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Psychological warfare (PSYWAR), or the basic aspects of modern psychological operations (PSYOP), have been known by many other names or terms, including Psy Ops, Political Warfare, “Hearts and Minds”, and Propaganda.^[1] Various techniques are used, by any set of groups, and aimed to influence a target audience's value systems, belief systems, emotions, motives, reasoning, or behavior. It is used to induce confessions or reinforce attitudes and behaviors favorable to the originator's objectives, and are sometimes combined with black operations or false flag tactics. Target audiences can be governments, organizations, groups, and individuals.

In Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes, Jacques Ellul discusses psychological warfare as a common peace policy practice between nations as a form of indirect aggression in place of military aggression. This type of propaganda drains the public opinion of an opposing regime by stripping away its power on public opinion. This form of aggression is hard to defend against because no international court of justice is capable of protecting against psychological aggression since it cannot be legally adjudicated. The only defense is using the same means of psychological warfare. It is the burden of every government to defend its state against propaganda aggression. "Here the propagandists is dealing with a foreign adversary whose morale he seeks to destroy by psychological means so that the opponent begins to doubt the validity of his beliefs and actions."^[2]

The U.S. Department of Defense defines psychological warfare as:

"The planned use of propaganda and other psychological actions having the primary purpose of influencing the opinions, emotions, attitudes, and behavior of hostile foreign groups in such a way as to support the achievement of national objectives."^[3]

This definition indicates that a critical element of the U.S. psychological operations capabilities includes propaganda and by extension counterpropaganda. Joint Publication 3-53 establishes specific policy to use public affairs mediums to counterpropaganda from foreign origins. ^[4]

During World War II the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff defined psychological warfare more broadly stating "Psychological warfare employs any weapon to influence the mind of the enemy. The weapons are psychological only in the effect they produce and not because of the weapons themselves."^[5]

History[link]

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Cyrus the Great[link]

Although the first Great king of the Achaemenid Empire was known as a conqueror, he is also remembered for his tolerance towards those he defeated.^[6]

To ensure that the new conquered peoples did not revolt, Cyrus the Great showed respect to their customs and allowed them to continue to practice their religions. He also freed 40000 Jewish slaves in Babylon, sent them back to Judah and funded the building of a new temple in Jerusalem, which gave him the title "Liberator" and Messiah in the Old Testament.^[7]

Cyrus is also known for the creation of his new Imperial Guards, "The Immortals". Notably, in mid-battle, they removed the dead from the battlefield. So whether the battle is won or lost, their enemies never truly saw a dead Immortal, so no Immortal appeared to have died, hence the name. According to ancient historians such as Herodotus, they have been said at times to wear a thin tiara over their face, in order to give them a faceless, menacing look, coupled with their 'deathless' reputation.

Alexander the Great[link]

Although not always accredited as the first practitioner of psychological warfare, Alexander the Great undoubtedly showed himself to be effective in swaying the mindsets of the populaces that were conquered in his campaigns. This fact is evident upon study and research into the remaining historical records regarding the terms of peace from the reign of Alexander of Macedonia. Though few records exist, they indicate that Alexander, or at the very least his advisers, were very shrewd negotiators and well versed in achieving diplomacy.^{[citation needed]}

To keep the new Macedonian state and assortment of powerful Greek tribes from revolting against their leader, Alexander the Great left some of his men behind in each city to introduce Greek culture, control it, oppress dissident views, and interbreed. Alexander paid his soldiers to marry non-Greek women. He wanted to assimilate people of all nations.^{[citation needed]}

The Mongols[link]

Genghis Khan, leader of the Mongols in the 13th century AD, united his people to eventually create the largest contiguous empire in human history. Defeating the will of the enemy was the top priority.

Before attacking a settlement, the Mongol generals demanded submission to the Khan, and threatened the initial villages with complete destruction if they refused to surrender. After winning the battle, the Mongol generals fulfilled their threats and massacred the survivors.

Examples include the destruction of the nations of Kiev and Khwarizm. Consequently, tales of the encroaching horde spread to the next villages and created an aura of insecurity that undermined the possibility of future resistance.

Subsequent nations were much more likely to surrender to the Mongols without fighting. Often this, as much as the Mongols' tactical prowess, secured quick Mongol victories.

