Trader in Germany, 16th century

San Juan de Dios Market in Guadalajara, Jalisco

Trade is the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another by getting something in exchange from the buyer. Trade is sometimes loosely called commerce or financial transaction or barter. A network that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and services. Later one side of the barter were the metals, precious metals (poles, coins), bill, paper money. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade, while trade between more than two traders is called multilateral trade.

Trade exists for man due to specialization and division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of production, trading for other products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have a comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production. As such, trade at market prices between locations benefits both locations.

Retail trade consists of the sale of goods or merchandise from a very fixed location, such as a department store, boutique or kiosk, or by mail, in small or individual lots for direct consumption by the purchaser.^[1] Wholesale trade is defined as the sale of goods or merchandise to retailers, to industrial, commercial, institutional, or other professional business users, or to other wholesalers and related subordinated services.^[2]

Trading can also refer to the action performed by traders and other market agents in the financial markets.

History of trade[link]

The neutrality of this article is questioned because of its systemic bias. In particular, there may be a strong bias in favor of European history. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the issue is resolved. (August 2010)

Prehistory[link]

Trade originated with the start of communication in prehistoric times. Trading was the main facility of prehistoric people, who bartered goods and services from each other before the innovation of the modern day currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance commerce from circa 150,000 years ago.^[3]

Ancient history[link]

A silver statuette of Mercury the Roman god of trade. Part of the Berthouville Treasures

Trade is believed to have taken place throughout much of recorded human history. There is evidence of the exchange of obsidian and flint during the stone age. Materials used for creating jewelry were traded with Egypt since 3000 BC. Long-range trade routes first appeared in the 3rd millennium BC, when Sumerians in Mesopotamia traded with the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley. The Phoenicians were noted sea traders, traveling across the Mediterranean Sea, and as far north as Britain for sources of tin to manufacture bronze. For this purpose they established trade colonies the Greeks called emporia. From the beginning of Greek civilization until the fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century, a financially lucrative trade brought valuable spice to Europe from the far east, including India and China. Roman commerce allowed its empire to flourish and endure. The Roman empire produced a stable and secure transportation network that enabled the shipment of trade goods without fear of significant piracy.

The fall of the Roman empire, and the succeeding Dark Ages brought instability to Western Europe and a near collapse of the trade network in the western world. Trade however continued to flourish among the kingdoms of Africa, Middle East, India, China and Southeast Asia. Some trade did occur in the west. For instance, Radhanites were a medieval guild or group (the precise meaning of the word is lost to history) of Jewish merchants who traded between the Christians in Europe and the Muslims of the Near East.

Middle Ages[link]

During the Middle Ages, Central Asia was the economic center of the world.^[4] The Sogdians dominated the East-West trade route known as the Silk Road after the 4th century AD up to the 8th century AD, with Suyab and Talas ranking among their main centers in the north. They were the main caravan merchants of Central Asia.

From the 8th to the 11th century, the Vikings and Varangians traded as they sailed from and to Scandinavia. Vikings sailed to Western Europe, while Varangians to Russia. The Hanseatic League was an alliance of trading cities that maintained a trade monopoly over most of Northern Europe and the Baltic, between the 13th and 17th centuries.

Age of Discovery[link]

Vasco da Gama pioneered the European Spice trade in 1498 when he reached Calicut after sailing around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of the African continent. Prior to this, the flow of spice into Europe from India was controlled by Islamic powers, especially Egypt. The spice trade was of major economic importance and helped spur the Age of Discovery in Europe. Spices brought to Europe from the Eastern world were some of the most valuable commodities for their weight, sometimes rivaling gold.

In the sixteenth century, the Seventeen Provinces were the centre of free trade, imposing no exchange controls, and advocating the free movement of goods. Trade in the East Indies was dominated by Portugal in the 16th century, Holland in the 17th century, and the British in the 18th century. The Spanish Empire developed regular trade links across both the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.

Danzig in the 17th century

In 1776, Adam Smith published the paper An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. It criticised Mercantilism, and argued that economic specialisation could benefit nations just as much as firms. Since the division of labour was restricted by the size of the market, he said that countries having access to larger markets would be able to divide labour more efficiently and thereby become more productive. Smith said that he considered all rationalisations of import and export controls "dupery", which hurt the trading nation as a whole for the benefit of specific industries.

In 1799, the Dutch East India Company, formerly the world's largest company, became bankrupt, partly due to the rise of competitive free trade.

