Maxwell's equations are a set of partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electrodynamics, classical optics, and electric circuits. These fields in turn underlie modern electrical and communications technologies.
Maxwell's equations have two major variants. The "microscopic" set of Maxwell's equations uses total charge and total current including the difficult-to-calculate atomic level charges and currents in materials. The "macroscopic" set of Maxwell's equations defines two new auxiliary fields that can sidestep having to know these 'atomic' sized charges and currents.
Maxwell's equations are named after the Scottish physicist and mathematician James Clerk Maxwell, since in an early form they are all found in a four-part paper, "On Physical Lines of Force", which he published between 1861 and 1862. The mathematical form of the Lorentz force law also appeared in this paper.
It is often useful to write Maxwell's equations in other forms; these representations are still formally termed "Maxwell's equations". A relativistic formulation in terms of covariant field tensors is used in special relativity, while in quantum mechanics, a version based on the electric and magnetic potentials is preferred.
Maxwell's equations are an approximation—usually an extremely close approximation[note 1]—to the more accurate theory of quantum electrodynamics.
Conceptually, Maxwell's equations describe how electric charges and electric currents act as sources for the electric and magnetic fields. Further, it describes how a time varying electric field generates a time varying magnetic field and vice versa. (See below for a mathematical description of these laws.) Of the four equations, two of them, Gauss's law and Gauss's law for magnetism, describe how the fields emanate from charges. (For the magnetic field there is no magnetic charge and therefore magnetic fields lines neither begin nor end anywhere.) The other two equations describe how the fields 'circulate' around their respective sources; the magnetic field 'circulates' around electric currents and time varying electric field in Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction, while the electric field 'circulates' around time varying magnetic fields in Faraday's law.
Main article:
Gauss's lawGauss's law describes the relationship between an electric field and the electric charges that cause it: The electric field points away from positive charges and towards negative charges. In the field line description, electric field lines begin only at positive electric charges and end only at negative electric charges. 'Counting' the number of field lines in a closed surface, therefore, yields the total charge enclosed by that surface. More technically, it relates the electric flux through any hypothetical closed "Gaussian surface" to the enclosed electric charge.
Gauss's law for magnetism: magnetic field lines never begin nor end but form loops or extend to infinity as shown here with the magnetic field due to a ring of current.
Gauss's law for magnetism states that there are no "magnetic charges" (also called magnetic monopoles), analogous to electric charges.[1] Instead, the magnetic field due to materials is generated by a configuration called a dipole. Magnetic dipoles are best represented as loops of current but resemble positive and negative 'magnetic charges', inseparably bound together, having no net 'magnetic charge'. In terms of field lines, this equation states that magnetic field lines neither begin nor end but make loops or extend to infinity and back. In other words, any magnetic field line that enters a given volume must somewhere exit that volume. Equivalent technical statements are that the sum total magnetic flux through any Gaussian surface is zero, or that the magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field.
Main article:
Faraday's law
In a
geomagnetic storm, a surge in the flux of charged particles temporarily alters Earth's magnetic field, which induces electric fields in Earth's atmosphere, thus causing surges in our electrical
power grids. Artist's rendition; sizes are not to scale.
Faraday's law describes how a time varying magnetic field creates ("induces") an electric field.[1] This aspect of electromagnetic induction is the operating principle behind many electric generators: for example, a rotating bar magnet creates a changing magnetic field, which in turn generates an electric field in a nearby wire. (Note: there are two closely related equations which are called Faraday's law. The form used in Maxwell's equations is always valid but more restrictive than that originally formulated by Michael Faraday.)
Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction states that magnetic fields can be generated in two ways: by electrical current (this was the original "Ampère's law") and by changing electric fields (this was "Maxwell's correction").
Maxwell's correction to Ampère's law is particularly important: it shows that not only does a changing magnetic field induce an electric field, but also a changing electric field induces a magnetic field.[1][2] Therefore, these equations allow self-sustaining "electromagnetic waves" to travel through empty space (see electromagnetic wave equation).
The speed calculated for electromagnetic waves, which could be predicted from experiments on charges and currents,[note 2] exactly matches the speed of light; indeed, light is one form of electromagnetic radiation (as are X-rays, radio waves, and others). Maxwell understood the connection between electromagnetic waves and light in 1861, thereby unifying the theories of electromagnetism and optics.
Maxwell's equations vary with the unit system used. Though the general form remains the same, various definitions become changed and different constants appear at different places. (This may seem strange at first, but this is because some unit systems, e.g. variants of cgs, define their units in such a way that certain physical constants are fixed, dimensionless constants, e.g. 1, so these constants disappear from the equations). The equations in this section are given in SI units. Other units commonly used are Gaussian units (based on the cgs system[3]), Lorentz–Heaviside units (used mainly in particle physics) and Planck units (used in theoretical physics). See below for CGS-Gaussian units.
For a detailed description of the differences between the microscopic (total charge and current)[note 3] and macroscopic (free charge and current) variants of Maxwell's equations, see below.
In the following equations, symbols in bold represent vector quantities, and symbols in italics represent scalar quantities. The definitions of terms used in the two tables of equations are given in another table immediately following.
