This article is about the female undergarment. For the restaurant, see
Brasserie.
Woman wearing a white lace bra
A brassiere (pronounced UK: /ˈbræzɪər/, US: /brəˈzɪər/; commonly referred to as a bra /ˈbrɑː/) is a woman's undergarment that supports her breasts. Bras are typically form-fitting and perform a variety of functions and have also evolved into a fashion item. The primary purpose of a bra is to enhance the wearer's comfort by supporting her breasts, but women also wear bras to attract attention, to minimize attention, and for fashion reasons.
Women sometimes wear bras to conform to informal or formal social norms such as a business dress code. In Western countries, it is estimated that from 75% to 90% of women wear a bra. A minority do not wear a bra, sometimes for health or comfort reasons, or because they believe they do not need one. Some garments, such as camisoles, tank tops and backless dresses, have built-in breast support, alleviating the need to wear a separate bra.
Bra designers and manufacturers originally produced bras that were purely functional. Changing social trends and new fabrics and materials have increased the variety of available designs, and allowed manufacturers to make bras that are in some instances more fashionable than functional. Manufacturers' standards and sizes vary widely, making it difficult for women to find a bra that fits correctly. Bra-measurement methods vary, and even professional bra fitters can disagree on the correct size for the same woman. Women's breasts vary widely in size and shape; most are asymmetric to a degree and can change from month to month depending on the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, or weight gain or loss. As a result, from 75–85% of women wear an incorrect bra size.[1]
The bra has become a fashion garment with sometimes erotic attributes and a feminine icon or symbol with cultural significance beyond its primary function of supporting breasts. Some feminists consider the brassiere a symbol of the repression of women's bodies.[2] Culturally, when a young girl gets her first bra, it may be seen as a rite of passage and symbolic of her coming of age.[3]
The primary function of a bra is to improve the comfort of the wearer by supporting her breasts, restricting their movement, and distributing the breasts' weight around her torso. Other functions include drawing attention to women's breasts by enhancing their perceived shape and size and to enhance their cleavage. Conversely, some women prefer modesty and want to minimize the appearance of their breasts and nipples. Women wear bras to conform to informal or formal social norms like a business dress code. Some women avoid bras for the same reason, as when wearing backless dresses or other high-fashion events. Bras can support sagging breasts and preserve a youthful appearance, contain prosthetics after surgery, or facilitate breastfeeding. Some specialized bras are designed for nursing or exercise.
Support of the bosom by a bodice (French:
brassiere) from 1900
The term "brassiere" was first used in the English language in 1893.[notes 1] It gained wider acceptance when the DeBevoise Company invoked the cachet of the French word “brassiere” in 1904 in its advertising to describe their latest bust supporter.[4] That product and other early versions of the brassiere resembled a camisole stiffened with boning.[5] Vogue magazine first used the term in 1907,[6][dead link] and by 1911 the word had made its way into the Oxford English Dictionary.[7] On 13 November 1914, the newly formed U.S. patent category for "brassieres" was inaugurated[8] with a patent issued to Mary Phelps Jacob.[9] In the 1930s, "brassiere" was gradually shortened to "bra."
In the French language, the term for brassière is soutien-gorge (literally "throat-support"). In French, gorge (throat) was a common euphemism for the breast.[7] This dates back to the garment developed by Herminie Cadolle in 1905. The French word brassière refers to a child's undershirt, underbodice or harness.[4] The word brassière derives from bracière, an Old French word meaning "arm protector" and referring to military uniforms (bras in French means "arm"). This later became used for a military breast plate, and later for a type of woman's corset.
In the French-speaking Canadian province of Quebec, both soutien-gorge and brassière are used interchangeably. The Portuguese word for bra is sutiã, while the Spanish use the word sugetador (from sujetar, to hold). The Germans, Swedes, Danes and Dutch all use the acronym "BH" which means, respectively, büstenhalter, bysthållare, brysteholdere and bustehouder (bust-holder). In Esperanto, the bra is called a mamzono (breast-belt).[10] Despite the large number of nicknames for breasts themselves, there are only a couple of nicknames for bras, including "over-the-shoulder-boulder-holder" and "upper-decker flopper-stopper".[10]
Elastic brassiere from 1907
From the 16th century onwards, the undergarments of wealthier women in the Western world were dominated by the corset, which pushed the breasts upwards. In the latter part of the 19th century, clothing designers began experimenting with various alternatives to the corset, trying things like splitting the corset into multiple parts: a girdle-like restraining device for the lower torso, and devices that suspended the breasts from the shoulder for the upper torso.
