Niš (Serbian: Ниш, pronounced [nîːʃ] (
listen)) is the largest city of southern Serbia and the third-largest city in Serbia (after Belgrade and Novi Sad). According to the preliminary results of the 2011 census, the city has an urban population of 182,208 inhabitants,[2] while its municipality has a population of 257,867.[3] The city covers an area of 597 km², including the urban core, town of Niška Banja and 68 suburbs. Niš is the administrative center of the Nišava District.
It is one of the oldest cities in the Balkans and Europe, and has from ancient times been considered a gateway between the East and the West.[4] The Paleo-Balkan Thracians first inhabited the area in the Iron Age, and Triballians dwelled here prior to the Celtic invasion in 279 BC which established the Scordisci as masters of the region. Modern-day Niš was among the cities taken in the Roman conquest in 75 BC. The Romans built the Via Militaris in the 1st century, with Naissus being one of the key towns. Niš is also notable as the birthplace of Constantine the Great, the first Christian Roman Emperor and the founder of Constantinople,[5] as well as two other Roman emperors, Constantius III and Justin I. It is home to one of Serbia's oldest churches dating to the 4th century AD in the suburb of Mediana.
Niš is one of the most important industrial centers in Serbia, a center of electronics industry (see Elektronska Industrija Niš), industry of mechanical engineering, textile- and tobacco industry. Constantine the Great Airport is its international airport. In 2013 the city will host the celebration of 1700 years of Constantine's Edict of Milan.[6]
The etymology of the original name Naissos ("city of the nymphs") was derived from a mythical creature of Greek mythology - Naiad (from the Greek νάειν, "to flow," and νᾶμα, "running water") which was the nymph of freshwater streams rivers and lakes. Niš is a possible location of Nysa, a mythical place in Greek mythology where the young god Dionysus was raised.
Niš is situated at the 43°19' latitude north and 21°54' longitude east in the Nišava valley, near the spot where it joins the South Morava. The central city area is at 194m altitude above sea level (the Main City Square). The highest point in the city area is Sokolov kamen (Falcon's rock) on Suva Planina (1523m) while the lowest spot is at Trupale, near the mouth of the Nišava (173m). The city covers 596.71 km².
The road running from the north down the Morava River valley forks into two major lines at Niš: the southern line, leading to Thessalonica and Athens, and the eastern one leading towards Sofia and Istanbul.
Average annual temperature in the area of Niš is 11.2 °C (52 °F). July is the warmest month of the year, with an average of 21.2 °C (70 °F). The coldest month is January, averaging at 0.2 °C (32 °F). The average of the annual rainfall is 567.25 mm. The average barometer value is 992.74 mb. On average, there are 123 days with rain and snow cover lasts for 45 days.
Main article:
History of NišArchaeological evidence shows neolithic settlements in the city and area dating from 5,000 to 2,000 BCE. A notable archeological site is Humska Čuka.[7]
The ethnogenesis of the Thracians started in the Iron Age, one of the chief towns wsd Aiadava, the future Roman Remesiana. The Triballians dwelled in this region, as well and were mentioned as early as 424 BC. In 279 BC, during the Gallic invasion of the Balkans, the Scordisci tribe defeats the Triballi and settles the lands, at which time the city is known as Navissos.[8]
At the time of the conquest of the Balkans by Rome in 168-75 BC, Naissos (Latin: Naissus) was used as a base for operations. Naissus was first mentioned in Roman documents near the beginning of 2nd century CE, and was considered a place worthy of note in the Geography of Ptolemy of Alexandria.