-
Integral form
| Name |
"Microscopic" equations |
"Macroscopic" equations |
| Gauss's law |
 Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): {\scriptstyle\partial \Omega }
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{E}\cdot\mathrm{d}\mathbf{S} = \frac{Q(V)}{\varepsilon_0}
|
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{D}\cdot\mathrm{d}\mathbf{S} = Q_{f}(V)
|
| Gauss's law for magnetism |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{B}\cdot\mathrm{d}\mathbf{S} = 0
|
Maxwell–Faraday equation
(Faraday's law of induction) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \oint_{\partial \Sigma} \mathbf{E} \cdot \mathrm{d}\boldsymbol{\ell} = -\iint_{\Sigma} \frac{\partial \mathbf B}{\partial t} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{S} |
Ampère's circuital law
(with Maxwell's correction) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \oint_{\partial \Sigma} \mathbf{B} \cdot \mathrm{d}\boldsymbol{\ell} = \mu_0 I + \mu_0 \varepsilon_0 \iint_{\Sigma} \frac{\partial \mathbf E}{\partial t} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{S} |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \oint_{\partial \Sigma} \mathbf{H} \cdot \mathrm{d}\boldsymbol{\ell} = I_f + \iint_{\Sigma} \frac{\partial \mathbf D}{\partial t} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{S} |
-
Differential form
| Name |
"Microscopic" equations |
"Macroscopic" equations |
| Gauss's law |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \frac {\rho} {\varepsilon_0} |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{D} = \rho_f |
| Gauss's law for magnetism |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0 |
Maxwell–Faraday equation
(Faraday's law of induction) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}} {\partial t} |
Ampère's circuital law
(with Maxwell's correction) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0\mathbf{J} + \mu_0 \varepsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}} {\partial t}\ |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{J}_f + \frac{\partial \mathbf{D}} {\partial t} |
The following table provides the meaning of each symbol and the SI unit of measure:
-
Definitions and units
| Symbol |
Meaning (first term is the most common) |
SI Unit of measure |
| Differential operators |
| Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{\nabla \cdot} |
the divergence operator |
per meter (factor contributed by applying either operator) |
| Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{\nabla \times} |
the curl operator |
| Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \frac {\partial}{\partial t} |
partial derivative with respect to time |
per second (factor contributed by applying the operator) |
| Fields |
| E |
|
volt per meter or, equivalently,
newton per coulomb |
| B |
- magnetic field, also called:
- the magnetic induction
- the magnetic field density
- the magnetic flux density
|
|
| D |
|
|
| H |
- magnetizing field, also called:
- auxiliary magnetic field
- magnetic field intensity
- magnetic field
|
ampere per meter |
| ε0 |
permittivity of free space, also called the electric constant, a universal constant |
farads per meter |
| μ0 |
permeability of free space, also called the magnetic constant, a universal constant |
henries per meter, or newtons per ampere squared |
| Charges and currents |
| Qf(V) |
net free electric charge within the three-dimensional volume V (not including bound charge) |
coulombs |
| Q(V) |
net electric charge within the three-dimensional volume V (including both free and bound charge) |
coulombs |
| ρf |
free charge density (not including bound charge) |
coulombs per cubic meter |
| ρ |
total charge density (including both free and bound charge) |
coulombs per cubic meter |
| Jf |
free current density (not including bound current) |
amperes per square meter |
| J |
total current density (including both free and bound current) |
amperes per square meter |
| Line and surface integrals |
| Σ and ∂Σ |
Σ is any surface, and ∂Σ is its boundary curve. The surface is fixed (unchanging in time). |
|
| dℓ |
differential vector element of path length tangential to the path/curve |
meters |
| Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \oint_{\partial \Sigma} \mathbf{E} \cdot \mathrm{d}\boldsymbol{\ell} |
line integral of the electric field along the boundary ∂Σ of a surface Σ (∂Σ is always a closed curve). |
joules per coulomb |
| Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \oint_{\partial \Sigma} \mathbf{B} \cdot \mathrm{d}\boldsymbol{\ell} |
line integral of the magnetic field over the closed boundary ∂Σ of the surface Σ |
tesla-meters |
| Ω and ∂Ω |
Ω is any three-dimensional volume, and ∂Ω is its boundary surface. The volume is fixed (unchanging in time). |
|
| dS |
differential vector element of surface area S, with infinitesimally small magnitude and direction normal to surface Σ (also denoted by A rather than S, but this conflicts with the magnetic potential) |
square meters |
| Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{E}\cdot\mathrm{d}\mathbf{S}
|
the electric flux (surface integral of the electric field) through the (closed) surface ∂Ω (the boundary of the volume Ω) |
joule-meter per coulomb |
| Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{B}\cdot\mathrm{d}\mathbf{S}
|
the magnetic flux (surface integral of the magnetic B-field) through the (closed) surface ∂Ω (the boundary of the volume Ω) |
tesla meters-squared or webers |
| Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): {\scriptstyle \partial \Omega }
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{D}\cdot\mathrm{d}\mathbf{S}
|
flux of electric displacement field through the (closed) surface ∂Ω (the boundary of the volume Ω) |
coulombs |
| Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \iint_\Sigma \mathbf{J}_f \cdot \mathrm{d} \mathbf{S} = I_f |
net free electrical current passing through the surface Σ (not including bound current) |
amperes |
| Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \iint_\Sigma \mathbf{J} \cdot \mathrm{d} \mathbf{S} = I |
net electrical current passing through the surface Σ (including both free and bound current) |
amperes |
The differential and integral forms of the equations are mathematically equivalent, by the divergence theorem in the case of Gauss's law and Gauss's law for magnetism, and by the Kelvin–Stokes theorem in the case of Faraday's law and Ampère's law. In addition the following relations are used:
-
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \rho_b = -\nabla\cdot\mathbf{P},
-
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{J}_b = \nabla\times\mathbf{M} + \frac{\partial\mathbf{P}}{\partial t}.
- Relations between D and E and between B and H:
-
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{D} = \varepsilon_0\mathbf{E} + \mathbf{P},
-
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{B} = \mu_0(\mathbf{H} + \mathbf{M}),
- Relations between free, bound, and total charge and current density:
-
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \rho = \rho_b + \rho_f, \
-
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{J} = \mathbf{J}_b + \mathbf{J}_f,
Substituting all these equations into the "macroscopic" Maxwell's equations gives the "microscopic" equations. Both the differential and integral forms are useful. The integral forms can often be used to simply and directly calculate fields from symmetric distributions of charges and currents. On the other hand, the differential forms are a more natural starting point for calculating the fields in more complicated (less symmetric) situations, for example using finite element analysis.[4]
The microscopic variant of Maxwell's equation expresses the electric E field and the magnetic B field in terms of the total charge and total current present including the charges and currents at the atomic level. It is sometimes called the general form of Maxwell's equations or "Maxwell's equations in a vacuum". Both variants of Maxwell's equations are equally general, though, as they are mathematically equivalent. The microscopic equations are most useful in waveguides for example, when there are no dielectric or magnetic materials nearby.
In a region with no charges (ρ = 0) and no currents (J = 0), such as in a vacuum, Maxwell's equations reduce to:
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = 0
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{E} = - \frac{\partial\mathbf{B}} {\partial t}
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \ \ \mu_0\varepsilon_0 \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}} {\partial t}.
These equations lead directly to E and B satisfying the wave equation for which the solutions are linear combinations of plane waves traveling at the speed of light,
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): c = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \varepsilon_0}}. \
In addition, E and B are mutually perpendicular to each other and the direction of wave propagation, and are in phase with each other. A sinusoidal plane wave is one special solution of these equations.
In fact, Maxwell's equations explain how these waves can physically propagate through space. The changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field through Faraday's law. In turn, that electric field creates a changing magnetic field through Maxwell's correction to Ampère's law. This perpetual cycle allows these waves, now known as electromagnetic radiation, to move through space at velocity c.
Unlike the "microscopic" equations, "Maxwell's macroscopic equations", also known as Maxwell's equations in matter, factor out the bound charge and current to obtain equations that depend only on the free charges and currents. These equations are more similar to those that Maxwell himself introduced. The cost of this factorization is that additional fields need to be defined: the displacement field D which is defined in terms of the electric field E and the polarization P of the material, and the magnetic-H field, which is defined in terms of the magnetic-B field and the magnetization M of the material.