Garments which more closely resembling contemporary bras emerged by the early 20th century, although large-scale commercial production did not occur until the 1930s. With metal shortages, World War II encouraged the end of the corset. By the time the war ended, most fashion-conscious women in Europe and North America were wearing brassieres. From there the brassiere was adopted by women in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.[4]
Like other clothing, brassieres were initially sewn by small production companies and supplied to various retailers. The term “cup” was not used to describe bras until 1916, and manufacturers relied on stretchable cups to accommodate different sized breasts.[11]:73 Women with larger or pendulous breasts had the choice of long-line bras, built-up backs, wedge-shaped inserts between the cups, wider straps, power Lastex, firm bands under the cup, and even light boning.
In October 1932, the S.H. Camp and Company correlated the size and pendulousness of a woman's breasts to letters of the alphabet, A through D. Camp's advertising featured letter-labeled profiles of breasts in the February 1933 issue of Corset and Underwear Review.[12] In 1937, Warner began to feature cup sizing in its products. Adjustable bands were introduced using multiple eye and hook positions in the 1930s.[11][13][14]:101
Since then, bras have replaced corsets and bra manufacture and sale has become a multi-billion dollar industry. Over time, the emphasis on bras has largely shifted from functionality to fashion.[15]:33
There is an urban legend that the brassiere was invented by a man named Otto Titzling ("tit sling") who lost a lawsuit with Phillip de Brassiere ("fill up the brassiere"). This originated with the 1971 book Bust-Up: The Uplifting Tale of Otto Titzling and the Development of the Bra and was propagated in a comedic song from the movie Beaches.[16]
A Canadian
Wonderbra Model 1300 plunge push-up bra circa 1975.
Front of bra illustrating the back wing, cups, and center gore.
An adjustable fastener in the bra band allows the wearer to make minor adjustments in her band size. When correctly fitted, the band of the bra is positioned horizontally across the back.
Bras are built on a square frame model. Their main components are a chest band that wraps around the woman's torso, two cups to hold the breasts, and shoulder straps. The chest band is usually closed in the back by a hook and eye fastener, but may be fastened at the front.[17] Some bras, particularly sleep bras or athletic bras, do not have fasteners and are pulled on over the head and breasts. The section between the cups at the front is called a "gore". The section under the armpit where the band joins the cups is called the "back wing".[18] The weight of the breasts is primarily supported by the band and the cups, not the shoulder straps. Some bras, called strapless bras, do not use shoulder straps but rely on underwire and additional seaming and stiffening panels to support the breasts. The shoulder straps of some sports bras cross over at the back, to take the pressure off an athlete's shoulders when arms are raised. Manufacturers continually experiment with proprietary frame designs. For example, the Playtex "18 Hour Bra" model utilizes an M-Frame design.[18]
From 60-70% of bras sold in the United Kingdom and the United States use underwire in the cup. These are made of metal, plastic, or resin.[19][20][21][22] Underwire is placed at the base of each breast and the breasts are scooped up into the cups. It is used to improve breast support, lift and separation.[17]
Bra components, including the cup top and bottom (if seamed), the central, side and back panels, and the straps are cut based on manufacturer's specifications. Many layers of fabrics are usually cut at once using a computer-controlled laser or a bandsaw shearing device. The pieces may be assembled by piece workers on site or at various locations using industrial grade sewing machines, or by automated machines. Coated metal hooks and eyes are sewn in by machine and heat processed or ironed into the two back ends of the bra band and a tag or label is attached. Some bras now avoid tags and print the label information onto the bra itself.[18] The completed bras are transported to another location for packaging, where they are sorted by style and folded (either mechanically or manually), and packaged or readied for shipment.[23]
Before the advent of modern fabrics, fabrics like linen, cotton broadcloth, and twill weaves that could be sewn using flat-felled or bias-tape seams were used to make early brassieres. Bras are made of a wide variety of fabrics, including Tricot, Spandex, Spanette, Latex, microfiber, satin, Jacquard, foam, mesh, and lace.[18] Fabrics are blended to achieve specific purposes.
Spandex, a synthetic fiber with built-in "stretch memory", can be blended with cotton, polyester, or nylon. Mesh is a high-tech synthetic composed of ultra-fine filaments that are tightly knit for smoothness.[18] Playtex uses a proprietary fabric named Spanette in its 18 Hour Bra model to provide 360-degree stretch support and custom fit.[18]
Wirefree or softcup bras support breasts using additional seaming and internal reinforcement. Some types of bras like T-shirt bras contain molding to conceal bra seams or hide the woman's nipples. Others use padding or shaping materials to enhance bust size or cleavage.
To mass produce bras, the bra's dimensions are fitted for a prototypical women assuming they are standing with both arms at their sides. The design also assumes that both breasts are equally sized and positioned. Manufacturing a well-fitting bra is a challenge since the garment is supposed to be form-fitting but the size and shape of women's bodies and breasts can vary widely.[24] Manufacturers make standard bra sizes that provide a "close" fit, however even a woman with accurate measurements can have a difficult time finding a correctly fitted bra because of the variations in sizes between different manufacturers.