Genghis Khan also employed tactics that made his numbers seem greater than they actually were. During night operations he ordered each soldier to light three torches at dusk to give the illusion of an overwhelming army and deceive and intimidate enemy scouts. He also sometimes had objects tied to the tails of his horses, so that riding on open and dry fields raised a cloud of dust that gave the enemy the impression of great numbers. His soldiers used arrows specially notched to whistle as they flew through the air, creating a terrifying noise.

The Mongols also employed other gruesome terror tactics to weaken the will to resist. One infamous incident occurred during Tamerlane's Indian campaign. Tamerlane, an heir to the Mongol martial tradition, built a pyramid of 90,000 human heads in front of the walls of Delhi, to convince them to surrender.

Other tactics included firing severed human heads from catapults into enemy lines and over city walls to frighten enemy soldiers and citizens and spread diseases in the close confines of a besieged city. The results were thus not only psychological since in 1347, the Mongols under Janibeg catapulted corpses infected with plague into the trading city of Kaffa in Crimea, making it one of the first known uses of biological warfare.

Spanish Civil War[link]

After the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, the Nationalist General Queipo de Llano started broadcasting transmissions to be heard by Republican zone listeners. Over loudspeakers he could be heard saying: "Red soldiers, abandon arms. Franco forgives and redeems. Follow the example set by your comrades who have joined our ranks. Only then you will achieve victory, happiness at home, and peace in your heart."

World War II[link]

An example of a World War II era leaflet meant to be dropped from an American B-17 over a German city. See the file description page for a translation.

One of the first leaders inexorably to gain fanatical support through the use of microphone technology was Germany's Adolf Hitler. By first creating a speaking environment, designed by Joseph Goebbels, he was able to exaggerate his presence to make him seem messianic. Hitler also coupled this with the resonating projections of his orations for effect. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made similar use of radio for propaganda against the Germans.

The British set up the Political Warfare Executive to produce and distribute 'black' and 'white' propaganda (see Categories of psychological warfare section for definitions). Through the use of powerful transmitters, broadcasts could be made across Europe. Sefton Delmer managed a successful black propaganda campaign through several radio stations which were designed to be popular with German troops while at the same time introducing news material that would weaken their morale under a veneer of authenticity.

During World War II, psychological warfare was used by the military. The invasion of Normandy was considered successful in part because of the displayed fusion of psychological warfare and military deception.^{[citation needed]}

As an example, before D-Day, Operation Quicksilver, one element of Operation Fortitude, which itself was part of a larger deception strategy (Operation Bodyguard), created a fictional "First United States Army Group" (FUSAG) commanded by General George Patton that supposedly would invade France at the Pas-de-Calais. American troops used false signals, decoy installations and phony equipment to deceive German observation aircraft and radio interception operators.

The German Stukas used a high-pitch siren attached to the plane to lower the morale of their enemies when they performed air raids on enemy front. The siren is commonly assimilated of the sound of planes falling from the sky, on modern cinematographic industry.

When the actual invasion began, the success of Fortitude was that it misled the German High Command into believing the landings were a diversion and of keeping reserves away from the beaches. Erwin Rommel was the primary target of the psychological aspects of this operation. Convinced that Patton would lead the invasion, Rommel was caught off-guard and unable to react strongly to the Normandy invasion, as Patton's illusory FUSAG had not "yet" landed. Confidence in his own intelligence and judgement rendered the German response to the beachhead ineffectual.

Modern psychological warfare operations[link]

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Most uses of the term psychological warfare refers to military methods such as:

• Distributing pamphlets, e.g. in the Persian Gulf War, encouraging desertion or (in World War II) supplying instructions on how to surrender
• Propaganda radio stations, such as Lord Haw-Haw in World War II on the "Germany calling" station
• Renaming cities and other places when captured, such as Ho Chi Minh City
• Shock and awe military strategy
• Projecting repetitive and annoying sounds and music for long periods at high volume towards groups under siege. In Iraq and Afghanistan, U.S. counterinsurgency used music, most commonly American heavy metal or rock music, to confuse or scare local militia.
• Disturbing chicken noises were repeatedly played over a loud-speaker at Guantanamo Bay for over 25 hours as a form of sleep deprivation.
• Use of loudspeaker systems to communicate with enemy soldiers
• Direct phone calls to intimidate enemy commanding officers and their families^{[citation needed]}

Most of these techniques were developed during World War II or earlier, and have been used to some degree in every conflict since. Daniel Lerner was in the OSS (the predecessor to the US CIA) and in his book, attempts to analyze how effective the various strategies were.

