pipeline safety, safety in the liquefied petroleum gas industry, and surface coal and uranium mining. Until the 1970s, the commission controlled the price of petroleum because of its ability to regulate Texas's oil reserves. The founders of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) used the Texas agency as one of their models for petroleum price control.^[146]

Texas has known petroleum deposits of about 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m³), which makes up approximately one-fourth of the known U.S. reserves.^[145] The state's refineries can process 4.6 million barrels (730,000 m³) of oil a day.^[145] The Baytown Refinery in the Houston area is the largest refinery in America.^[145] Texas also leads in natural gas production, producing one-fourth of the nation's supply.^[145] Several petroleum companies are based in Texas such as: Conoco-Phillips, Exxon-Mobil, Halliburton, Valero, and Marathon Oil.

The state is a leader in renewable energy sources; it produces the most wind power in the nation.^[145][147] The Roscoe Wind Farm in Roscoe, Texas, is the world's largest wind farm as of October 2009 with a 781.5 megawatt (MW) capacity.^[148] The Energy Information Administration states that the state's large agriculture and forestry industries could give Texas an enormous amount biomass for use in biofuels. The state also has the highest solar power potential for development in the nation.^[145]

Technology[link]

With large universities systems coupled with initiatives like the Texas Enterprise Fund and the Texas Emerging Technology Fund, a wide array of different high tech industries have developed in Texas. The Austin area is nicknamed the "Silicon Hills" and the north Dallas area the "Silicon Prairie". Texas has the headquarters of many high technology companies, such as Dell, Inc., Texas Instruments, Perot Systems, Rackspace and AT&T.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (NASA JSC) located in Southeast Houston, sits as the crown jewel of Texas's aeronautics industry. Fort Worth hosts both Lockheed Martin's Aeronautics division and Bell Helicopter Textron.^[149][150] Lockheed builds the F-16 Fighting Falcon, the largest Western fighter program, and its successor, the F-35 Lightning II in Fort Worth.^[151]

Commerce[link]

Texas's affluence stimulates a strong commercial sector consisting of retail, wholesale, banking and insurance, and construction industries. Examples of Fortune 500 companies not based on Texas traditional industries are AT&T, Kimberly-Clark, Blockbuster, J. C. Penney, Whole Foods Market, and Tenet Healthcare.^[152] Nationally, the Dallas–Fort Worth area, home to the second shopping mall in the United States, has the most shopping malls per capita of any American metropolitan area.^[153]

Mexico, the state's largest trading partner, imports a third of the state's exports because of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). NAFTA has encouraged the formation of controversial maquiladoras on the Texas/Mexico border.^[154]

Demographics[link]

Texas population density map

The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Texas was 25,674,681 on July 1, 2011, a 2.10% increase since the 2010 United States Census.^[5] The state's rate of natural increase (births and deaths) since the last census was 1,389,275 people, immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 801,576 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 451,910 people.^[3] As of 2004, the state had 3.5 million foreign-born residents (15.6 percent of the state population), of which an estimated 1.2 million are illegal aliens. Texas from 2000–2006 had the fastest growing illegal immigration rate in the nation.^[155] In 2010, illegal aliens constituted an estimated 6.0% of the population. This was the fifth highest percentage of any state in the country.^[156][157]

Texas's population density is 34.8 persons/km² which is slightly higher than the average population density of the US as a whole, at 31 persons/km². In contrast, while Texas and France are similarly sized geographically, the European country has a population density of 116 persons/km².

Two-thirds of all Texans live in a major metropolitan area such as Houston. The Dallas-Fort Worth Metropolitan Area is the largest in Texas. While Houston is the largest city in Texas and the fourth largest city in the United States, the Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area is considerably larger than that of Houston.