The Romans occupied the town in the period of the "Dardanian War" (75-73 BC), and set up a legionary camp.[9] The city (called refugia and vici in pre-Roman relation), because of its strategic position (the Thracians were based to the south[9]) developed as an important garrison and market town of the province of Moesia Superior.[10] The Romans built the Via Militaris in the early 1st century AD, with Naissus being one of the key towns. Five roads met at Naissus, from Lissus, Serdica, Singidunum, Ratiaria and Thessalonica (through Scupi).[9] Tombstones of auxiliary units date to the rule of either Claudius (41-54) or Nero (54-68). An auxiliary fort was based to the north, at present-day Ravna, called Timacum Minus. Marcus Aurelius (161–180) promoted the city to municipia. Overall, several family tombstones point that this was an important military region and by the 3rd century a social class of peasants and soldiers emerged.[11] Cohort I Aurelia Dardanorum was based in the city.[10]
In the year 268 AD, during the "Crisis of the Third Century" when the Empire almost collapsed, the greatest Gothic invasion in history took place; the Gothic alliance ravaged Thrace, Macedonia, Moesia and Pannonia. Subsequently, Claudius II managed to defeat the invaders at the Battle of Naissus that took place in the same year, in one of the bloodiest battles of the 3rd century. The Gothic alliance allegedly left thirty to fifty thousand dead on the field. In 272 AD, the future Emperor Constantine the Great was born in Naissus. Constantine created the Dacia Mediterranea province of which Naissus was the capital and also included Remesiana of the Via Militaris and the towns of Pautalia and Germania. He lived at Naissus in short periods from 316-322.[11]
The Imperial Villa in Mediana is an important archaeological site located close by. In 364 AD, Mediana was the site where Valentinian and Valens met and divided the Roman Empire and ruled as co-emperors.[12]
Though the emperor Julian strengthened the walls, the very prosperity of Naissus made it a target and it was destroyed by Attila in 443. Attila conquered Naissus with battering rams and rolling towers. After the Huns captured Naissus they massacred the inhabitants of the city. Years later, the river banks outside of the city were still covered with human remains as a reminder of the devastation that the Huns had inflicted. The founder of the Justinian Dynasty, Justin I, was born in Naissus in 450, and his nephew Justinian I did his best to restore the city, but Naissus never recovered its 4th century urbanity. The fort at Balajnac with a well-preserved cistern produced coins for Justinian I.[13]
Justinian established the Archbishopric of Justiniana Prima which the town and its bishopric (the Bishopric of Niš) became part of, Procopius mentioned it as Naissopolis.[14]
The latter half of the 6th century AD saw the first major migrations of Slavs and Avars. During the 6th and 7th century, Slavic tribes made eight attempts to take Niš. In 551, the Slavs crossed Niš initially headed for Thessalonica, but ended up in Dalmatia.[15][16] By the 580s, the Slavs had conquered Serbia and much of northern Greece.[17] During the final attack in 615, the Slavs seized the city and most of the Romans and Romanized Thracian/Dacian population fled, perished, or was assimilated.
The Slavs in the Sclaviniae remained independent for some while; in 785, Macedonia was conquered by Constantine VI, and in 842, with the death of Theophilos, the region was conquered by the Bulgars.[18]
In 1018, the Theme of Sirmium was established by Emperor Basil II, who had conquered Bulgaria and Serbia and Niš became one of the three official cities.
Prince Constantine Bodin was crowned Emperor of Bulgaria in 1072, amid the Bulgarian revolts in Macedonia against the Byzantine Empire. Bodin conquered Niš, but was later captured.[19] During the People's Crusade, on July 3, 1096, Peter the Hermit clashed with Byzantine forces at Niš. He lost a quarter of his men, but managed to march on to Constantinople.[20]
In 1155, Prince Desa received Niš as an appendage.[21] In 1162, Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos met with Stefan Nemanja in Niš, where he was given the region of Dubočica (which was composed ofLeskovac and Niš).[21] By 1188, Niš had become Stefan Nemanja's capital.[22] On 27 July 1189, Nemanja received German emperor Frederick Barbarossa and his 100,000 crusaders in Niš.[23] When describing Serbia during the rule of Vukan II in 1202, the mentioning of Niš shows its special status.[24] In 1203, Kaloyan of Bulgaria annexes Niš.[25] Stefan Nemanjić later re-captured the region.