He concludes that there is little evidence that any of them were dramatically successful, except perhaps surrender instructions over loudspeakers when victory was imminent. It should be noted, though, that measuring the success or failure of psychological warfare is very hard, as the conditions are very far from being a controlled experiment.

Germany[link]

The other side of the above leaflet. This is the text of a speech given by Franklin D. Roosevelt, translated into German. Click here for a translation.

In the German Bundeswehr, the Zentrum Operative Information and its subordinate Bataillon für Operative Information 950 are responsible for the PSYOP efforts (called Operative Information in German). Both the center and the battalion are subordinate to the new Streitkräftebasis (Joint Services Support Command, SKB) and together consist of about 1,200 soldiers specialising in modern communication and media technologies. One project of the German PSYOP forces is the radio station Stimme der Freiheit (Sada-e Azadi, Voice of Freedom),^[8] heard by thousands of Afghans. Another is the publication of various newspapers and magazines in Kosovo and Afghanistan, where German soldiers serve with NATO.

People's Republic of China[link]

You may not be interested in psychological warfare, but psychological warfare is interested in you.

—Xu Hezhen, a major general in the Chinese Army

^[9]

Some military strategists and foreign policy analysts are bracing for major Chinese onslaughts by way of psychological warfare. According to U.S. military analysts, attacking the enemy’s mind is among the chief strategies China will use in order to catch its adversaries off-guard. Psychological warfare would disarm an enemy in a way even nuclear weapons cannot, and so many say the U.S. must prepare for psychological warfare on an unprecedented level.^[10]

This type of warfare, being rooted in Chinese Stratagems outlined in words such as Sun Tzu’s The Art of War and The Thirty-Six Stratagems, has become so engrained in Chinese culture that the same applies to military strategy and foreign policy strategy. In its dealings with its rivals, China is expected to utilize Marxist dialectics to mobilize communist loyalists, as well as flex its economic and military muscle to persuade other nations to do what it wants. The Chinese government will try to control the media to keep a tight hold on propaganda efforts for its people, though the success of this will be mitigated by the ever-increasing global availability of information. U.S. analysts take so seriously the concept of ji (planning) that they take any sign of Chinese military cooperation (e.g., sending troops to Sudan or giving information about Iran’s nuclear program) cautiously.^[10]

United Kingdom[link]

In the British Armed Forces, PSYOPS are handled by the tri-service 15 Psychological Operations Group. (See also MI5 and Secret Intelligence Service). The British were one of the first major military powers to use psychological warfare in World War II, especially against the Japanese. The Gurkhas, who are Nepalese soldiers in British service, have always been feared by the enemy due to their use of a curved knife called the kukri.

The British used this fear to great effect, as Gurkhas were used to terrorize Japanese soldiers through nighttime raids on their camps and they terrified also to Argentine soldiers, most of them conscripts, during the Falklands War.

United States[link]

See also Psychological Operations (United States)

The purpose of United States psychological operations is to induce or reinforce attitudes and behaviors favorable to US objectives. The Special Activities Division (SAD) is a division of the Central Intelligence Agency's National Clandestine Service, responsible for Covert Action and "Special Activities". These special activities include covert political influence (which includes psychological operations) and paramilitary operations.^[11] SAD's political influence group is the only US unit allowed to conduct these operations covertly and is considered the primary unit in this area.^[11]

Dedicated psychological operations units exist in the United States Army. The United States Navy also plans and executes limited PSYOP missions. United States PSYOP units and soldiers of all branches of the military are prohibited by law from targeting U.S. citizens with PSYOP within the borders of the United States(Executive Order S-1233, DOD Directive S-3321.1, and National Security Decision Directive 130.) While United States Army PSYOP units may offer non-PSYOP support to domestic military missions, they can only target foreign audiences.

"Viet Cong, beware!" - South Vietnam leaflets urging the defection of Viet Cong

The United States ran an extensive program of psychological warfare during the Vietnam War. The Phoenix Program had the dual aim of assassinating Viet Cong personnel and terrorizing any potential sympathizers or passive supporters. Chieu Hoi program of the South Vietnam government promoted Viet Cong defections.