There are several sizing systems in different countries.[25] Most use the chest circumferences measurement system and cup sizes A-B-C+, but there are some significant differences. Most bras available usually come in 36 sizes,[26] but bra labeling systems used around the world are at times misleading and confusing. Cup and band sizes vary around the world.[27] For example, most women assume that a B cup on a 34 band is the same size as a B cup on a 36 band. In fact, bra cup size is relative to the band size, as the actual volume of a woman's breast changes with the dimension of her chest.[27][28] In countries that have adopted the European EN 13402 dress-size standard, the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 centimetres (2.0 in).
A number of reports state the 80–85% of women are wearing the wrong bra size.[1][29][30][31] A correctly fitted bra is determined by accurately calculating the chest size (or band size) and breast volume (the cup size). The band size can be adjusted slightly using the two or three alternate sets of fastening hooks and eyes in the clasp. The bra straps (over the shoulders) can usually also be adjusted slightly.
Bra designers liken designing a bra to building a bridge, because similar forces are at work. Just as a bridge is affected vertically by gravity and horizontally by earth movement and wind, forces affecting a bra's design include gravity and sometimes tangential forces created when a woman runs or turns her body.[32] "In many respects, the challenge of enclosing and supporting a semi-solid mass of variable volume and shape, plus its adjacent mirror image—together they equal the female bosom—involves a design effort comparable to that of building a bridge or a cantilevered skyscraper."[32]
There is a wide range of brassiere styles available, designed to match different body types, situations, and outer wear. The degree of shaping and coverage of the breasts varies between styles, as do functionality, fashion, fit, fabric, and color. The most common bra styles are built on a square frame model with the main components being a chest band that wraps around a woman's torso, two cups to hold the breasts, and shoulder straps.
The chest band is usually closed in the back by a hook and eye fastener, but may be fastened at the front.[17] Some bras, particularly sleep bras or athletic bras, do not have fasteners and are pulled on over the head and breasts. The section between the cups at the front is called a "gore". The section under the armpit where the band joins the cups is called the "back wing".[18]
Some bras, called strapless bras, do not use shoulder straps but rely on underwire and additional seaming and stiffening panels to support the breasts. The shoulder straps of some sports bras cross over at the back.
Common types include backless, balconette, convertible, shelf, full cup, demi-cup, minimizing, padded, plunge, posture, push-up, racerback, sheer, strapless, t-shirt, underwire, unlined, soft cup, and sports bra.[33] Many designs combine one or more these styles. Bras are built-in to some garments like camisoles, single-piece swimsuits, and tank tops, eliminating the need to wear a separate bra.[34][35]
Woman wearing a designer demi-cup bra
Bras were invented around the beginning of the 19th century but are not universally worn around the world. The majority of Western women choose to wear bras to conform to what they feel are appropriate societal norms and to improve their physical appearance.[citation needed] Wearing a bra can boost a woman's self confidence.[citation needed] Many Western women place a great deal of importance on their physical appearance, especially the shape of their body. Western media, especially advertising, emphasize a woman's body shape, especially her breasts. Western women see an average of 400 advertising messages a day about their body image.[citation needed]
Women choose to wear a particular style of bra for a variety of reasons. Their choices are consciously or unconsciously affected by social perceptions of the ideal female figure reflecting her bust, waist, and hip measurement. Fashion historian Jill Fields wrote that the bra "plays a critical part in the history of the twentieth-century American women's clothing, since the shaping of women's breasts is an important component of the changing contours of the fashion silhouette." Bras and breast presentation follow the cycle of fashion.[36]
Each fall, Victoria's Secret commissions the creation of a Fantasy Bra containing gems and precious metals. In 2003, it hired the jeweller Mouawad to design a bra containing more than 2,500 carats of diamonds and sapphires. It took more than 370 person-hours to make. German supermodel Heidi Klum posed in what was at the time the world's most expensive bra, valued at USD$10 million (about £5m).[10] In 2010, it hired designer Damiani to create a US$2 million Fantasy Bra. It includes more than 3,000 brilliant cut white diamonds, totaling 60 carats, and 82 carats of sapphires and topazes.[37]
Firm, upright breasts are typical of youth.[38] As such, they may not physically require the support of a bra. A Pencil test, developed by Ann Landers, has sometimes been promoted as a criterion to determine whether a girl should begin wearing a bra: a pencil is placed under the breast, and if it stays in place by itself, then wearing a bra is recommended; if it falls to the ground, it is not.[39][40]
When the Flapper era ended, the media substituted teen for Flapper. Olga manufactured a teen bra that was skimpy and sheer. Other manufacturers responded in kind. Oleg Cassini made a provocative "Room at the Top Bra" in nylon and Lycra spandex for Peter Pan. In the early 1960s, bra makers marketed to girls 13-19, and later in '60s they targeted pre-teen girls age 10-12. New labels like Teenform, Teencharm, and Heaventeen catered to their market. Some company's advertisements showed girls waist up wearing only a bra. Mercy Dobell, editor of Corset and Underwear Review, wrote that "the bra has joined lipstick and 'heels' in becoming one of the beloved symbols of growing up.[11]:151
In the early 1960s, 96.3% of female college freshman bought bras as part of their back to school wardrobe. At the tail end of the 1960s when bralessness increased as a trend, the number had slipped to 85%. Only 77% of high school girls bought bras as they prepared to returned to school.[11]:151
When a girl receives her first bra, it may be seen as a long-awaited rite of passage in her life[41] signifying her coming of age.[3][42][43] A training bra designed for pubescent or teen girls who have begun to develop breasts during early puberty. They are available in sizes 30AA to 38B.[44] Training bras are usually designed with a soft, elastic bra band and wireless bra cups. Prior to the marketing of training bras, a pre-teen or young teen girl in Western countries usually wore a one-piece "waist" or camisole without cups or darts. Bras for pre-teen and girls entering puberty were first marketed during the 1950s.