In 1375, after a 25-day long siege, the city fell to the Ottoman-Turks for the first time. The fall of the Serbian state decided the fate of Niš as well. After the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, even though Serbia existed much weakened as a semi-independent state for another 70 years, the Constantinople-Vienna road grew deserted.
In 1443, Niš fell into the hands of Ludanjin. The town itself was given back to the Serbs, while Branković gave it over to Đorđe Mrnjavčević. In the so-called Long Campaign, Christian armies, led by the Hungarian military leader Janos Hunyadi (known as Sibinjanin Janko in Serbian folk poetry) together with Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković, defeated the Turks and repelled them to Sofia. An important battle was fought near Niš, which remained a free city for a whole year after that.
Niš succumbed to Ottoman rule again in 1448 and remained under Ottoman control for the following 241 years. During the period of Ottoman rule, Niš was the seat of the Sanjak of Niš[26] and Niš Eyalet. The Niš Fortress, built in that period, still represents one of the best preserved fortifications in the Balkans. On September 24, 1689, the Austrian Army captured the city after defeating the Turks at the Battle of Niš, but the Ottomans managed to retake it the next year.
In 1737, Niš was seized again by the Austrian Army, in their campaign against the Turks. The war ended in 1739 and Niš fell under Ottoman rule once more.
The first airplane (a
Blériot XI) ever flown over Niš in 1912.
Voždova street in Niš during the 1930s.
Monument on Čegar Hill, near Niš
During the First Serbian Uprising, the liberation of Niš was attempted in 1809 when the famous Battle of Čegar took place. After the defeat of Serbian rebel forces, the Turkish commander of Niš ordered that the heads of the killed Serbs were to be mounted on a tower to serve as a warning. The tower is known as the Skull Tower (Ćele Kula).
Niš was finally liberated during the Serbo-Turkish War. The battle for the liberation of Niš started on 29 December 1877 and the Serbian Army entered in Niš on 11 January 1878 and Niš became a part of the Serbian state.
In the following years, the city saw rapid development. The city library was founded in 1879, and its first clerk was Stevan Sremac. The first hotel, Europe, was built in 1879; a hospital and the first bank started operating in 1881. The City Hall was built from 1882 to 1887. In 1883, Kosta Čendaš established the first printing house. In 1884, the first newspaper in the city Niški Vesnik was started. In 1884, Jovan Apel built a brewery. A railway line to Niš was built in 1884, as well as the city's railway station; on 8 August 1884, the first train arrived from Belgrade. Since 1885, Niš was the last station of the Orient Express, until the railroad was built between Niš and Sofia in 1888. In 1887 Mihailo Dimić founded the "Niš Theatre Sinđelić." In 1897 Mita Ristić founded the textile factory Nitex. In 1905 painter Nadežda Petrović established the Sićevo art colony. The first film was screened in 1897, and the first permanent movie theater started operating in 1905. Hydroelectric dam in Sićevo Gorge on Nišava was built in 1908; at the time, it was the largest in Serbia. The airfield was built in 1912 on the Trupale field, and the first airplane arrived on 29 December 1912. City Museum was founded in 1913, hosting archaeological, ethnographic and art collections.
During the First Balkan War, Niš was the seat of The Main Headquarters of Serbian Army, who led the military operations against the Ottoman Empire. In World War I, Niš was the wartime capital of Serbia, hosting the Government and the National Assembly, until Central Powers conquered Serbia in November 1915. After the breakthrough of the Thessaloniki Front, First Serbian Army commanded by general Petar Bojović liberated Niš on October 12, 1918.
In the first few years after the war, Niš was recovering from the damage. The tram system in Niš started to run in November 1930. The national airline Aeroput included Niš as a regular destination for the route Belgrade—Niš—Skopje—Thessaloniki on 1930.
During the time of German occupation in World War II, the first Nazi concentration camp in Yugoslavia was located in Niš. About 30,000 people passed through this camp, of whom over 10,000 were shot on nearby Bubanj hill. On February 12th 1942, 147 prisoners staged mass escape. In 1944 city was heavily bombed by the Allies.[27] On October 14th 1944 Niš was liberated from the Germans by Partisans and Soviet forces.