Berber Trade with Timbuktu, 1853

Age of Reason[link]

In 1817, David Ricardo, James Mill and Robert Torrens showed that free trade would benefit the industrially weak as well as the strong, in the famous theory of comparative advantage. In Principles of Political Economy and Taxation Ricardo advanced the doctrine still considered the most counterintuitive in economics:

When an inefficient producer sends the merchandise it produces best to a country able to produce it more efficiently, both countries benefit.

The ascendancy of free trade was primarily based on national advantage in the mid 19th century. That is, the calculation made was whether it was in any particular country's self-interest to open its borders to imports.

John Stuart Mill proved that a country with monopoly pricing power on the international market could manipulate the terms of trade through maintaining tariffs, and that the response to this might be reciprocity in trade policy. Ricardo and others had suggested this earlier. This was taken as evidence against the universal doctrine of free trade, as it was believed that more of the economic surplus of trade would accrue to a country following reciprocal, rather than completely free, trade policies. This was followed within a few years by the infant industry scenario developed by Mill promoting the theory that government had the "duty" to protect young industries, although only for a time necessary for them to develop full capacity. This became the policy in many countries attempting to industrialise and out-compete English exporters. Milton Friedman later continued this vein of thought, showing that in a few circumstances tariffs might be beneficial to the host country; but never for the world at large.^[5]

Twentieth century[link]

The Great Depression was a major economic recession that ran from 1929 to the late 1930s. During this period, there was a great drop in trade and other economic indicators.

The lack of free trade was considered by many as a principal cause of the depression. Only during the World War II the recession ended in the United States. Also during the war, in 1944, 44 countries signed the Bretton Woods Agreement, intended to prevent national trade barriers, to avoid depressions. It set up rules and institutions to regulate the international political economy: the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (later divided into the World Bank and Bank for International Settlements). These organisations became operational in 1946 after enough countries ratified the agreement. In 1947, 23 countries agreed to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to promote free trade.

Free trade[link]

Free trade advanced further in the late 20th century and early 2000s:

• 1992 European Union lifted barriers to internal trade in goods and labour.
• January 1, 1994 the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) took effect
• 1994 The GATT Marrakech Agreement specified formation of the WTO.
• January 1, 1995 World Trade Organization was created to facilitate free trade, by mandating mutual most favoured nation trading status between all signatories.
• EC was transformed into the European Union, which accomplished the Economic and Monnetary Union (EMU) in 2002, through introducing the Euro, and creating this way a real single market between 13 member states as of January 1, 2007.
• 2005, the Central American Free Trade Agreement was signed; It includes the United States and the Dominican Republic.

Protectionism[link]

Protectionism is the policy of restraining and discouraging trade between states and contrasts with the policy of free trade. This policy often takes of form of tariffs and restrictive quotas. Protectionist policies were particularly prevalent in the 1930s, between the great depression and the onset of World War II.

Religion[link]

Muslim teachings encourage trading (and condemn usury or interest). By trade the whole society get benefits but interest makes rich more rich and poor more poor.^[6][7]

Judeo-Christian teachings encourage traders to avoid dishonest gain.^{[citation needed]}

Development of money[link]

Ancient Athenian Greek Drachma coin

Roman denarius

The first instances of money were objects with intrinsic value. This is called commodity money and includes any commonly available commodity that has intrinsic value; historical examples include pigs, rare seashells, whale's teeth, and (often) cattle. In medieval Iraq, bread was used as an early form of money. In Mexico under Montezuma^{[disambiguation needed ]} cocoa beans were money. [1]

Currency was introduced as a standardised money to facilitate a wider exchange of goods and services. This first stage of currency, where metals were used to represent stored value, and symbols to represent commodities, formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years.

Numismatists have examples of coins from the earliest large-scale societies, although these were initially unmarked lumps of precious metal.^[8]

Ancient Sparta minted coins from iron to discourage its citizens from engaging in foreign trade.

Current trends[link]

Doha rounds[link]

The Doha round of World Trade Organization negotiations aims to lower barriers to trade around the world, with a focus on making trade fairer for developing countries. Talks have been hung over a divide between the rich developed countries, represented by the G20, and the major developing countries. Agricultural subsidies are the most significant issue upon which agreement has been hardest to negotiate. By contrast, there was much agreement on trade facilitation and capacity building.