Pin-up photo of Jane Russell in a bullet bra for the 21 September 1945 issue of
Yank, the Army Weekly, a weekly U.S. Army magazine fully staffed by enlisted men.
The culturally desirable figure for woman in Western culture has changed over time. In the United States during the 1920s, the fashion for breasts was to flatten them as typified by the Flapper era. During the 1940s and 1950s, the sweater girl became fashionable, supported by a bullet bra (known also as a torpedo or cone bra) like that worn by Jane Russell.[45]
After the feminist protest during the Miss America pageant on September 7, 1968, bra manufacturers were concerned that women would stop wearing bras. In response to the feminist era, many bra manufacturers' marketing claimed that wearing their bra was like "not wearing a bra".[46] During the 1960s, bra designers and manufacturers introduced padded bras and underwire bras. Women's perception of undergarments changed, and in the 1970s, they began to seek more comfortable and natural looking bras.[45] Women usually purchase a bra because they recognize they need to replace an existing bra or because they purchased new outwear requiring a new type of bra.[47] About 27% of women choose not to buy a clothing item because they didn't have the right bra to wear under it.[48] Although in popular culture the invention of the bra is frequently attributed to men, in fact women have played a large part in bra design and manufacture, accounting for half of the patents filed.[11]
In 2006, the average American woman owned six bras, one of which was a strapless bra, and one in a color other than white.[49] In 2012, women owned an average of 9 bras and wore six of them on a regular basis.[48] Consumers spend around $16 billion a year on bras.[48] In the last 15 years alone, the average bust among North America women has increased from 34B to 36C. A number of sources state that about 90% of Western women wear bras, although no authoritative source for this fact is available.[10][50][51] Some women wear bras because of feelings of modesty or because it is a cultural norm and they fear criticism or unwanted attention. Some wear bras because they believe it improves their appearance, while a minority prefer to go without because they find it more comfortable.[52] Some women mistakenly believe wearing a bra helps avoid sagging breasts.[citation needed]
In a cross-cultural study of bra size and cancer in 9,000 women during the 1960s, a Harvard group found 93% wore bras (from 88% in the UK to 99% in Greece), but could not find enough women in Japan who wore bras to complete their study.[53] In a number of cultures, including Europe and other Westernized countries outside the United States, there are fewer social restrictions against sunbathing or swimming topless.[54] A Harris Survey commissioned by Playboy asked more than 1000 women what they like in a bra. Among the respondents, 67% said they like wearing a bra over going braless, while 85% wanted to wear a "shape-enhancing bra that feels like nothing at all." They were split over underwire bras, 49% said they prefer underwire bras while 49% said they prefer wireless bras.[55]
The prevalence of the bra, and perceived social expectation to wear one, does not imply that openly displaying it is encouraged. On the contrary, it is often not considered suitable to expose one's brassiere in public in western cultures, even partially, despite the fact that it is similar in appearance to the upper part of a bikini; to do so may be considered sexually provocative.[56]
Even considering this relative cultural taboo, being seen in one's bra is still more socially acceptable than exposing the bare breasts. Indeed, women may choose to be seen in just a bra may make a specific point. For instance, bras have recently been used by organisations like breast cancer charities to raise money, either by sponsored walks[57] or to sell bras owned or decorated by celebrities.