In 1996, Niš was the first city in Serbia to stand against the regime of Slobodan Milošević. A coalition of democratic opposition parties called Zajedno (meaning "Together" in Serbian) won the local elections in Niš in 1996 and protested for 88 days in the streets until Milošević`s Socialist Party surrendered power. The first democratic mayor of the City of Niš was Zoran Živković.
On May 7 1999, the city was the site of the NATO Cluster bombing of Niš that resulted in many civilian casualties.
In the local elections held in May 2008, the Democratic Party, G17+ and coalition assembled around the Socialist Party of Serbia won and Miloš Simonović from the Democratic party became the elected mayor.
Panorama picture of the square of King Milan in modern Niš.
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This section is outdated. Please update this section to reflect recent events or newly available information. Please see the talk page for more information. (November 2011) |
Cathedral of Holy Trinity.
According to the preliminary results from the 2011 census, the whole municipal area of the city of Niš (including both, urban and rural parts of municipality) has a population of 257,867, while the population of urban Niš was 177,972.[3]
There is still much dispute about the true population of the city, since there are tens of thousands of Kosovo Serb refugees who officially don't live in the city, but are living there with their local family members.
| Demographics of Niš (2002 Census) |
| Ethnic group |
Municipal |
Urban |
| Serbs |
235,657 |
162,380 |
| Roma |
5,687 |
4,461 |
| Montenegrins |
846 |
747 |
| Bulgarians |
799 |
679 |
| Yugoslavs |
664 |
601 |
| Croats |
417 |
379 |
| Others |
5,733 |
3,872 |
| TOTAL |
250,518 |
173,724 |
Niš Forum shopping centre.
The city of Niš is the administrative, industrial, commercial, financial and cultural center of the south-eastern part of Republic of Serbia. The position of Niš is strategically important, located at the intersection of European highway and railway networks connecting Europe with Asia. Niš is easily accessible, having an airport - Niš Constantine the Great Airport and being a point of intersection of numerous railroad and highway lines. It is in Niš that the trunk road running from the north down the Morava River valley forks into two major lines:
- the south one, leading to Thessalonica and Athens, along the Vardar River valley,
- and the east one, running along the Nisava and the Marica, leading towards Sofia and Istanbul, and further on, towards the Near East.
These roads have been widely known from ancient times, because they represented the beaten tracks along which peoples, goods and armies moved. Known as 'Via Militaris' in Roman and Byzantine periods, or 'Constantinople road' in Middle Ages, these roads still represent major European traffic arteries. Niš thus stands at a point of intersection of the roads connecting Asia Minor to Europe, and the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.
Nis had always been a relatively developed city in the former Yugoslavia. In 1981 its GDP per capita was 110% of the Yugoslav average.[28]
Niš is one of the most important industrial centers in Serbia, well known for its tobacco industry, industry of electronics, construction industry, industry of mechanical engineering, textile industry, color metal industry, food processing industry, industry of rubber goods.
Niš Tobacco Factory was built and opened in 1930 at the present location at Crveni Krst. Its basic production is that of tobacco, cigarettes, filters, the elements of the tobacco machinery and equipment, adhesives etc. In 1995 a scientific - research institute was built. The Institute selects, produces and protects tobacco, and creates and designs new products. In August 2003, The Philip Morris Corporation purchased the Niš Tobacco Factory (DIN) through the privatization process. Philip Morris' total investment of EUR 580 million makes it the single largest foreign investor in Serbia of the Year 2003.