A U.S. Air Force O-2 of the 9th Special Operations Squadron dropping Chieu Hoi leaflets over the Republic of Vietnam.

When members of the VCI were assassinated, CIA and Special Forces operatives placed playing cards in the mouth of the deceased as a calling card. During the Phoenix Program, over 19,000 Viet Cong supporters were killed.^[12]

The CIA made extensive use of Contra death squads in Nicaragua to destabilize the Sandinista government, which the U.S. maintained was communist.^[13] The CIA used psychological warfare techniques against the Panamanians by broadcasting pirate TV broadcasts. The CIA has extensively used propaganda broadcasts against the Cuban government through TV Marti, based in Miami, Florida. However, the Cuban government has been somewhat successful in jamming the signal of TV Marti.

During the Waco Siege, the FBI and ATF conducted psychological operations on the men, women and children inside the Mount Carmel complex. This included using loudspeakers to play sounds of animals being slaughtered, drilling noises and clips from talk shows about how much their leader David Koresh was hated. In addition, very bright, flashing lights were used at night.^[14]

In the Iraq War, the United States used the shock and awe campaign to psychologically maim, and break the will of the Iraqi Army to fight.

U.S. PSYOP leaflet disseminated in Iraq. It shows a caricature of al-Qaeda terrorist al-Zarqawi caught in a rat trap. The caption reads "This is your future, Zarqawi" (هذا مستقبلك يا زرقاوي).

More recently, an article in Rolling Stone magazine alleges the United States has conducted psychological operations on its own senators and other decision makers in order to influence foreign policy. The article quotes U.S. Army Lt. Col. Michael Holmes describing how the U.S. Army illegally ordered a team of soldiers specializing in "psychological operations" to manipulate visiting American senators into providing more troops and funding for the war. According to Holmes, the orders came from the command of Lt. Gen. William B. Caldwell, a three-star general in charge of training Afghan troops.^[15] Gen. David Petraeus commander of the forces in Afghanistan ordered an investigation into the allegations made in the article.^[16]

Categories of psychological warfare[link]

In his book Daniel Lerner divides psychological warfare operations into three categories:^{[17][page needed]}

White [Omissions + Emphasis]

Truthful and not strongly biased, where the source of information is acknowledged.

Grey [Omissions + Emphasis + Racial/Ethnic/Religious Bias]

Largely truthful, containing no information that can be proven wrong; the source is not identified.

Black [Commissions of falsification]

Inherently deceitful, information given in the product is attributed to a source that was not responsible for its creation.

Mr. Lerner points out that grey and black operations ultimately have a heavy cost, in that the target population sooner or later recognizes them as propaganda and discredits the source. He writes, "This is one of the few dogmas advanced by Sykewarriors that is likely to endure as an axiom of propaganda: Credibility is a condition of persuasion. Before you can make a man do as you say, you must make him believe what you say."^[17]:28 Consistent with this idea, the Allied strategy in World War II was predominantly one of truth (with certain exceptions).^{[citation needed]}

See also[link]

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Fred Cohen. Frauds, Spies, and Lies - and How to Defeat Them. ISBN 1-878109-36-7 (2006). ASP Press.
• Fred Cohen. World War 3 ... Information Warfare Basics. ISBN 1-878109-40-5 (2006). ASP Press.
• Gagliano Giuseppe. Agitazione sovversiva,guerra psicologica e terrorismo nel movimento del 68 e del 77 Editrice Uniservice,2010 .
• Paul M. A. Linebarger. Psychological Warfare. International Propaganda and Communications. ISBN 0-405-04755-X (1948). Revised second edition, Duell, Sloan and Pearce (1954).

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Psychological warfare

• Movie: Psywar: The Real Battlefield is the Mind by Metanoia films
• The history of psychological warfare
• IWS Psychological Operations (PsyOps) / Influence Operations
• Pentagon psychological warfare operation USA Today December 15, 2005
• U.S. Adapts Cold-War Idea to Fight Terrorists NYTimes March 18, 2008
• US Army PSYOPS Info - Detailed information about the US Army Psychological Operation Soldiers
• IWS — The Information Warfare Site
• U.S. — PSYOP producing mid-eastern kids comic book
• The Institute of Heraldry — Psychological Operations
• Pychological warfare

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Yuri Alexandrovich Bezmenov (Russian: Юрий Безменов, also known as Tomas David Schuman; 1939 – 1993^[1]) was a journalist for RIA Novosti and a former KGB informant from the Soviet Union who defected to Canada.