In 1994, a significant shift in advertising lingerie occurred. Advertising executive Trevor Beattie, working for TBWA/London, developed an ad for Sara Lee's "Hello Boys" Wonderbra campaign. It featured a close-up image of Czech model Eva Herzigová in a black Wonderbra with ample cleavage and the title, "Hello boys." The ground-breaking, racy ad campaign resulted in many imitations along with a few complaints that the photograph demeaned women.[58][59]
The Canada-based lingerie fashion label wanted the ad campaign to motivate women to see the Wonderbra "as a cosmetic and as a beauty enhancer rather than a functional garment". The billboard was voted in 2011 as the most iconic outdoor ad during the past five decades by the Outdoor Media Centre.[60] The influential poster was featured in an exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London[61] and it was voted in at number 10 in a "Poster of the Century" contest.[62]
Push-up bras got significant attention in 2000 when actress Julia Roberts in the film Erin Brockovich enhanced her bust with an Ultimo push-up bra containing liquid silicone gel.[63]
Fashion writers and medical authorities emphasize that wearing a bras is a matter of choice and not necessity. Women can choose some types of clothing that don't require bras or may choose to go braless.[64][65]
There is no medical reason to wear a bra, so the decision is yours, based on your own personal comfort and aesthetics. Whether you have always worn a bra or always gone braless, age and breastfeeding will naturally cause your breasts to sag.[64]
Women sometimes wear bras because they believe they prevent their breasts from sagging, but there is no medical research to support that conclusion. Some women feel uncomfortable wearing a bra and take off their bras when they return home.[4] Various surveys have reported that from 75% to 95% of Western women wear bras.[66] According to underwire manufacturer S & S Industries of New York, who supply bras to Victoria's Secret, Bali, Warner's, Playtex, Vanity Fair and other bra labels, about 70 percent of women wear underwire bras.[67] Some outer garments like sundresses, tank tops, and formal evening wear are designed to be worn without bras or are designed with built-in support.[68]
Unhappy bra owners have donated thousands of bras to the Braball Sculpture, a collection of 18,085 bras.[69] The organizer, Emily Duffy, wears a 42B and switched to stretch undershirts with built-in bras because standard bras cut into her mid-section.[4]
Actress Marlo Thomas gave up wearing a bra on her television show That Girl in 1968, shortly after the feminist protest during the Miss America pageant. "God created women to bounce," Thomas said. "So be it."[21] It is increasingly commonplace to see public figures, especially celebrities, actresses and members of the fashion industry, who have chosen not to wear a bra, at least on some occasions.[68] British gardening expert and TV personality Charlie Dimmock hosted her gardening show Ground Force from 1997 through 2005 on BBC. Dimmock, who is large-busted, became well known for going braless at all times in all weather.[70] Celebrity chef, television personality, and businesswoman Clarissa Dickson Wright only wears a bra on special occasions.[10] In 2010, former model and France's first lady Carla Bruni welcomed Russian president Dmitry Medvedev at a state dinner in a tight dress that revealed she was braless.[71][72] More recently, singer Miley Cyrus has been noted for appearing in public on repeated occasions without a bra,[73][74] and even announced via Twitter that she does not wear a bra.[75]
Other celebrities noted for going braless on more than one occasion in public include Britney Spears,[76] Clare Danes,[77] Lindsay Lohan,[78] Nadine Coyle,[79] Mischa Barton,[80] Meg Ryan,[81] Paris Hilton,[82] Lady Gaga,[83] actress Tara Reid,[84][85] and fashion executive Tamara Mellon.[86]
During the Miss America contest on September 7, 1968, about 400 women were drawn together from across the United States by a small group, the New York Radical Women, in a protest outside the event. They symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a large trash can. These included mops, pots and pans, Cosmopolitan and Playboy magazines,[87] false eyelashes, high-heeled shoes, curlers, hairspray, makeup, girdles, corsets, and bras,[88] items the protestors called "instruments of female torture." Carol Hanisch, one of the protest organizers, said "We had intended to burn it, but the police department, since we were on the boardwalk, wouldn't let us do the burning." A New York Post story about the protest drew an analogy between the feminist protest and Vietnam War protesters who burned their draft cards. In fact, there was no bra burning, nor did anyone take off her bra.[89]:4
Hanisch said, "Up until this time, we hadn't done a lot of actions yet. We were a very small movement. It was kind of a gutsy thing to do. Miss America was this 'American pie' icon. Who would dare criticize this?" Along with tossing the items into the trash can, they marched with signs, passed out pamphlets, and crowned a live sheep, comparing the beauty pageant to livestock competitions at county fairs.[87] "The media picked up on the bra part," Hanisch said later. "I often say that if they had called us 'girdle burners,' every woman in America would have run to join us."[87]
Some feminist writers have considered the bra as an example of how women's clothing has shaped and even deformed women's bodies to historically aesthetic ideals, or shaped them to conform to male expectations of what is desirable. Professor Lisa Jardine observed feminist Germaine Greer talking about bras at a formal college dinner:
At the graduates' table, Germaine was explaining that there could be no liberation for women, no matter how highly educated, as long as we were required to cram our breasts into bras constructed like mini-Vesuviuses, two stitched white cantilevered cones which bore no resemblance to the female anatomy. The willingly suffered discomfort of the Sixties bra, she opined vigorously, was a hideous symbol of female oppression.[90]