Construction industry
- Gradjevinar, stock company - originated from the construction firm of Niš County called Grapon in 1961. Gradjevinar has built large structural complexes as shopping centers, department buildings, entire campuses, sections of cities which can be found in Niš, Belgrade, East Serbia, Russia, Bulgaria, Israel, Jordan, United Arabic Emirates. The company has built:
- more than 30,000 apartments, of approximately 180,000 square meters,
- clinics, health facilities and hospitals, of approximately 80,000 square meters,
- department stores, malls of approximately 50,000 square meters,
- hotels, tourist sites, banks, schools, theaters, sports facilities of approximately 50,000 square meters,
- various warehouses, factories, farms and cold storage buildings of approximately 150,000 square meters.
Electronics Industry
- Electronics Industry - Holding Corporation, stock corporation - originated from the foundation of the Institute for the Production of Radio Sets and Roentgen Machines, "RR Niš", in 1948. The basic production encompasses acoustic equipment, electronic tubes, specific installations, printed plates, electronic machine elements, hydraulics, pneumatics, appliances, air-conditioners, medical equipment, X-ray machines.
Industry of rubber goods
- Vulkan, stock company was built and opened in 1937. Its production is large in scope and it comprises various rubber-technical articles with numerous applications in mining and construction industry (transporters and cranes).
Colour metal industry
- NISSAL - Stock corporation for aluminum produces tools, metal reproductive materials, metal, wooden and other material constructions, collects and treats for industrial refuse.
Machinery industry
- The Pump Factory "Jastrebac" founded in 1910., produces more than 1,000 of different types and sizes of mechanical pumps.
- MIN (Machinery Industry of Niš) Holding, stock corporation founded in 1884, produces various machines, various types of equipment: chemical, petrol-chemical, mining, metallurgic, railway-transport, diesel-locomotive, pump, hydro-thermo-nuclear, water and gas treatment. In 1993 MIN got transformed into a holding company of 37 joint-stock units, 24 of which deal with the basic production, 6 of which deal with services, and 7 with specialized business.
Textile Industry
- Nitex - Niš Textile Industry produces fabrics, knitted material, continuous embroidery, clothes.. The company was founded 1897. by Niš capitalist Mita Ristić with his sons (Dušan and Dragoljub). In 2011. Nitex - Niš was sold to the Benetton
Food processing industry
- Žitopek, stock company for the production and trade of bakery goods was established on March 3, 1947 when 14 bakers formally signed a contract by which they were supposed to join their workshops into "Žitopek".
- The Brewery of Niš, stock company produces beer and non-alcohol drinks. The brewery was founded 1884. by Jovan Apel.
- Čegar - The place where Battle on Čegar Hill took place on May 19, 1809.
- Crveni Krst concentration camp - One of the few preserved Nazi concentration camps in Europe. It is located on '12 February Boulevard'.
- Bubanj - Monument to fallen Yugoslav WWII fighters, forming the shape of three clenched fists. The place where 10,000 civilian hostages from Niš and south Serbia were brutally murdered by German Nazis.
- Kalča, City passage and Gorča - Trade centers situated in Milana Obrenovića Street.
- Memorial Chapel in the memory of NATO bombing victims - The chapel was built by of Niš loal authorities while the monument was built by the State government in 1999. They are situated in Sumatovacka street near Nis Fortress.
- Niš Fortress - The remaining fortification was built by the Turks, and dates from the first decades of the 18th century (1719–1723). It is situated in the city center.
- The fortress-cafes - They are situated near Stambol gate (the main gate of the fortress).
- Mediana - Archeological site, an Imperial villa, from the late Roman period located on the road leading to Sofia near EI Nis.
- Niška Banja (Niš spa) - A very popular spa during the summer season. It is located at 10km from city center on the road leading to Sofia, in the bottom of Suva Planina Mountain.
- Tinkers Alley - An old urban downtown zone in today's Kopitareva Street, built in the first half of 18th century. It was a street full of tinkers and other craftsmen, but today it is packed with cafes and restaurants.
- Skull Tower (Serbian: Ћеле Кула, Ćele Kula) - A monument to the Serbian revolutionaries (1804–1813). A tower made out of skulls of Serbian uprisers, killed and decapitated by the Ottomans. It is situated on Zoran Đinđić Boulevard, on the old Constantinople road leading to Sofia.