The Doha round began in Doha, Qatar, and negotiations have subsequently continued in: Cancún, Mexico; Geneva, Switzerland; and Paris, France and Hong Kong.

China[link]

Beginning around 1978, the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) began an experiment in economic reform. In contrast to the previous Soviet-style centrally planned economy, the new measures progressively relaxed restrictions on farming, agricultural distribution and, several years later, urban enterprises and labor. The more market-oriented approach reduced inefficiencies and stimulated private investment, particularly by farmers, that led to increased productivity and output. One feature was the establishment of four (later five) Special Economic Zones located along the South-east coast.

The reforms proved spectacularly successful in terms of increased output, variety, quality, price and demand. In real terms, the economy doubled in size between 1978 and 1986, doubled again by 1994, and again by 2003. On a real per capita basis, doubling from the 1978 base took place in 1987, 1996 and 2006. By 2008, the economy was 16.7 times the size it was in 1978, and 12.1 times its previous per capita levels. International trade progressed even more rapidly, doubling on average every 4.5 years. Total two-way trade in January 1998 exceeded that for all of 1978; in the first quarter of 2009, trade exceeded the full-year 1998 level. In 2008, China's two-way trade totaled US$2.56 trillion.

In 1991 the PRC joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation group, a trade-promotion forum. In 2001, it also joined the World Trade Organization. See also: Economy of the People's Republic of China

International trade[link]

A series on Trade
World trade
Policy Import Export Balance of trade Comparative advantage Trade law Trade pact Trade bloc Trade creation Trade diversion Export orientation Import substitution Trade finance Trade facilitation Trade route Domestic trade Tax, tariff and trade
Restriction Trade barriers Tariffs Non-tariff barriers Import quotas Tariff-rate quotas Quota share Import licenses Customs duties Export subsidies Technical barriers Bribery Exchange rate controls Embargo Safeguards Countervailing duties Anti-dumping duties Voluntary export restraints
History Mercantilism Protectionism Laissez-faire Free trade Economic nationalism Economic integration
Organizations World Trade Organization World Customs Organization International Monetary Fund Preferential trading area Free trade area Customs union Single market Economic union Monetary union Fiscal union Customs and monetary union Economic and monetary union
Issues Intellectual property rights Smuggling Competition policy Government procurement Outsourcing Globalization Fair trade Trade justice Emissions trading Trade sanctions War Currency Customs Trade Trade and development
Lists Imports Exports Tariffs Largest consumer markets Leading trade partners
By Country Trade mission Trading nation United States Argentina Pakistan Romania Vietnam India
v t e

International trade is the exchange of goods and services across national borders. In most countries, it represents a significant part of GDP. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance have increased in recent centuries, mainly because of Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing. In fact, it is probably the increasing prevalence of international trade that is usually meant by the term "globalization".

Empirical evidence for the success of trade can be seen in the contrast between countries such as South Korea, which adopted a policy of export-oriented industrialization, and India, which historically had a more closed policy (although it has begun to open its economy, as of 2005). South Korea has done much better by economic criteria than India over the past fifty years, though its success also has to do with effective state institutions.

Trade sanctions[link]

Trade sanctions against a specific country are sometimes imposed, in order to punish that country for some action. An embargo, a severe form of externally imposed isolation, is a blockade of all trade by one country on another. For example, the United States has had an embargo against Cuba for over 40 years.

Trade barriers[link]

Although there are usually few trade restrictions within countries, international trade is usually regulated by governmental quotas and restrictions, and often taxed by tariffs. Tariffs are usually on imports, but sometimes countries may impose export tariffs or subsidies. All of these are called trade barriers. If a government removes all trade barriers, a condition of free trade exists. A government that implements a protectionist policy establishes trade barriers.

Fair trade[link]

The fair trade movement, also known as the trade justice movement, promotes the use of labour, environmental and social standards for the production of commodities, particularly those exported from the Third and Second Worlds to the First World. Such ideas have also sparked a debate on whether trade itself should be codified as a human right.^[9]

Importing firms voluntarily adhere to fair trade standards or governments may enforce them through a combination of employment and commercial law. Proposed and practiced fair trade policies vary widely, ranging from the common prohibition of goods made using slave labour to minimum price support schemes such as those for coffee in the 1980s. Non-governmental organizations also play a role in promoting fair trade standards by serving as independent monitors of compliance with fair trade labeling requirements.