Germaine Greer's book The Female Eunuch has been associated with the 'bra burning movement' because she pointed out how restrictive and uncomfortable a bra in that time period could be. "Bras are a ludicrous invention," she wrote, "but if you make bralessness a rule, you're just subjecting yourself to yet another repression."[91] For some, the bra remains a symbol of restrictions imposed by society on women: "...the classic burning of the bras...represented liberation from the oppression of the male patriarchy, right down to unbinding yourself from the constrictions of your smooth silhouette."[92]
Some people question the medical or social necessity of bras.[93] Some researchers have found health benefits for going braless. (See health issues below.) An informal movement advocates breast freedom, top freedom, bra freedom, or simply going braless.[94][95][96][97][98]
Bra opponents believe training bras are used to indoctrinate girls into thinking about their breasts as sexual objects. In their view, bras for very young girls whose breasts do not yet need support are not functional undergarments and are only intended to accentuate the girl's sexuality. Feminist author Iris Young wrote that the bra "serves as a barrier to touch" and that a braless woman is "deobjectified", eliminating the "hard, pointy look that phallic culture posits as the norm." Without a bra, women's breasts are not consistently shaped objects but change as the woman moves, reflecting the natural body. Unbound breasts mock the ideal of the perfect breast. "Most scandalous of all, without a bra, the nipples show. Nipples are indecent. Cleavage is good—the more, the better..."[99] Susan Brownmiller in her book Femininity took the position that women without bras shock and anger men because men "implicitly think that they own breasts and that only they should remove bras."[99]
In October 2009, Somalia’s hard-line Islamic group Al-Shabaab forced women in public to shake their breasts at gunpoint to see if they wore bras, which they called "un-Islamic". They told women that wearing a bra was deceptive and against Islamic teaching.[100] Girls and women found wearing a bra were publicly whipped because bras are seen as "deceptive" and to violate their interpretation of Sharia law.[101][102] A resident of Mogadishu whose daughters were whipped said, "The Islamists say a woman's chest should be firm naturally, or flat."[100]
A badly fitted bra can cause health problems.[citation needed]
Large, sagging breasts can make it difficult for a woman to find a properly fitting bra.
Larger-breasted women tend to wear bras that are too small, and conversely, smaller-breasted women bras that are too large. Larger women are more likely to have an incorrect bra fit.[1] This may be partly due to a lack of understanding of how to correctly determine bra size. It may also be due to unusual or unexpectedly rapid growth in size brought on by pregnancy, weight gain, or medical conditions including virginal breast hypertrophy, and through a measurement system designed for the A through D cup size. As breasts become larger, their shape and the distribution of the tissues within them changes, becoming ptotic and bulbous rather than conical. This makes measurements increasingly unreliable. The heavier a woman's build, the more difficult it is to obtain accurate measurements, as measuring tape sinks into the flesh more easily.[103] Manufacturer's standard brassiere sizes do not take these inconsistencies into consideration.
Finding a correct fit can be very difficult for many women.[11][104][105] Medical studies have also attested to the difficulty of getting a correct fit.[106] Scientific studies show that the current system of bra sizing is quite inadequate.[107]
Up to 25% of women's breasts display a persistent, visible breast asymmetry,[108] which is defined as differing in size by at least one cup size.[109][110] Ten percent are severely different, with the left breast being larger in 62% of cases.[111] Manufacturer's standard brassiere sizes do not take these inconsistencies into consideration which makes it more difficult for women with this condition to find a bra.
In a study conducted in the United Kingdom of 103 women seeking mammoplasty, researchers found a strong link between obesity and inaccurate bra measurement. They concluded that "obesity, breast hypertrophy, fashion and bra-fitting practices combine to make those women who most need supportive bras the least likely to get accurately fitted bras."[103] This led women in the study to choose too large a cup size (by a mean of three sizes) and too small a band size (by a mean of four inches).[103] Other studies found that the most common mistake made by women when selecting a bra was to choose too large a back band and too small a cup, for example, 38C instead of 34E, or 34B instead of 30D.[28][30][112][113]
As a woman matures, her breasts naturally sag. In popular culture, this maturation is referred to as "sagging" or "drooping", although plastic surgeons refer to it as ptosis. Many women mistakenly believe that wearing a brassiere will prevent their breasts from sagging later in life and that breasts cannot anatomically support themselves.[114] Researches, bra manufacturers, and health professionals cannot find any evidence to support the idea that wearing a bra for any amount of time slows breast ptosis.[115] Bra manufacturers are careful to claim that bras only affect the shape of breasts while they are being worn.[114][116]
Anatomically, the breasts are composed of the mammary glands, which remain relatively constant throughout life, adipose tissue, or fat tissue, that surrounds the mammary glands, milk ducts, and Cooper's ligaments, which offer minimal connective tissue to support the breasts. It is the amount and distribution of adipose tissue and, to a lesser extent, glandular tissue, that leads to variations in breast size. In addition, the breasts contain ligaments, although their exact function as related to breast support has not been agreed upon by experts. These ligaments, and the overlying skin (referred to as the dermal brassiere)[117][118] help determine the resulting breast shape.