Left: A schematic view of how an assembly of microscopic dipoles produces opposite surface charges as shown at top and bottom.
Right: How an assembly of microscopic current loops add together to produce a macroscopically circulating current loop. Inside the boundaries, the individual contributions tend to cancel, but at the boundaries no cancelation occurs.
When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material its molecules respond by forming microscopic electric dipoles — their atomic nuclei move a tiny distance in the direction of the field, while their electrons move a tiny distance in the opposite direction. This produces a macroscopic bound charge in the material even though all of the charges involved are bound to individual molecules. For example, if every molecule responds the same, similar to that shown in the figure, these tiny movements of charge combine to produce a layer of positive bound charge on one side of the material and a layer of negative charge on the other side. The bound charge is most conveniently described in terms of a polarization, P, in the material. If P is uniform, a macroscopic separation of charge is produced only at the surfaces where P enter and leave the material. For non-uniform P, a charge is also produced in the bulk.[5]
Somewhat similarly, in all materials the constituent atoms exhibit magnetic moments that are intrinsically linked to the angular momentum of the components of the atoms, most notably their electrons. The connection to angular momentum suggests the picture of an assembly of microscopic current loops. Outside the material, an assembly of such microscopic current loops is not different from a macroscopic current circulating around the material's surface, despite the fact that no individual magnetic moment is traveling a large distance. These bound currents can be described using the magnetization M.[6]
The very complicated and granular bound charges and bound currents, therefore can be represented on the macroscopic scale in terms of P and M which average these charges and currents on a sufficiently large scale so as not to see the granularity of individual atoms, but also sufficiently small that they vary with location in the material. As such, the Maxwell's macroscopic equations ignores many details on a fine scale that can be unimportant to understanding matters on a gross scale by calculating fields that are averaged over some suitabe volume.
In order to apply 'Maxwell's macroscopic equations', it is necessary to specify the relations between displacement field D and E, and the magnetic H-field H and B. These equations specify the response of bound charge and current to the applied fields and are called constitutive relations.
Determining the constitutive relationship between the auxiliary fields D and H and the E and B fields starts with the definition of the auxiliary fields themselves:
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{D}(\mathbf{r}, t) = \varepsilon_0 \mathbf{E}(\mathbf{r}, t) + \mathbf{P}(\mathbf{r}, t)
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{H}(\mathbf{r}, t) = \frac{1}{\mu_0} \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}, t) - \mathbf{M}(\mathbf{r}, t),
where P is the polarization field and M is the magnetization field which are defined in terms of microscopic bound charges and bound current respectively. Before getting to how to calculate M and P it is useful to examine the following special cases. (For real-world materials, the constitutive relations are rarely so simple, except approximately, see the main article constitutive equation for a fuller description).
When there are only a few particles present, but no bulk materials, the constitutive relations are simple:
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{D} = \varepsilon_0\mathbf{E}, \;\;\; \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{B}/\mu_0
where ε0 and μ0 are two universal constants, called the permittivity of free space and permeability of free space, respectively. Substituting these back into Maxwell's macroscopic equations lead directly to Maxwell's microscopic equations, except that the currents and charges are replaced with free currents and free charges. This is expected since there are no bound charges nor currents.
In an (isotropic[7]) linear material, where P is proportional to E, and M is proportional to B, the constitutive relations are also straightforward. In terms of the polarization P and the magnetization M they are:
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{P} = \varepsilon_0\chi_e\mathbf{E}\,,\quad \mathbf{M} = \chi_m\mathbf{H},
where χe and χm are the electric and magnetic susceptibilities of a given material respectively. In terms of D and H the constitutive relations are:
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{D} = \varepsilon\mathbf{E}\,,\quad \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{B}/\mu,
where ε and μ are constants (which depend on the material), called the permittivity and permeability, respectively, of the material. These are related to the susceptibilities by:
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \varepsilon = \varepsilon_0(1+\chi_e)\,,\quad\mu = \mu_0(1+\chi_m)
Substituting in the constitutive relations above into Maxwell's equations in linear, dispersionless, time-invariant materials (differential form only) are:
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot (\varepsilon \mathbf{E}) = \rho_f
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}} {\partial t}
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times (\mathbf{B} / \mu) = \mathbf{J}_f + \varepsilon \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}} {\partial t}.
These are formally identical to the general formulation in terms of E and B (given above), except that the permittivity of free space was replaced with the permittivity of the material, the permeability of free space was replaced with the permeability of the material, and only free charges and currents are included (instead of all charges and currents). Unless that material is homogeneous in space, ε and μ cannot be factored out of the derivative expressions on the left sides.
Main article:
Gaussian unitsGaussian units are a popular electromagnetism variant of the centimetre gram second system of units (cgs), in which case Maxwell's equations become:[8]
-
| Name |
Microscopic equations |
Macroscopic equations |
| Gauss's law |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = 4\pi\rho_{\mathrm{tot}} |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{D} = 4\pi\rho_\mathrm{f} |
| Gauss's law for magnetism |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0 |
Maxwell–Faraday equation
(Faraday's law of induction) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{1}{c} \frac{\partial \mathbf{B}} {\partial t} |
Ampère's law
(with Maxwell's extension) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{c} \frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t} + \frac{4\pi}{c}\mathbf{J}_{\mathrm{tot}} |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{H} = \frac{1}{c} \frac{\partial \mathbf{D}} {\partial t} + \frac{4\pi}{c} \mathbf{J}_\mathrm{f} |
One result of Gaussian units is that the magnetic field B has the same units as the electric field E – in SI units this doesn't happen (since for EM waves in vacuum, |E| = c|B|), making dimensional analysis of the equations different. See SI and Gaussian units for how to convert between them.
The relation between electricity, magnetism, and the speed of light can be summarized by the modern equation:
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): c = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \varepsilon_0}} \ .
The left-hand side is the speed of light, and the right-hand side is a quantity related to the equations governing electricity and magnetism. Although the right-hand side has units of velocity, it can be inferred from measurements of electric and magnetic forces, which involve no physical velocities. Therefore, establishing this relationship provided convincing evidence that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon.