Notes[link]

Bibliography[link]

Economics portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Trade

• Beckwith, Christopher I (2011) [2009]. Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton: University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15034-5. 
• Bernstein, William (2008). A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World (2009 British ed.). London: Atlantic Books. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/9711843548034|9711843548034]]. 
• Davies, Glyn (2002) [1995]. Ideas: A History of Money from Ancient Times to the Present Day. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-1773-0. http://www.ex.ac.uk/~RDavies/arian/origins.html. 
• Nomani, Farhad; Rahnema, Ali (1994). Islamic Economic Systems. New Jersey: Zed Books. ISBN 1-85649-058-0. 
• Watson, Peter (2005). Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention from Fire to Freud. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-621064-3. 

Kerry Washington
Washington at the Metropolitan Opera's 2010 opening night of Das Rheingold
Born	(1977-01-31) January 31, 1977 (age 35) The Bronx, New York, U.S.
Occupation	Actress
Years active	1994–present

Kerry Washington (born January 31, 1977)^[1] is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Ray Charles's wife, Della Bea Robinson, in the film Ray (2004), as Idi Amin's wife Kay in The Last King of Scotland, and as Alicia Masters, love interest of Ben Grimm/The Thing in the live-action Fantastic Four films of 2005 and 2007. She has also starred in the critically acclaimed independent films Our Song and The Dead Girl, and is the lead actress in the 2012 ABC drama Scandal, a Shonda Rhimes series where Washington plays Olivia Pope, a former crisis management expert to the President.^[2]

Early life[link]

Washington was born in the The Bronx, New York City, the daughter of Valerie, a professor and educational consultant, and a real estate broker father.^[3][4] She performed with the Tada theater teen group and attended the Spence School in Manhattan, graduating in 1994.^{[citation needed]} She attended The George Washington University, graduating in 1998.^{[citation needed]} She also studied at Michael Howard Studios^{[citation needed]} in New York City.

Career[link]

Washington made her screen debut in the ABC telefilm Magical Make-Over (1994). She was in the cast of the 1996 PBS sketch comedy-style educational series Standard Deviants, and she appeared in the short "3D" and the feature film Our Song in 2000. She went on to appear in several movies, including Save the Last Dance (2001), The Human Stain (2003), Spike Lee's She Hate Me (2004), Ray (2004), Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005), Little Man (2006), I Think I Love My Wife (2007), and as a wife of 1970s Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in the UK historical drama The Last King of Scotland (2006). Washington has also appeared in the recurring role of Chelina Hall on the ABC television series Boston Legal, and in several episodes of the A&E cable-TV series 100 Centre Street.

She is the new spokesperson for L'Oréal, appearing in commercials and ads alongside fellow actresses Scarlett Johansson and Eva Longoria, and model Doutzen Kroes.

She also co-directed and appeared in the music video for hip-hop artist Common's song, "I Want You", the fourth single off of his album Finding Forever.

Washington narrated the critically acclaimed documentary about the New Orleans-based teenage TBC Brass Band, From the Mouthpiece on Back. She also appears in Maxwell's "Bad Habits" video. In 2009, Washington performed in The People Speak a documentary feature film that uses dramatic and musical performances of the letters, diaries, and speeches of everyday Americans, based on historian Howard Zinn's "A People's History of the United States”.^[5]

In 2010, she made her Broadway debut in David Mamet's Race, alongside James Spader, David Alan Grier, and Richard Thomas. She also appeared in Tyler Perry's 2010 film For Colored Girls.

In October 2011 it was confirmed that she would be starring in Quentin Tarantino's new film Django Unchained.^[6]

Personal life[link]

Washington at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival

Washington was engaged to actor David Moscow from October 2004 to March 2007.^[7]

As a sort of souvenir or memento, she usually tries to keep something from every character that she plays, such as an item of wardrobe or a piece of furniture from the house the character lived in.^[8]

Politics[link]

She is at times referred to as a political activist and was a supporter of Barack Obama's presidential candidacy.^[9] Washington has also spent time volunteering through the Adopt-a-Classroom program in New York as well as with Co-Op America,^[10] now known as Green America.

Filmography[link]

Awards and nominations[link]

Washington at Hollywood Life Magazine’s 2007 Breakthrough Awards.