After being assigned to a station in India, Bezmenov eventually grew to love the people and culture of India, while, at the same time, he began to resent the KGB-sanctioned oppression of intellectuals who dissented from Moscow's policies. He decided to defect to the West. Bezmenov is best remembered for his pro-American, anti-communist lectures and books from the 1980s.

Early life[link]

Bezmenov was born in 1939 in a suburb of Moscow to a high ranking Soviet Army officer. He was educated in an elite school inside the Soviet Union, and became an expert in Indian culture and Indian languages.

At the age of 17, Bezmenov entered the Institute of Oriental Languages, a part of Moscow State University—which was under the direct control of the KGB and the Communist Central Committee. In addition to languages, Bezmenov studied history, literature, and music. During his second year, Bezmenov sought to look like a person from India; his teachers encouraged this because graduates of the school were employed as diplomats, foreign journalists, or spies.

As a Soviet student, he was also required to take compulsory military training in which he taught how to play "strategic war games" using the maps of foreign countries, as well as how to interrogate prisoners of war.

Soviet life[link]

After graduating in 1963, Bezmenov spent two years in India working as a translator and public relations officer with the Soviet economical aid group Soviet Refineries Constructions, which built refinery complexes.

In 1965, Bezmenov was recalled to Moscow, and began to work for Novosti as an apprentice for their classified department of "Political Publications" (GRPP). Soon he discovered that about three-quarters of Novosti's staffers were actually KGB officers, with the remainder being "co-optees", or KGB freelance writers and informers like himself. However, Bezmenov did no real freelance writing; rather, he edited and planted propaganda materials in foreign media, and also accompanied delegations of Novosti's guests from foreign countries on tours of the Soviet Union, or to international conferences held in the Soviet Union.

After several months, Bezmenov was formally recruited by the KGB as an informer—an offer he stated one could not simply say "no" to^{[citation needed]}—while still maintaining his position as a Novosti journalist. He then used his journalistic duties to help gather information and to spread disinformation to foreign countries for the purposes of Soviet propaganda and subversion.

Rapid promotion followed, and Bezmenov was once again assigned to Bila in 1969, this time as a Soviet press-officer and a public-relations agent for the KGB. He continued Novosti's propaganda effects in New Delhi, working out of the Soviet Embassy. Bezmenov was directed to slowly but surely establish the Soviet "sphere of influence" in India. In the same year, a secret directive of the Central Committee opened a new secret department in all embassies of the Soviet Union around the world, titled the "Research and Counter-Propaganda Group." Bezmenov became a deputy chief of that department, which gathered intelligence from sources like Indian informers and agents, regarding most every influential or politically significant citizen of India. Those who favored the Soviets' expansionist policy into India were promoted to higher positions of power, affluence, and prestige through various KGB/Novosti operations.^{[further explanation needed]} Those who refused to cooperate with Soviet plans were the target of character assassination in the media and press.

Bezmenov stated that he was also instructed not to waste time with idealistic Leftists, as these would become disillusioned, bitter, and adversarial when they realized the true nature of Soviet Communism. To his surprise, he discovered that many such were listed for execution once the Soviets achieved control. Instead, Bezmenov was encouraged to recruit such persons as were in large circulation, established conservative media, rich filmmakers, intellectuals in academic circles, and cynical, ego-centric people who lacked moral principles.

During that period, Bezmenov increasingly saw the Soviet system as insidious and ruthless, and began careful planning to defect.^{[2] [3]}

Defection to the West[link]

In February 1970, Bezmenov clothed himself in hippie attire, replete with a beard and wig, and joined a tour group; by this means, he escaped to Athens, Greece. After contacting the American embassy and undergoing extensive interviews with United States intelligence, Bezmenov was granted asylum in Canada.

In an interview with G. Edward Griffin he detailed how Soviet help for inciting anger and uprising in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) was the final straw in his personal decision to defect to the West. In the interview Yuri details how Russian consulates in India were used to smuggle weapons and propaganda material to East Pakistan in a largely Soviet effort to break up the state of Pakistan, then a staunch Western and US ally.