Heredity plays a part in breast size and shape, including factors like skin elasticity and breast density.[119] The biggest factors affecting sagging breasts are the number of children a woman has had, whether she smokes cigarettes, a woman's body mass index (BMI), and the size of her breasts before pregnancy. When breasts sag, the breast tissue folds over the infra-mammary fold, where the underside of the breasts attach to the chest wall. The breast's lower (inferior) surface lies against the chest wall. In some cases, the women's nipple may point towards the floor.
As breasts become larger, their shape and the distribution of the tissues within them changes, becoming ptotic and bulbous rather than conical. Large and sagging breasts makes measuring for a bra increasingly unreliable. The heavier a woman's build, the more difficult it is to obtain accurate measurements, as measuring tape sinks into the flesh more easily.[103]
Two small studies provide some indication that wearing a bra may have an overall negative affect on sagging breasts. In a Japanese study, 11 women were measured wearing a standardised fitted bra for three months. They found that breasts became larger and lower. The underbust measurement decreased and the overbust measurement increased, while the lowest point of the breast moved downwards and outwards. The effect was more pronounced in larger-breasted women. This may be related to the particular bra chosen for the experiment, as there was some improvement after changing to a different model.[120] These findings were confirmed in a much larger French study of 250 women who exercised regularly and were followed by questionnaires and biometric measurements for a year after agreeing not to wear a bra. While some women initially reported some discomfort at the time of the first evaluation, this gradually disappeared and by the end of the year nearly all the women had improved comfort compared to before the study. The measurements showed firmer, and more elevated and youthful breasts. One example is given of a woman who had breasts that were uncomfortably large, and who experienced improvement after two years of not wearing a bra.[121][122]
Surgery to correct the size, contour, and elevation of sagging breasts is called mastopexy.[123][124] Women can also choose breast implants, or may undergo both procedures.
Some women experience breast pain (mastodynia or mastalgia), particularly when performing strenuous physical activity or exercise. A properly fitted bra reduces such pain and the sports bra has been specifically designed for this purpose.[103][125] Sports bras which compress or encapsulate the breasts have been shown to be more effective than ordinary bras at reducing breast pain caused by exercise.[126] However, the need for wearing a bra at all during exercise has been questioned after extensive studies on athletes.[121]
Numerous websites and publications dealing with fibrocystic disease and breast pain state that a well-fitting bra is recommended for treatment of these conditions.[127][128] A 2006 clinical practice guideline stated, "The use of a well-fitting bra that provides good support should be considered for the relief of cyclical and noncyclical mastalgia." The study rated the statement as being supported by level II-3 evidence and as a grade B recommendation.[129] However, this rests solely on two short, uncontrolled studies.[125][130]
Regarding breast pain, a 1976 study of 114 women in the United Kingdom complaining of breast pain were professionally fitted with a special, custom-fitted bra. Twenty-six percent of women who completed the study and wore the bra properly experienced pain relief, 49% improved somewhat, 21% received no relief, and 4% experienced more pain. There were a lot of dropouts from the study. In a 2000 Saudi Arabia study, 200 women were randomly allocated to receive either (danazole), a synthetic steroid ethisterone whose off-label uses include management fibrocystic breast disease and breast pain, or a sports bra. Fifty-eight percent of the danazole group improved compared to 85% in the sports bra group.[125] No details of what the women wore before the study was given. Neither study used an untreated control or implemented double-blind controls. Breast pain has a very high placebo response (85%)[129] so a response to any intervention can be expected. It is not clear whether the interventions described can be generalized to a large population.