The discovery of this relationship started in 1855, when Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch determined that there was a quantity related to electricity and magnetism, "the ratio of the absolute electromagnetic unit of charge to the absolute electrostatic unit of charge" (in modern language, the value Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): 1/\sqrt{\mu_0 \varepsilon_0} ), and determined that it should have units of velocity. They then measured this ratio by an experiment which involved charging and discharging a Leyden jar and measuring the magnetic force from the discharge current, and found a value 3.107×108 m/s,[9] remarkably close to the speed of light, which had recently been measured at 3.14×108 m/s by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1848 and at 2.98×108 m/s by Léon Foucault in 1850.[9] However, Weber and Kohlrausch did not make the connection to the speed of light.[9] Towards the end of 1861 while working on part III of his paper On Physical Lines of Force, Maxwell travelled from Scotland to London and looked up Weber and Kohlrausch's results. He converted them into a format which was compatible with his own writings, and in doing so he established the connection to the speed of light and concluded that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.[10]
[edit] The term Maxwell's equations
The four modern Maxwell's equations can be found individually throughout his 1861 paper, derived theoretically using a molecular vortex model of Michael Faraday's "lines of force" and in conjunction with the experimental result of Weber and Kohlrausch. But it wasn't until 1884 that Oliver Heaviside,[11] concurrently with similar work by Willard Gibbs and Heinrich Hertz,[12] grouped the four together into a distinct set. This group of four equations was known variously as the Hertz-Heaviside equations and the Maxwell-Hertz equations,[11] and are sometimes still known as the Maxwell–Heaviside equations.[13]
Maxwell's contribution to science in producing these equations lies in the correction he made to Ampère's circuital law in his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force. He added the displacement current term to Ampère's circuital law and this enabled him to derive the electromagnetic wave equation in his later 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field and demonstrate the fact that light is an electromagnetic wave. This fact was then later confirmed experimentally by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. The physicist Richard Feynman predicted that, "The American Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance in comparison with this important scientific event of the same decade."[14]
The concept of fields was introduced by, among others, Faraday. Albert Einstein wrote:
| “ |
The precise formulation of the time-space laws was the work of Maxwell. Imagine his feelings when the differential equations he had formulated proved to him that electromagnetic fields spread in the form of polarised waves, and at the speed of light! To few men in the world has such an experience been vouchsafed ... it took physicists some decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was the leap that his genius forced upon the conceptions of his fellow-workers |
” |
|
—(Science, May 24, 1940)
|
Heaviside worked to eliminate the potentials (electric potential and magnetic potential) that Maxwell had used as the central concepts in his equations;[11] this effort was somewhat controversial,[15] though it was understood by 1884 that the potentials must propagate at the speed of light like the fields, unlike the concept of instantaneous action-at-a-distance like the then conception of gravitational potential.[12] Modern analysis of, for example, radio antennas, makes full use of Maxwell's vector and scalar potentials to separate the variables, a common technique used in formulating the solutions of differential equations. However, the potentials can be introduced by algebraic manipulation of the four fundamental equations.
[edit] On Physical Lines of Force
The four modern day Maxwell's equations appeared throughout Maxwell's 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force:
- Equation (56) in Maxwell's 1861 paper is ∇ • B = 0.
- Equation (112) is Ampère's circuital law with Maxwell's displacement current added. It is the addition of displacement current that is the most significant aspect of Maxwell's work in electromagnetism, as it enabled him to later derive the electromagnetic wave equation in his 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, and hence show that light is an electromagnetic wave. It is therefore this aspect of Maxwell's work which gives the equations their full significance. (Interestingly, Kirchhoff derived the telegrapher's equations in 1857 without using displacement current. But he did use Poisson's equation and the equation of continuity which are the mathematical ingredients of the displacement current. Nevertheless, Kirchhoff believed his equations to be applicable only inside an electric wire and so he is not credited with having discovered that light is an electromagnetic wave).
- Equation (115) is Gauss's law.
- Equation (54) is an equation that Oliver Heaviside referred to as 'Faraday's law'. This equation caters for the time varying aspect of electromagnetic induction, but not for the motionally induced aspect, whereas Faraday's original flux law caters for both aspects.[16][17] Maxwell deals with the motionally dependent aspect of electromagnetic induction, v × B, at equation (77). Equation (77) which is the same as equation (D) in the original eight Maxwell's equations listed below, corresponds to all intents and purposes to the modern day force law F = q( E + v × B ) which sits adjacent to Maxwell's equations and bears the name Lorentz force, even though Maxwell derived it when Lorentz was still a young boy.
The difference between the B and the H vectors can be traced back to Maxwell's 1855 paper entitled On Faraday's Lines of Force which was read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. The paper presented a simplified model of Faraday's work, and how the two phenomena were related. He reduced all of the current knowledge into a linked set of differential equations.
Figure of Maxwell's molecular vortex model. For a uniform magnetic field, the field lines point outward from the display screen, as can be observed from the black dots in the middle of the hexagons. The vortex of each hexagonal molecule rotates counter-clockwise. The small green circles are clockwise rotating particles sandwiching between the molecular vortices.
It is later clarified in his concept of a sea of molecular vortices that appears in his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force. Within that context, H represented pure vorticity (spin), whereas B was a weighted vorticity that was weighted for the density of the vortex sea. Maxwell considered magnetic permeability µ to be a measure of the density of the vortex sea. Hence the relationship,
- Magnetic induction current causes a magnetic current density B = μ H was essentially a rotational analogy to the linear electric current relationship,
- Electric convection current J = ρ v where ρ is electric charge density. B was seen as a kind of magnetic current of vortices aligned in their axial planes, with H being the circumferential velocity of the vortices. With µ representing vortex density, it follows that the product of µ with vorticity H leads to the magnetic field denoted as B.
The electric current equation can be viewed as a convective current of electric charge that involves linear motion. By analogy, the magnetic equation is an inductive current involving spin. There is no linear motion in the inductive current along the direction of the B vector. The magnetic inductive current represents lines of force. In particular, it represents lines of inverse square law force.
The extension of the above considerations confirms that where B is to H, and where J is to ρ, then it necessarily follows from Gauss's law and from the equation of continuity of charge that E is to D. i.e. B parallels with E, whereas H parallels with D.
[edit] A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field
In 1864 Maxwell published A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in which he showed that light was an electromagnetic phenomenon. Confusion over the term "Maxwell's equations" sometimes arises because it has been used for a set of eight equations that appeared in Part III of Maxwell's 1864 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, entitled "General Equations of the Electromagnetic Field",[18] and this confusion is compounded by the writing of six of those eight equations as three separate equations (one for each of the Cartesian axes), resulting in twenty equations and twenty unknowns. (As noted above, this terminology is not common: Modern references to the term "Maxwell's equations" refer to the Heaviside restatements.)