- Spa of Topilo
Buildings in Niš are constantly being built. Niš is the second largest city after Belgrade for number of high-rises. The Ambassador Hotel is one of the tallest buildings in Niš, but there are also other buildings like TV5 Tower.
- Nis Tourist Organization have two tourist information centers available, one in Nis in Vozda Karađorđa 7 street, and the other in Niska Banja whose address is Sinđelićeva 3b.
Niš Bus Station in the evening
Niš is strategically located between the Morava river valley in North and the Vardar river valley in the south, on the main route between Greece and Central Europe. In the Niš area, this major transportation and communication route is linked with the natural corridor formed by the Nišava river valley, which runs towards East in the direction of Sofia and Istanbul.
Historically, because of its location, the city had always great importance in the region. The first to take advantage of it was the Roman Empire that built the important road Via Militaris, linking the city with Singidunum (current Belgrade) to the North and Constantinople (current Istanbul) to the South-East.
Nowadays, the city is connected by the highway E75 with Belgrade and Central Europe in north, and Skopje, Thessaloniki and Athens in the south. The road E80 connects Niš with Sofia, Istanbul towards the Middle East, and Pristina, Montenegro and the Adriatic Sea to the West. The road E771 connects the city with Zaječar, Kladovo and Drobeta-Turnu Severin in Romania.
The city is also a major regional railway junction.
The Niš Constantine the Great airport is the second most important airport in Serbia. The first airfield was built in 1910.
The city public transportation consists nowadays by 13 bus lines. Tram system existed in Niš between 1930 and 1958.[29]
The people listed below were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with the city of Niš, and its surrounding metropolitan area.
- Constantine the Great, a Roman Emperor, born 272/3 in Naissus.
- Justin I, Byzantine emperor, born c. 450 in Naissus.
- Stevan Sinđelić, war leader (vojvoda), died in 1809 in the Battle of Čegar.
- Stevan Sremac (1855–1906), writer, came to Niš shortly after its liberation from the Turkish rule; wrote about life in old Niš (Ivkova slava, Zona Zamfirova).
- Dragiša Cvetković (1893–1969), prime minister of Kingdom of Yugoslavia from 1939 to 1941.
- Dušan Radović (1922–1984), journalist and writer.
- Predrag Antonijević, (b. 1959), film director.
- Branko Miljković (1934–1961), poet.
- Šaban Bajramović (1936–2008), Romani singer and composer.
- Kornelije Kovač (b. 1942), rock musician and composer.
- Tanasije Uzunović (b. 1942), actor.
- Goran Paskaljević (b. 1947), movie director; raised by his grandparents in Niš 1949-1963, after the divorce of his parents.
- Dragan Pantelić (b. 1951), former football goalkeeper, president of Radnički Niš.
- Predrag Miletić (b. 1952), actor.
- Zoran Živković (b. 1954), handball player and coach.
- Aki Rahimovski (b. 1954), rock musician.
- Nenad Milosavljević (b. 1954), rock musician.
- Biljana Krstić (b. 1959), rock and traditional music singer and songwriter.
- Zoran Živković (b. 1960), politician, a former Prime Minister of Serbia.
- Zoran Ćirić (b. 1962), writer.
- Aleksandar Šoštar (b. 1964), water polo goalkeeper.
- Dragan Stojković (b. 1965), football player.
- Lidija Mihajlović (b. 1968), shooting champion.
- Kokan Mladenović (b. 1970), theater director.
- Ivan Miljković (b. 1979), volleyball player.
- Nikola Karabatić (b. 1984), handball player.
- Nemanja Radulović (b. 1985), violinist.
- Goran Šepa, rock musician.
Niš is a home of National Theatre in Niš, that was founded as "Sinđelić" Theatre in 1889.
Galija and Kerber are considered the most notable rock bands to have originated from Niš. Other notable Niš rock acts include Daltoni, Dobri Isak, Lutajuća Srca, Mama Rock, Hazari, Novembar, Trivalia and others.