A poorly-fitting bra can aggravate mastalagia (breast pain) in some women, while a well-fitted bra, especially a sports bra, can alleviate symptoms. Physicians recommend women seek a better-fitting support bra that provides better support.[131]
Large-breasted women who wear an improperly-fitted bra may experience maceration (loss of skin), chafing, intertrigo (rash), and fungal infections.[103]
When a woman performs an activity which requires her to lift her arms above her shoulders, the bra's frame is strained and weight is transferred from the chest band to the shoulder straps, putting direct pressure on the trapezius muscles. One long-term clinical study showed that women with large breasts can suffer shoulder pain from wearing bras,[132] although a well fitting bra may help alleviate those symptoms. Wearing a bra may produce neck and shoulder pain, numbness and tingling in the arm, and headaches.[133]
Female volleyball, high jump, or long jump athletes who must continually raise their arms during competition, causing the shoulder straps to dig in, are also at risk for shoulder pain. Some occupations also require repeatedly raising the arms above the shoulders. Even smaller-busted women may experience shoulder pain if they repeatedly lift their arms while wearing a poorly designed or badly-fitted bras.[104][116]
Strapless bras put all the weight of the breasts onto the chest band, and extra strain onto the rib cage and back.[134] To compensate, female athletes can wear athletic or sports bras that offer improved support. Sports bras may not meet some larger-busted women's needs. Judy Mahle Lutter, president of the Melpomene Institute, a Minnesota-based research organization devoted to women's health and physical activity, reports that "Larger-breasted women, and women who are breast-feeding, often have trouble finding a sports bra that fits, feels comfortable and provides sufficient motion control."[135]
According to a study published in the Clinical Study of Pain, large-breasted women can reduce back pain by going braless. Of the women participating in the study, 79% decided to stop wearing bras completely.[136]
In a five-year study, 100 women who experienced shoulder pain were given the option to alleviate the weight on their shoulders by not wearing a bra for two weeks. In that two-week period, a majority experienced relief from pain. Relief was complete among 84% of women who did not elevate their arms. However, their pain symptoms returned within an hour of resuming bra use. Three years later, 79% of the patients had stopped wearing a bra "to remove breast weight from the shoulder permanently because it rendered them symptom free." Sixteen percent worked in occupations requiring them to elevate their arms daily, and this group only achieved partial improvement. Of these, 13 of the 16 ceased to wear a bra, and by six months all were without pain.[134]
The United States Transportation Security Administration recommends that women do not wear underwire bras because they can set off the metal detectors.[137] In response, Triumph International, a Swiss company, launched what it called a "Frequent Flyer Bra" in late 2001. The bra uses metal-free clasps and underwires made of resin instead of metal that are guaranteed to not set off metal detectors.[67]
In November 2009, parents and school officials complained about girls wearing sports bras and boys running shirtless before and after the Hillsborough County (Tampa area of Florida) Cross Country Championship track event. County athletic director Lanness Robinson informed the athletic directors of all of the Hillsborough County's public schools of a school board policy that even though sports bras are designed as outer garments, they must be covered with at minimum a singlet (sleeveless T-shirt) and boys cannot go topless, no matter how hot it is. The policy applies to all events and training sessions.[138]
Plant High (Tampa) girls cross country coach Roy Harrison reported that out of concern for his student's safety, he would not follow the mandate. "We train all through August and September, when the heat index is 103 °F (39 °C), 105 °F (41 °C), 107 °F (42 °C) outside even in the evening and to me, it's a safety issue not letting boys run without their shirts and girls in sports bras." Coaches and athletes pointed out that sports bras, form-fitting compression shorts and running shirtless are common, as is wearing swimsuits and tight-fitting volleyball uniforms.[138]
Victoria's Secret was sued several times during 2009. The suits alleged that defective underwear contained formaldehyde that caused severe rashes on women who wore them. Six cases were filed in Ohio and two in Florida. At least 17 other suits were filed in six other states after January 2008.[139][140][141] The plaintiff refused to submit to a simple patch test to determine the precise cause of her reaction and her case was later withdrawn.[142] The Formaldehyde Council issued a statement that formaldehyde quickly dissipates in air, water and sunlight.[143]
In January 2011, a German court ruled that employers can require female employees to wear bras at work. An airport security firm argued that requiring bras was essential to "to preserve the orderly appearance of employer-provided uniforms." The court also agreed that the company could require employees to keep their hair clean and male employees to be clean shaven or maintain a well-trimmed beard.[144]
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- Pedersen, Stephanie (2004). Bra: a thousand years of style, support and seduction. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-2067-X.
- Steele, Valerie (2001). The corset: a cultural history. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09953-3.
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- Leigh Summers (2001). Bound to please: a history of the Victorian corset. Oxford: Berg. ISBN 1-85973-510-X.
- Warner LC (1948). Always starting things. Bridgeport, Connecticut: Warner Brothers.
- Fischer, Gayle V; Farrell-Beck, Jane; Gau, Colleen (2003). "Uplift: The Bra in America". Journal of American History 89 (4): 1539–40. DOI:10.2307/3092606. JSTOR 3092606.
- Murphy, Michael (2003). "Book Reviews". Winterthur Portfolio 38 (2/3): 151–9. DOI:10.1086/421426.
- "Bras: The Bare Facts". Dispatches. episode 16 or 17. series 14. 2 November 2000. Channel 4 (UK).
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