The eight original Maxwell's equations can be written in modern vector notation as follows:
-
| (A) The law of total currents |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{J}_\mathrm{tot} = \mathbf{J} + \frac{\partial\mathbf{D}}{\partial t} |
| (B) The equation of magnetic force |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mu \mathbf{H} = \nabla \times \mathbf{A} |
| (C) Ampère's circuital law |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{H} = \mathbf{J}_\mathrm{tot} |
| (D) Electromotive force created by convection, induction, and by static electricity. (This is in effect the Lorentz force) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{E} = \mu \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{H} - \frac{\partial\mathbf{A}}{\partial t}-\nabla \phi |
| (E) The electric elasticity equation |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{E} = \frac{1}{\varepsilon} \mathbf{D} |
| (F) Ohm's law |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf{E} = \frac{1}{\sigma} \mathbf{J} |
| (G) Gauss's law |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{D} = \rho |
| (H) Equation of continuity |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J} = -\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t}
or
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{J}_\mathrm{tot} = 0
|
- Notation
- H is the magnetizing field, which Maxwell called the magnetic intensity.
- J is the current density (withJtot being the total current including displacement current).[note 4]
- D is the displacement field (called the electric displacement by Maxwell).
- ρ is the free charge density (called the quantity of free electricity by Maxwell).
- A is the magnetic potential (called the angular impulse by Maxwell).
- E is called the electromotive force by Maxwell. The term electromotive force is nowadays used for voltage, but it is clear from the context that Maxwell's meaning corresponded more to the modern term electric field.
- φ is the electric potential (which Maxwell also called electric potential).
- σ is the electrical conductivity (Maxwell called the inverse of conductivity the specific resistance, what is now called the resistivity).
It is interesting to note the μv × H term that appears in equation D. Equation D is therefore effectively the Lorentz force, similarly to equation (77) of his 1861 paper (see above).
When Maxwell derives the electromagnetic wave equation in his 1865 paper, he uses equation D to cater for electromagnetic induction rather than Faraday's law of induction which is used in modern textbooks. (Faraday's law itself does not appear among his equations.) However, Maxwell drops the μv × H term from equation D when he is deriving the electromagnetic wave equation, as he considers the situation only from the rest frame.
[edit] A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
In A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, an 1873 treatise on electromagnetism written by James Clerk Maxwell, eleven general equations of the electromagnetic field are listed and these include the eight that are listed in the 1865 paper.[19]
Maxwell's original equations are based on the idea that light travels through a sea of molecular vortices known as the "luminiferous aether", and that the speed of light has to be respective to the reference frame of this aether. Measurements designed to measure the speed of the Earth through the aether conflicted with this notion, though. [20]
A more theoretical approach was suggested by Hendrik Lorentz along with George FitzGerald and Joseph Larmor. Both Larmor (1897) and Lorentz (1899, 1904) derived the Lorentz transformation (so named by Henri Poincaré) as one under which Maxwell's equations were invariant. Poincaré (1900) analyzed the coordination of moving clocks by exchanging light signals. He also established the mathematical group property of the Lorentz transformation (Poincaré 1905). Sometimes this transformation is called the FitzGerald - Lorentz Transformation or even the FitzGerald - Lorentz - Einstein Transformation.
Albert Einstein dismissed the notion of the aether as an unnecessary one, and he concluded that Maxwell's equations predicted the existence of a fixed speed of light, independent of the velocity of the observer. Hence, he used the Maxwell's equations as the starting point for his Special Theory of Relativity. In doing so, he established that the FitzGerald - Lorentz Transformation is valid for all matter and space, and not just Maxwell's Equations. Maxwell's Equations played a key role in Einstein's groundbreaking scientic paper on Special Relativity (1905). For example, in the opening paragraph of his paper, he began his theory by noting that a description of an electric conductor moving with respect to a magnet must generate a consistent set of fields regardless of whether the force is calculated in the rest frame of the magnet or that of the conductor.[21]
The General Theory of Relativity has also has a close relationship with Maxwell's equations. For example, Theodor Kaluza and Oskar Klein showed duirng the 1920s that Maxwell's equations could be derived by extending General Relativity into five physical dimensions. This strategy of using additional dimensions to unify different forces remains an active area of research in physics.
Maxwell's equations posit electric charge, but not magnetic charge, which has never been observed[22] and may not exist. Nevertheless, Maxwell's equations including magnetic charge (and magnetic current) are of some theoretical interest.[23]
For one reason, Maxwell's equations can be made fully symmetric under interchange of electric and magnetic fields by allowing for the possibility of magnetic charges with magnetic charge density ρm and currents with magnetic current density Jm.[24] The extended Maxwell's equations (in cgs-Gaussian units) are:
-
| Name |
Without magnetic monopoles |
With magnetic monopoles (hypothetical) |
| Gauss's law |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = 4 \pi \rho_\mathrm{e} |
| Gauss's law for magnetism |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0 |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 4 \pi \rho_\mathrm{m} |
Maxwell–Faraday equation
(Faraday's law of induction) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): -\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = \frac{1}{c}\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}} {\partial t} |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): -\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = \frac{1}{c}\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t} + \frac{4 \pi}{c} \mathbf{j}_\mathrm{m} |
Ampère's law
(with Maxwell's extension) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{c}\frac{\partial \mathbf{E}} {\partial t} + \frac{4 \pi}{c} \mathbf{j}_\mathrm{e} |
If magnetic charges do not exist, or if they exist but not in the region studied, then the new variables are zero, and the symmetric equations reduce to the conventional equations of electromagnetism such as ∇ • B = 0. Further, if every particle has the same ratio of electric to magnetic charge, then an E and a B field can be defined that obeys the normal Maxwell's equation (having no magnetic charges or currents) with its own charge and current densities.[25]
Maxwell's equations are partial differential equations that relate the electric and magnetic fields to each other and to the electric charges and currents. Often, the charges and currents are themselves dependent on the electric and magnetic fields via the Lorentz force equation and the constitutive relations. These all form a set of coupled partial differential equations, which are often very difficult to solve. In fact, the solutions of these equations encompass all the diverse phenomena in the entire field of classical electromagnetism. A thorough discussion is far beyond the scope of the article, but some general notes follow:
- Like any differential equation, boundary conditions[26][27][28] and initial conditions[29] are necessary for a unique solution. For example, even with no charges and no currents anywhere in spacetime, many solutions to Maxwell's equations are possible, not just the obvious solution E = B = 0. Another solution is E = constant, B = constant, while yet other solutions have electromagnetic waves filling spacetime. In some cases, Maxwell's equations are solved through infinite space, and boundary conditions are given as asymptotic limits at infinity.[30] In other cases, Maxwell's equations are solved in just a finite region of space, with appropriate boundary conditions on that region: For example, the boundary could be a artificial absorbing boundary representing the rest of the universe,[31][32] or periodic boundary conditions, or (as with a waveguide or cavity resonator) the boundary conditions may describe the walls that isolate a small region from the outside world.[33]
- Jefimenko's equations (or the closely related Liénard–Wiechert potentials) are the explicit solution to Maxwell's equations for the electric and magnetic fields created by any given distribution of charges and currents. It assumes specific initial conditions to obtain the so-called "retarded solution", where the only fields present are the ones created by the charges. Jefimenko's equations are not so helpful in situations when the charges and currents are themselves affected by the fields they create.