After studying political science at the University of Toronto for two years, Bezmenov was hired by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 1972, broadcasting to the Soviet Union as part of the CBC's International Service. In 1976, the KGB compelled his departure from that position, and Bezmenov began free-lance journalism. He later became a consultant for Almanac Panorama of the World Information Network.^[3]

Pro-American lecturer, writer, advocate[link]

In 1984, he gave an interview to G. Edward Griffin, who at that time was a member of the John Birch Society, an anti-communist group. In the interview, Bezmenov explained the methods used by the KGB to secretly subvert the democratic system of the United States.^[4]

Under the pen-name Tomas D. Schuman, Bezmenov authored the book Love Letter to America. The author's biography of the book states "Like a true-life Winston Smith, from George Orwell's 1984, Tomas Schuman worked for the communist equivalent of Orwell's Ministry of Truth—The Novosti Press Agency. Novosti, which means 'News' in Russian, exists to produce slanted and false stories to plant in the foreign media. The term for this K.G.B. effort is 'disinformation.' "^[2]

Tomas D. Schuman was associated with the World Information Network (WIN) of Westlake Village, California.

In 1983, at a lecture in Los Angeles, Bezmenov expressed the opinion that he "wouldn't be surprised" if the Soviet Union had shot down Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in order to kill Larry McDonald, a member of the United States House of Representatives.^[5]

Bibliography[link]

• Schuman, Tomas (1984). Love Letter to America. Los Angeles: NATA. ISBN 978-0-935090-13-0. OCLC 19468210. 
• ——— (1985). No "Novosti" is Good News. Los Angeles: Almanac. ISBN 978-0-935090-17-8. OCLC 45013143. 
• ——— (1985). Black is Beautiful, Communism is Not. Almanac-Press. ISBN 978-0-935090-18-5. OCLC 62325386. 
• ——— (1986). World Thought Police. Los Angeles: NATA. ISBN 978-0-935090-14-7. OCLC 23919332. 

See also[link]

• List of KGB defectors

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Schuman, Tomas (1984) (Audio). Soviet Ideological Subversion of America in Four Stages : Elizabeth Clare Prophet interviews Tomas Schuman, Novosti Press, Soviet defector. Interview with Elizabeth Clare Prophet. OCLC 25714330. Summit University. Malibu, California. 

External links[link]

• Transcript of A Conversation with Yuri Bezmenov.

v t e   Canada in the Cold War Events Summit Series Defectors Igor Gouzenko · Mikhail Baryshnikov · Tamás Buday · Igor Vasilyevich Ivanov · Yuri Bezmenov Alleged Soviet Agents Lauchlin Currie · Fred Rose · Sam Carr · E. Herbert Norman Military NORAD · DEW Line · Mid-Canada Line · Pinetree Line · Canadian Forces Europe · Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow · Canada and weapons of mass destruction · Bomarc Missile Other Emergency Government Headquarters · Canada – Soviet Union relations · Young Communist League of Canada · Kellock–Taschereau Commission