Race and ethnicity[link]

According to the 2010 United States census, the racial and ethnic composition of Texas was the following:

• White: 70.4% (Non-Hispanic Whites: 45.3%)
• Black or African American: 11.8%
• Native American: 0.7%
• Asian: 3.8% (1.0% Indian, 0.8% Vietnamese, 0.6% Chinese, 0.4% Filipino, 0.3% Korean, 0.2% Pakistani, 0.07% Japanese, 0.05% Laotian, 0.05% Cambodian)
• Pacific Islander: 0.1% (0.02% Guamanian, 0.01% Samoan, 0.01% Tongan, 0.01% Native Hawaiian)
• Some other race: 10.5%
• Two or more races: 2.7%

• Hispanic or Latino (of any race): 37.6% (31.6% Mexican, 0.5% Puerto Rican, 0.2% Cuban)

White Americans are the racial majority in Texas. However, non-Hispanic whites represent roughly 48% of the population; therefore, Texas is a minority-majority state. Just over 17,020,000 Texans are white (both non-Hispanic and Hispanic), and roughly 11.4 million are non-Hispanic whites. German, Irish, and English Americans are the three largest European ancestry groups in Texas. German Americans make up 11.3% of the population, and number over 2.7 million members. Irish Americans make up 8.2% of the population, and number over 1.9 million members. There are roughly 600,000 French Americans and 472,000 Italian Americans residing in Texas; these two ethnic groups make up 2.5% and 2.0% of the population respectively. In the 1980 United States census the largest ancestry group reported in Texas was English with 3,083,323 Texans citing that they were of English or mostly English ancestry making them 27% of the state at the time.^[158] Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original thirteen colonies and for this reason many of them today simply claim "American" ancestry, though they are of predominately English stock.

Black Americans are the largest racial minority in Texas. Blacks of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin make up 11.5% of the population; blacks of non-Hispanic origin form 11.3% of the populace. Black Americans of both Hispanic and non-Hispanic origin number at roughly 2.7 million individuals.

Native Americans are a smaller minority in the state. Native Americans make up 0.5% of Texas' population, and number over 118,000 individuals. Native Americans of non-Hispanic origin make up 0.3% of the population, and number over 75,000 individuals. Cherokee Indians made up 0.1% of the population, and numbered over 19,400 members. In contrast, only 583 were identified as Chippewa.

Asian Americans are a sizable minority group in Texas. Americans of Asian descent form 3.8% of the population, with those of non-Hispanic descent making up 3.7% of the populace. Altogether, they number over 808,000 individuals. Non-Hispanic Asians number over 795,000. Just over 200,000 Indians make Texas their home. Texas is also home to over 187,000 Vietnamese and 136,000 Chinese. In addition to 92,000 Filipinos and 62,000 Koreans, there are 18,000 Japanese Americans living in the state. Lastly, over 111,000 people are of other Asian ancestry groups, such as Cambodian, Thai, and Hmong. Sugar Land, a city within the Houston metropolitan area, and Plano, located within the Dallas metropolitan area, both have high concentrations of Chinese and Korean residents. The Houston and Dallas areas, and to a lesser extent, the Austin metropolitan area, all contain substantial Vietnamese communities.

Americans with origins from the Pacific are the smallest minority in Texas. According to the survey, only 18,000 Texans are Pacific Islanders; 16,400 are of non-Hispanic descent. There are roughly 5,400 Native Hawaiians, 5,300 Guamanians, and 6,400 people from other groups. Samoan Americans were very scant; only 2,920 people were from this group. The city of Euless, a suburb of Fort Worth, contains a sizable population of Tongan Americans, at nearly 900 people, over one percent of the city's population. Killeen has a sufficient population of Samoans and Guamanian, and people of Pacific Islander descent surpass one percent of the city's population.

Multiracial individuals are also a visible minority in Texas. People of multiracial heritage form 1.9% of the population, and number over 448,000 people. Almost 80,000 Texans claim European and African heritage, and make up 0.3% of the population. People of European and Native American heritage number over 108,800 (close to the number of Native Americans), and make up 0.5% of the population. People of European and Asian heritage number over 57,600, and form just 0.2% of the population. People of African and Native American heritage were even smaller in number (15,300), and make up just 0.1% of the total population.