- Numerical methods for differential equations can be used to approximately solve Maxwell's equations when an exact solution is impossible. These methods usually require a computer, and include the finite element method and finite-difference time-domain method.[26][28][34][35][36] For more details, see Computational electromagnetics.
- Maxwell's equations seem overdetermined, in that they involve six unknowns (the three components of E and B) but eight equations (one for each of the two Gauss's laws, three vector components each for Faraday's and Ampere's laws). (The currents and charges are not unknowns, being freely specifiable subject to charge conservation.) In fact, Maxwell's equations are somewhat redundant; it can be proven that any system satisfying Faraday's law and Ampere's law automatically also satisfies the two Gauss's laws, as long as the system's initial condition does. Therefore numerical algorithms often ignore the two Gauss's laws, although more accurate algorithms take them into account in order to minimize numerical inaccuracy.[37][38]
Following is a summary of the numerous other ways to write the equations (in SI units, not Gaussian), showing they can be collected together in simpler and more unified formulae, though in terms of more complicated mathematics. See the main articles for the details of each formulation.
-
| Formulation |
Homogeneous equations |
Nonhomogeneous equations |
| Vector calculus (fields) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla\cdot\mathbf{B}=0 |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla\times\mathbf{E}+\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t}=0 |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla\cdot\mathbf{E}=\frac{\rho}{\varepsilon_0} |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla\times\mathbf{B}-\frac{1}{c^2}\frac{\partial \mathbf{E}}{\partial t}=\mu_0\mathbf{J} |
| Vector calculus (potentials, any gauge) |
identities |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla^2 \varphi + \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \left ( \mathbf \nabla \cdot \mathbf A \right ) = - \frac{\rho}{\varepsilon_0} |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \Box\mathbf A+\mathbf \nabla \left ( \mathbf \nabla \cdot \mathbf A + \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial \varphi}{\partial t} \right ) = \mu_0 \mathbf J |
| QED, vector calculus (potentials, Lorenz gauge) |
identities |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \Box \varphi = -\frac{1}{\varepsilon_0} e \psi^{\dagger} \psi |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \Box \mathbf A = -\mu_0 e \psi^{\dagger} \boldsymbol{\alpha} \psi |
| Tensor calculus (potentials, Lorenz gauge) |
identities |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \Box A^\mu = \mu_0 J^\mu |
| Tensor calculus (fields) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \dfrac{\partial F_{\alpha\beta}}{\partial x^\gamma} + \dfrac{\partial F_{\gamma\alpha}}{\partial x^\beta} + \dfrac{\partial F_{\beta\gamma}}{\partial x^\alpha} = 0 |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \dfrac{\partial F^{\beta\alpha}}{\partial x^\alpha}=\mu_0 J^\beta |
| Differential forms (fields) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathrm{d}\bold{F}=0 |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathrm{d} \star \bold{F}=\bold{J} |
| Geometric algebra (fields) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \nabla F = \mu_0 c J |
| Algebra of physical space (fields) |
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \left(\frac{1}{c}\dfrac{\partial }{\partial t} + \boldsymbol{\nabla}\right)F = \mu_0 c J |
where
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \Box = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2} {\partial t^2}-\nabla^2
is the D'Alembert operator. Following are the reasons for using such formulations:
-
- Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \mathbf E = - \mathbf \nabla \varphi - \frac{\partial \mathbf A}{\partial t}\,,\quad \mathbf B = \mathbf \nabla \times \mathbf A.
- Many different choices of A and φ are consistent with a given E and B, making these choices physically equivalent – a flexibility known as gauge freedom. Suitable choice of A and φ can simplify these equations, or can adapt them to suit a particular situation.
- Manifestly covariant (tensor) approach: Maxwell's equations are exactly consistent with special relativity—i.e., if they are valid in one inertial reference frame, then they are automatically valid in every other inertial reference frame. In fact, Maxwell's equations were crucial in the historical development of special relativity. However, in the usual formulation Maxwell's equations, their consistency with special relativity is not obvious; it can only be proven by a laborious calculation that involves a seemingly-miraculous cancellation of different terms.
- For example, consider a conductor moving in the field of a magnet.[39] In the frame of the magnet, that conductor experiences a magnetic force. But in the frame of a conductor moving relative to the magnet, the conductor experiences a force due to an electric field. The motion is exactly consistent in these two different reference frames, but it mathematically arises in quite different ways.
- For this reason and others, it is often useful to rewrite Maxwell's equations in a way that is "manifestly covariant"—i.e. obviously consistent with special relativity, even with just a glance at the equations—using covariant and contravariant four-vectors and tensors. This can be done using the EM tensor F, or the 4-potential A, with the 4-current J - see covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism.
- Differential forms approach: Gauss's law for magnetism and the Faraday-Maxwell law can be grouped together since the equations are homogeneous, and be seen as geometric identities expressing the field F (a 2-form), which can be derived from the 4-potential A. Gauss's law for electricity and the Ampere-Maxwell law could be seen as the dynamical equations of motion of the fields, obtained via the Lagrangian principle of least action, from the "interaction term" A J (introduced through gauge covariant derivatives), coupling the field to matter. For the field formulation of Maxwell's equations in terms of a principle of extremal action, see electromagnetic tensor.
- Often, the time derivative in the Faraday-Maxwell equation motivates calling this equation "dynamical", which is somewhat misleading in the sense of the preceding analysis. This is rather an artifact of breaking relativistic covariance by choosing a preferred time direction. To have physical degrees of freedom propagated by these field equations, one must include a kinetic term F *F for A; and take into account the non-physical degrees of freedom which can be removed by gauge transformation A → A' = A − dα. See also gauge fixing and Faddeev–Popov ghosts.
- ^ Some situations in which Maxwell's equations are significantly inaccurate include extremely strong fields (see Euler-Heisenberg Lagrangian) and extremely short distances (see vacuum polarization). Moreover, various phenomena occur in the world even though Maxwell's equations predicts them to be impossible, such as "nonclassical light" and quantum entanglement of electromagnetic fields (see quantum optics). Finally, any phenomenon involving individual photons, such as the photoelectric effect, Planck's law, the Duane–Hunt law, single-photon light detectors, etc., would be difficult or impossible to explain if Maxwell's equations were exactly true, as Maxwell's equations do not involve photons.