The city of Niš is home to numerous sport clubs including Železničar Niš, Mašinac, OFK Niš, Jastrebac Proleter, Palilulac, Sinđelić Niš and Radnički Niš.
The biggest stadium in Niš is the Stadion Čair, which is currently undergoing renovations and will have a total seating-capacity of 18,151 when renovations are completed.[30] The stadium is part of the Čair Sports Complex that also includes an indoor swimming pool and an indoor arena
- Online newspaper
- Radio stations
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Niš is twinned with the following cities, according to their City Hall website:[31]
- ^ City of Nis, www.ni.rs
- ^ a b "Попис становништва, домаћинстава и станова 2011. године у Републици Србији" (in Serbian). Statistical Office of Serbia. 2011. http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/WebSite/repository/documents/00/00/49/86/Prvi_rezultati_Konferencija.pps.
- ^ a b c "2011 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in The Republic of Serbia: First Results". Statistical Office of Republic Of Serbia, Belgrade. 2011. p. 79. ISSN 0354-3641. http://media.popis2011.stat.rs/2011/prvi-rezultati.pdf. Retrieved 2011-12-30.
- ^ http://www.metimes.com/storyview.php?StoryID=20070515-082637-6667r
- ^ New Advent Catholic encyclopedia: Constantine the Great
- ^ "Moderate Patriarch Sets New Course for Serb Church". IPS News. 2010-02-01. http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=50174.
- ^ Stone Pages, 002763
- ^ Nis,Britanica
- ^ a b c The provincial at Rome: and, Rome and the Balkans 80BC-AD14
- ^ a b http://www.balkaninstitut.com/pdf/izdanja/balcanica/Balcanica%20XXXVII%20(2006).pdf
- ^ a b Pannonia and Upper Moesia: a history of the middle Danube provinces, p. 51-
- ^ http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/gibbon/02/daf02049.htm
- ^ [1][page needed]
- ^ p. 238
- ^ BG III 40
- ^ http://www.rastko.rs/arheologija/delo/13047
- ^ The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500-c. 700, p. 539
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge, Volume 20, p. 341: "the eastern provinces (Branichevo, Morava, Timok, Vardar, Podrimlye) were occupied by the Bulgars."
- ^ Byzantium's Balkan frontier, p. 142
- ^ The great migrations in the East and South East of Europe from the ninth to the thirteenth century, p. 146, Google Books link
- ^ a b The Late Medieval Balkans, p. 4
- ^ The Late Medieval Balkans, p. 7
- ^ The Late Medieval Balkans, p. 24
- ^ The Late Medieval Balkans, p. 48
- ^ The Late Medieval Balkans, p. 54
- ^ Godišnjak grada Beograda. Museum of the Belgrade. 1977. p. 116. http://books.google.com/books?id=OE_jAAAAMAAJ&q=%22%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%9F%D0%B0%D0%BA%22&dq=%22%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%9F%D0%B0%D0%BA%22&hl=en&ei=6MgaTq6QF8_2sgbnv_S4Dw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwADgK. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
- ^ Serbs were not specially chosen as targets, Danas
- ^ Radovinović, Radovan; Bertić, Ivan, eds. (1984) (in Croatian). Atlas svijeta: Novi pogled na Zemlju (3rd ed.). Zagreb: Sveučilišna naklada Liber.
- ^ arhivnis.co.rs
- ^ [2]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p "Twinnings". Niš City Hall. http://www.ni.rs/news/brat-e.html. Retrieved 2008-04-17. [dead link]
- ^ "Partnership towns of the City of Košice" (in Slovak). © 2007-2009 City of Košice Magistrát mesta Košice, Tr. SNP 48/A, 040 11 Košice. http://www.kosice.sk/clanok.asp?file=gov_s_c-00.html. Retrieved 2009-07-12.
Coordinates: 43°18′N 21°54′E / 43.3°N 21.9°E / 43.3; 21.9
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