Hispanics and Latinos are the second largest group in Texas after non-Hispanic European Americans. Over 8.5 million people claim Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. This group forms 36% of Texas' population. People of Mexican descent alone number over 7.3 million, and make up 30.7% of the population. Over 104,000 Puerto Ricans live in the state. Roughly 38,000 Cubans reside in the state. Over 1.1 million people (4.7% of the population) are of varying Hispanic and Latino ancestries, such as Costa Rican, Venezuelan, and Argentine.^[159][160]

German descendants inhabit much of central and southeast-central Texas. Over one-third of Texas residents are of Hispanic origin;^[161] while many have recently arrived, some Tejanos have ancestors with multi-generational ties to 18th century Texas. In addition to the descendants of the state's former slave population, many African American college graduates have come to the state for work recently in the New Great Migration.^[162] Recently, the Asian population in Texas has grown—primarily in Houston and Dallas. Other communities with a significantly growing Asian American population is in Austin, Corpus Christi, and the Sharyland area next McAllen, Texas. Currently, three federally recognized Native American tribes reside in Texas: the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe, the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe, and the Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo.^[38]

In 2010, 49% of all births were Hispanics; 35% were non-Hispanic whites; 11.5% were non-Hispanic blacks, and 4.3% were Asians/Pacific Islanders.^[163] Based on Census Bureau data released at Medio February 2011, for the first time in recent history, Texas' white population is below 50 percent (45 percent) and Hispanics grew to 38 percent. Between 2000 and 2010, the total population growth by 20.6 percent, but Hispanics growth by 65 percent, whereas non-Hispanic whites only grew by 4.2 percent.^[164]

Cities and towns[link]

The state has three cities with populations exceeding one million: Houston, San Antonio, and Dallas.^[165] These three rank among the 10 most populous cities of the United States. As of 2000, six Texas cities had populations greater than 500,000 people. Austin, Fort Worth, and El Paso are among the 25 largest U.S. cities. Texas has four metropolitan areas with populations greater than a million: Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington, Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown, San Antonio–New Braunfels, and Austin–Round Rock–San Marcos. The Dallas–Fort Worth and Houston metropolitan areas number about 6.3 million and 5.7 million residents, respectively. Three interstate highways—I-35 to the west (Dallas–Fort Worth to San Antonio, with Austin in between), I-45 to the east (Dallas to Houston), and I-10 to the south (San Antonio to Houston) define the Texas Urban Triangle region. The region of 60,000 square miles (160,000 km²) contains most of the state's largest cities and metropolitan areas as well as 17 million people, nearly 75 percent of Texas's total population.^[166] Houston and Dallas have been recognized as beta world cities.^[167] These cities are spread out amongst the state. Texas has 254 counties, which is more than any state by 95 (Georgia).^[168]

In contrast to the cities, unincorporated rural settlements known as colonias often lack basic infrastructure and are marked by poverty.^[169] As of 2007, Texas had at least 2,294 colonias, located primarily along the state's 1,248-mile (2,008 km) border with Mexico.^[169] Texas has the largest concentration of people, approximately 400,000, living in colonias.

v t e Largest cities or towns of Texas Source:[170]
	Rank	City name	County	Pop.
Houston San Antonio San Antonio	1	Houston	Harris	2,099,451	Dallas Austin
	2	San Antonio	Bexar	1,327,407
	3	Dallas	Dallas	1,197,816
	4	Austin	Travis	790,390
	5	Fort Worth	Tarrant	741,206
	6	El Paso	El Paso	649,121
	7	Arlington	Tarrant	365,438
	8	Corpus Christi	Nuences	305,215
	9	Plano	Collin	259,841
	10	Laredo	Webb	236,091

Religion[link]

The Lakewood Church in Houston is the largest church in the United States.

The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 4,368,969; the Southern Baptist Convention with 3,519,459; and the United Methodist Church with 1,022,342.^[172]

Known as the buckle of the Bible Belt, East Texas is socially conservative.^[173] Dallas-Fort Worth is home to three major evangelical seminaries and a host of monasteries. Lakewood Church in Houston, boasts the largest attendance in the nation averaging more than 43,000 weekly.^[174] Lubbock, according to local lore, has the most churches per capita in the nation.^[173]

Adherents of many non-Christian religions reside predominantly in the urban centers of Texas. In 1990, the Islamic population stood at approximately 140,000 with more recent figures putting the current population of Muslims between 350,000 to 400,000.^[175] The Jewish population stands at around 128,000.^[176] Approximately 146,000 adherents of non-Abrahamic religions such as Hinduism and Sikhism live in Texas.^[177]

Culture[link]

The Alamo is one of the most recognized symbols of Texas.