- ^ The quantity we would now call Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \scriptstyle{1/\sqrt{\mu_0\varepsilon_0}} , with units of velocity, was directly measured before Maxwell's equations, in an 1855 experiment by Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Rudolf Kohlrausch. They charged a leyden jar (a kind of capacitor), and measured the electrostatic force associated with the potential; then, they discharged it while measuring the magnetic force from the current in the discharge-wire. Their result was 3.107×108 m/s, remarkably close to the speed of light. See The story of electrical and magnetic measurements: from 500 B.C. to the 1940s, by Joseph F. Keithley, p115
- ^ In some books—e.g., in U. Krey and A. Owen's Basic Theoretical Physics (Springer 2007)—the term effective charge is used instead of total charge, while free charge is simply called charge.
- ^ Here it is noted that a quite different quantity, the magnetic polarization, μ0M by decision of an international IUPAP commission has been given the same name J. So for the electric current density, a name with small letters, j would be better. But even then the mathematicians would still use the large-letter-name J for the corresponding current-twoform (see below).
- ^ a b c J.D. Jackson, "Maxwell's Equations" video glossary entry
- ^ Principles of physics: a calculus-based text, by R.A. Serway, J.W. Jewett, page 809.
- ^ David J Griffiths (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics (Third ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 559–562. ISBN 0-13-805326-X. http://worldcat.org/isbn/013805326X.
- ^ Šolín, Pavel (2006). Partial differential equations and the finite element method. John Wiley and Sons. p. 273. ISBN 0-471-72070-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=-hIG3NZrnd8C&pg=PA273.
- ^ See David J. Griffiths (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics (third ed.). Prentice Hall. for a good description of how P relates to the bound charge.
- ^ See David J. Griffiths (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics (third ed.). Prentice Hall. for a good description of how M relates to the bound current.
- ^ The generalization to non-isotropic materials is straight forward; simply replace the constants with tensor quantities.
- ^ Littlejohn, Robert (Fall 2007). "Gaussian, SI and Other Systems of Units in Electromagnetic Theory" (PDF). Physics 221A, University of California, Berkeley lecture notes. http://bohr.physics.berkeley.edu/classes/221/0708/notes/emunits.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-06.
- ^ a b c The story of electrical and magnetic measurements: from 500 B.C. to the 1940s, by Joseph F. Keithley, p115
- ^ "The Dictionary of Scientific Biography", by Charles Coulston Gillispie
- ^ a b c but are now universally known as Maxwell's equations. However, in 1940 Einstein referred to the equations as Maxwell's equations in "The Fundamentals of Theoretical Physics" published in the Washington periodical Science, May 24, 1940. Paul J. Nahin (2002-10-09). Oliver Heaviside: the life, work, and times of an electrical genius of the Victorian age. JHU Press. pp. 108–112. ISBN 978-0-8018-6909-9. http://books.google.com/?id=e9wEntQmA0IC&pg=PA111&dq=nahin+hertz-heaviside+maxwell-hertz.
- ^ a b Jed Z. Buchwald (1994). The creation of scientific effects: Heinrich Hertz and electric waves. University of Chicago Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-226-07888-5. http://books.google.com/?id=2bDEvvGT1EYC&pg=PA194&dq=maxwell+faraday+time-derivative+vector-potential.
- ^ Myron Evans (2001-10-05). Modern nonlinear optics. John Wiley and Sons. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-471-38931-6. http://books.google.com/?id=9p0kK6IG94gC&pg=PA240&dq=maxwell-heaviside+equations.
- ^ Crease, Robert. The Great Equations: Breakthroughs in Science from Pythagoras to Heisenberg, page 133 (2008).
- ^ Oliver J. Lodge (November 1888). "Sketch of the Electrical Papers in Section A, at the Recent Bath Meeting of the British Association". Electrical Engineer 7: 535.
- ^ J. R. Lalanne, F. Carmona, and L. Servant (1999-11). Optical spectroscopies of electronic absorption. World Scientific. p. 8. ISBN 978-981-02-3861-2. http://books.google.com/?id=7rWD-TdxKkMC&pg=PA8&dq=maxwell-faraday+derivative.
- ^ Roger F. Harrington (2003-10-17). Introduction to Electromagnetic Engineering. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 49–56. ISBN 978-0-486-43241-0. http://books.google.com/?id=ZlC2EV8zvX8C&pg=PR7&dq=maxwell-faraday-equation+law-of-induction.
- ^ page 480.
- ^ http://www.mathematik.tu-darmstadt.de/~bruhn/Original-MAXWELL.htm
- ^ Experiments like the Michelson-Morley experiment in 1887 showed that the "aether" moved at the same speed as Earth. While other experiments, such as measurements of the aberration of light from the stars, showed that the ether is moving relative to the Earth.
- ^ "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". Fourmilab.ch. http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/. Retrieved 2008-10-19.
- ^ Recently, scientists have described behavior in a crystalline state of matter known as spin-ice which have macroscopic behavior like magnetic monopoles. (See http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1178868 and http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v461/n7266/full/nature08500.html .) The divergence of B is still zero for this system, though.
- ^ J.D. Jackson. "6.12". Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). ISBN 0-471-43132-X.
- ^ "IEEEGHN: Maxwell's Equations". Ieeeghn.org. http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Maxwell%27s_Equations. Retrieved 2008-10-19.
- ^ This is known as a duality transformation. See J.D. Jackson. "6.12". Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). ISBN 0-471-43132-X. .
- ^ a b Peter Monk (2003). Finite Element Methods for Maxwell's Equations. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press. p. 1 ff. ISBN 0-19-850888-3. http://books.google.com/?id=zI7Y1jT9pCwC&pg=PA1&dq=electromagnetism+%22boundary+conditions%22.
- ^ Thomas B. A. Senior & John Leonidas Volakis (1995-03-01). Approximate Boundary Conditions in Electromagnetics. London UK: Institution of Electrical Engineers. p. 261 ff. ISBN 0-85296-849-3. http://books.google.com/?id=eOofBpuyuOkC&pg=PA261&dq=electromagnetism+%22boundary+conditions%22.
- ^ a b T Hagstrom (Björn Engquist & Gregory A. Kriegsmann, Eds.) (1997). Computational Wave Propagation. Berlin: Springer. p. 1 ff. ISBN 0-387-94874-0. http://books.google.com/?id=EdZefkIOR5cC&pg=PA1&dq=electromagnetism+%22boundary+conditions%22.
- ^ Henning F. Harmuth & Malek G. M. Hussain (1994). Propagation of Electromagnetic Signals. Singapore: World Scientific. p. 17. ISBN 981-02-1689-0. http://books.google.com/?id=6_CZBHzfhpMC&pg=PA45&dq=electromagnetism+%22initial+conditions%22.
- ^ David M Cook (2002). The Theory of the Electromagnetic Field. Mineola NY: Courier Dover Publications. p. 335 ff. ISBN 0-486-42567-3. http://books.google.com/?id=bI-ZmZWeyhkC&pg=RA1-PA335&dq=electromagnetism+infinity+boundary+conditions.