v t e Soviet dissidents Andrei Amalrik Mykola Bakay Anna Barkova Vasile Bătrânac Yuri Bezmenov Larisa Bogoraz Yelena Bonner Leonid Borodin Alexei Borovoi Vladimir Bougrine Joseph Brodsky Vladimir Bukovsky Valery Chalidze Lev Chernyi Viacheslav Chornovil Lydia Chukovskaya Yuli Daniel Vadim Delaunay David Devdariani Mihai Dolgan Ivan Drach Alexander Esenin-Volpin Eliyahu Essas Benjamin Fain Viktor Fainberg Moysey Fishbein Ilya Gabay Yuri Galanskov Alexander Galich Zviad Gamsakhurdia Alexander Ginzburg Yevgenia Ginzburg Semyon Gluzman Natalya Gorbanevskaya Pyotr Grigorenko Vasily Grossman Paruyr Hayrikyan Oleksa Hirnyk Mykola Horbal Grigory Isayev Boris Kagarlitsky Romas Kalanta Sofiya Kalistratova Ihor Kalynets Vitaliy Kalynychenko Dina Kaminskaya Ivan Kandyba Ephraim Kholmyansky Yuliy Kim Lev Kopelev Boris Korczak Anatoly Koryagin Merab Kostava Lina Kostenko Sergei Kovalev Zoya Krakhmalnikova Jüri Kukk Eduard Kuznetsov Anatoly Kuznetsov Yaroslav Lesiv Eduard Limonov Pavel Litvinov Levko Lukyanenko Kronid Lyubarsky Michail J. Makarenko Guram Mamulia Nadezhda Mandelstam Osip Mandelstam Anatoly Marchenko Valeriy Marchenko Myroslav Marynovych Roy Medvedev Zhores Medvedev Naum Meiman Yosef Mendelevitch Ion Moraru Viktor Muravin Mustafa Abdülcemil Qırımoğlu Lev Navrozov Viktor Nekipelov Alexander Nekrich Valeria Novodvorskaya Vasile Odobescu Yuri Orlov Boris Pasternak Yekaterina Peshkova Leonid Plyushch Alexandr Podrabinek Grigory Pomerants Irina Ratushinskaya Maria Rozanova Mykola Rudenko Ain Saar Andrei Sakharov Dmitri Savitski Shmuel Schneurson Efraim Sevela Igor Shafarevich Varlam Shalamov Vladimir Shelkov Danylo Shumuk Andrei Sinyavsky Victor Sokolov Sergei Soldatov Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Vladimir Strelnikov Vasyl Stus Sultan Galiev Nadiya Svitlychna Vasyl Symonenko Les Tanyuk Alexander Tarasov Valery Tarsis Enn Tarto Georgi Vins Georgi Vladimov Vladimir Voinovich Michael Voslenski Gleb Yakunin Yevgeny Zamyatin Aleksandr Zinovyev Yosyf Zisels

Muhammad Ali
Ali in 1967
Statistics
Nickname(s)	The Greatest The People's Champion The Louisville Lip
Rated at	Heavyweight
Height	6 ft 3 in (1.91 m)
Reach	80 in (203 cm)
Nationality	American
Born	(1942-01-17) January 17, 1942 (age 70) Louisville, Kentucky, U.S.
Stance	Orthodox
Boxing record
Total fights	61
Wins	56
Wins by KO	37
Losses	5
Draws	0
No contests	0
Medal record Men's boxing Competitor for the USA Summer Olympics Gold 1960 Rome Light heavyweight

Muhammad Ali (born Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr.; January 17, 1942) is an American former professional boxer,^[1] philanthropist^[2] and social activist.^[2] Considered a cultural icon, Ali was both idolized and vilified.^[3][4]

Originally known as Cassius Clay, Ali changed his name after joining the Nation of Islam in 1964, subsequently converting to Sunni Islam in 1975, and more recently practicing Sufism.^{[clarification needed][5]} In 1967, three years after Ali had won the World Heavyweight Championship, he was publicly vilified for his refusal to be conscripted into the U.S. military, based on his religious beliefs and opposition to the Vietnam War. Ali stated, "I ain't got no quarrel with them Viet Cong... No Viet Cong ever called me nigger" – one of the more telling remarks of the era.^[6]

Widespread protests against the Vietnam War had not yet begun, but with that one phrase, Ali articulated the reason to oppose the war for a generation of young Americans, and his words served as a touchstone for the racial and antiwar upheavals that would rock the 1960s. Ali's example inspired Martin Luther King Jr. – who had been reluctant to alienate the Johnson Administration and its support of the civil rights agenda – to voice his own opposition to the war for the first time.^[7]

Ali was eventually arrested and found guilty on draft evasion charges; he was stripped of his boxing title, and his boxing license was suspended. He was not imprisoned, but did not fight again for nearly four years while his appeal worked its way up to the U.S. Supreme Court, where it was eventually successful.

Ali would go on to become the first and only three-time lineal World Heavyweight Champion.

Nicknamed "The Greatest," Ali was involved in several historic boxing matches.^[8] Notable among these were three with rival Joe Frazier, which are considered among the greatest in boxing history, and one with George Foreman, where he finally regained his stripped titles seven years later. Ali was well known for his unorthodox fighting style, which he described as "float[ing] like a butterfly, sting[ing] like a bee", and employing techniques such as the Ali Shuffle and the rope-a-dope.^[9] Ali had brought beauty and grace to the most uncompromising of sports and through the wonderful excesses of skill and character, he had become the most famous athlete in the world.^[10] He was also known for his pre-match hype, where he would "trash talk" opponents, often with rhymes.