- ^ Jean-Michel Lourtioz (2005-05-23). Photonic Crystals: Towards Nanoscale Photonic Devices. Berlin: Springer. p. 84. ISBN 3-540-24431-X. http://books.google.com/?id=vSszZ2WuG_IC&pg=PA84&dq=electromagnetism+boundary++-element.
- ^ S. G. Johnson, Notes on Perfectly Matched Layers, online MIT course notes (Aug. 2007).
- ^ S. F. Mahmoud (1991). Electromagnetic Waveguides: Theory and Applications applications. London UK: Institution of Electrical Engineers. Chapter 2. ISBN 0-86341-232-7. http://books.google.com/?id=toehQ7vLwAMC&pg=PA2&dq=Maxwell%27s+equations+waveguides.
- ^ John Leonidas Volakis, Arindam Chatterjee & Leo C. Kempel (1998). Finite element method for electromagnetics : antennas, microwave circuits, and scattering applications. New York: Wiley IEEE. p. 79 ff. ISBN 0-7803-3425-6. http://books.google.com/?id=55q7HqnMZCsC&pg=PA79&dq=electromagnetism+%22boundary+conditions%22.
- ^ Bernard Friedman (1990). Principles and Techniques of Applied Mathematics. Mineola NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-66444-9. http://www.amazon.com/Principles-Techniques-Applied-Mathematics-Friedman/dp/0486664449/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qisbn=1207010487&sr=1-1.
- ^ Taflove A & Hagness S C (2005). Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-difference Time-domain Method. Boston MA: Artech House. Chapters 6 & 7. ISBN 1-58053-832-0. http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1580538320/ref=sib_dp_pop_toc?ie=UTF8&p=S008#reader-link.
- ^ H Freistühler & G Warnecke (2001). Hyperbolic Problems: Theory, Numerics, Applications. p. 605. http://books.google.com/books?id=XXX_mG0vneMC&pg=PA605#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ B Jiang & J Wu & L.A. Povinelli (1996). "The Origin of Spurious Solutions in Computational Electromagnetics". Journal of Computational Physics 125 (1): 104. DOI:10.1006/jcph.1996.0082.
- ^ Albert Einstein (1905) On the electrodynamics of moving bodies
The developments before relativity
- Joseph Larmor (1897) "On a dynamical theory of the electric and luminiferous medium", Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 190, 205-300 (third and last in a series of papers with the same name).
- Hendrik Lorentz (1899) "Simplified theory of electrical and optical phenomena in moving systems", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam, I, 427-43.
- Hendrik Lorentz (1904) "Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity less than that of light", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam, IV, 669-78.
- Henri Poincaré (1900) "La theorie de Lorentz et la Principe de Reaction", Archives Néerlandaises, V, 253-78.
- Henri Poincaré (1901) Science and Hypothesis
- Henri Poincaré (1905) "Sur la dynamique de l'électron", Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 140, 1504-8.
see
- Feynman, Richard P. (2005). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. 2 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-8053-9065-0.
- Fleisch, Daniel (2008). A Student's Guide to Maxwell's Equations. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87761-9.
- Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X.
- Hoffman, Banesh (1983). Relativity and Its Roots. W. H. Freeman.
- Krey, U.; Owen, A. (2007). Basic Theoretical Physics: A Concise Overview. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-36804-5. See especially part II.
- Pollack, Gerald L.; Stump, Daniel R. (2002). Electromagnetism. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-8567-3.
- Purcell, Edward Mills (1985). Electricity and Magnetism. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-004908-4.
- Reitz, John R.; Milford, Frederick J.; Christy, Robert W. (2008). Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory (4th ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-58174-7.
- Sadiku, Matthew N. O. (2006). Elements of Electromagnetics (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530048-3.
- Schwarz, Melvin (1987). Principles of Electrodynamics. Dover. ISBN 0-486-65493-1.
- Stevens, Charles F. (1995). The Six Core Theories of Modern Physics. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-69188-4.
- Tipler, Paul; Mosca, Gene (2007). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. 2 (6th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1-4292-0133-9.
- Ulaby, Fawwaz T. (2007). Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics (5th ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 0-13-241326-4.
- I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips (2008). Electromagnetism (2nd ed.). Manchester Physics, John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-92712-9.
- Chew, W. C.; Jin, J.; Michielssen, E. ; Song, J. (2001). Fast and Efficient Algorithms in Computational Electromagnetics. Artech House. ISBN 1-58053-152-0.
- Harrington, R. F. (1993). Field Computation by Moment Methods. Wiley-IEEE Press. ISBN 0-7803-1014-4.
- Jin, J. (2002). The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics (2nd ed.). Wiley-IEEE Press. ISBN 0-471-43818-9.
- Lounesto, Pertti (1997). Clifford Algebras and Spinors. Cambridge University Press.. ISBN 0-521-59916-4. Chapter 8 sets out several variants of the equations using exterior algebra and differential forms.
- Taflove, Allen; Hagness, Susan C. (2005). Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method (3rd ed.). Artech House. ISBN 1-58053-832-0.
- James Clerk Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism Vols 1 and 2 1904—most readable edition with all corrections—Antique Books Collection suitable for free reading online.
- Maxwell, J.C., A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism - Volume 1 - 1873 - Posner Memorial Collection – Carnegie Mellon University
- Maxwell, J.C., A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism - Volume 2 - 1873 – Posner Memorial Collection – Carnegie Mellon University
- On Faraday's Lines of Force – 1855/56 Maxwell's first paper (Part 1 & 2) – Compiled by Blaze Labs Research (PDF)
- On Physical Lines of Force – 1861 Maxwell's 1861 paper describing magnetic lines of Force – Predecessor to 1873 Treatise
- Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 155, 459-512 (1865). (This article accompanied a December 8, 1864 presentation by Maxwell to the Royal Society.)
- Catt, Walton and Davidson. "The History of Displacement Current". Wireless World, March 1979.
- Reprint from Dover Publications (ISBN 0-486-60636-8)
- Full text of 1904 Edition including full text search.
- A Dynamical Theory Of The Electromagnetic Field – 1865 Maxwell's 1865 paper describing his 20 Equations in 20 Unknowns – Predecessor to the 1873 Treatise
|
Physics equations
|
|
|
|
|
Fundamental laws
/principles |
|
|
| Classical |
|
|
| Relativistic |
|
|
| General |
|
|
| Equation lists |
|
General scope
|
|
|
|
Specific scope
|
|
|
|
|
Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): \delta \mathcal{S}=0\,\!
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Fundamental |
|
|
| Particles |
|
|
| Fields and particles |
|
|
| Waves and particles |
|
|
| Energy transforms |
|
|
| Applied physics |
|
|
| Theories of physics |
|
|
|