• BET Awards
  • 2007- Best Actress The Last King of Scotland: Nominated

• Black Reel Awards
  • 2011- Outstanding Supporting Actress For Colored Girls: Nominated
  • 2011- Outstanding Actress Night Catches Us: Won
  • 2011- Outstanding Ensemble Night Catches Us: Nominated
  • 2011- Outstanding Ensemble For Colored Girls: Won
  • 2009- Outstanding Ensemble Miracle at St. Anna: Nominated
  • 2007- Outstanding Supporting Actress The Last King of Scotland: Nominated
  • 2005- Outstanding Actress, Drama Ray: Nominated
  • 2003- Outstanding Actress, Network/Cable Lift : Nominated
  • 2002- Outstanding Independent Actor Lift: Nominated
  • 2002- Outstanding Supporting Actress Theatrical, Save the Last Dance: Nominated
• Image Awards
  • 2011- Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture Night Catches Us: Nominated
  • 2007- Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture The Last King of Scotland: Nominated
  • 2006- Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Boston Legal: Nominated
  • 2005- Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture Ray: Won

• Independent Spirit Awards
  • 2002- Best Female Lead Lift: Nominated

• Satellite Awards
  • 2005- Best Actress in a Comedy/Musical Ray: Nominated

• Screen Actors Guild Awards
  • 2005- Outstanding Cast in a Motion Picture Ray: Nominated

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Kerry Washington

• Kerry Washington at the Internet Movie Database
• Kerry Washington on Twitter

Tony Goldwyn
Goldwyn in Denver in August 2008
Born	Anthony Howard Goldwyn (1960-05-20) May 20, 1960 (age 52) Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Occupation	Actor/Director
Years active	1986–present
Spouse	Jane Musky (1989–present)

Anthony Howard "Tony" Goldwyn (born May 20, 1960) is an American actor and director. He portrayed the villain Carl Bruner in Ghost, Colonel Bagley in The Last Samurai, and the voice of the title character of the Disney animated Tarzan. He stars in the ABC drama Scandal, as Fitzgerald Grant III, President of the United States.^[1]

Early life[link]

Goldwyn was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of actress Jennifer Howard and film producer Samuel Goldwyn, Jr. Goldwyn's paternal grandparents were mogul Samuel Goldwyn and actress Frances Howard,^[2] while his maternal grandparents were playwright Sidney Howard and actress Clare Eames. Goldwyn attended Hamilton College in Clinton, New York, Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts (where he received his B.F.A), and the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art.

Career[link]

Goldwyn's best remembered role is most likely that of Carl Bruner, friend-turned-betrayer of Patrick Swayze's character Sam Wheat in Ghost. He is also well known for his turn on the comedy series, Designing Women in which he played a young interior designer named Kendall Dobbs who was HIV positive, and asked the women of Sugarbakers to design his funeral. In the HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, Goldwyn played astronaut Neil Armstrong, commander of Apollo 11. He also provided the voice of the title character from 1999 animated feature film, Tarzan, produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation. He reprised the role in the video games Disney's Tarzan Untamed and Kingdom Hearts. He also had a recurring role on the NBC-Universal drama Law & Order: Criminal Intent as Frank Goren, brother of lead character Robert Goren, played by Vincent D'Onofrio.

Acting and directing duties for the first season of "Dexter" for Showtime (Brother John Goldwyn is Executive Producer).

Also a stage actor, Goldwyn has appeared twice in Off-Broadway shows at Second Stage Theatre and on Broadway at Circle in the Square Theatre. At Second Stage he appeared in Theresa Rebeck's Spike Heels (1992) alongside Kevin Bacon and Julie White. Most recently, in the summer of 2006 at Second Stage Theatre he starred opposite Kate Burton in another Rebeck play, The Water's Edge. Goldwyn is currently playing J.D. Sheldrake, the philandering business executive, in the Broadway musical Promises, Promises starring Sean Hayes and Kristin Chenoweth.^[3] The cast recording was released on June 23, 2010, with Goldwyn in three tracks.^[4][5]

Personal life[link]

Goldwyn is married to production designer Jane Musky. The couple have two daughters, Anna and Tess.

Filmography[link]

• Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives (1986)
• Gaby: A True Story (1987)
• Ghost (1990)
• Kuffs (1991)
• Traces of Red (1992)
• The Pelican Brief (1993)
• Nixon (1995)
• Reckless (1995)
• Trouble on the Corner (1997)
• Kiss the Girls (1997)
• The Lesser Evil (1998)
• A Walk on the Moon (1999) (director)
• Tarzan (1999) (voice)
• Pocahontas: The Legend (1999)
• The 6th Day (2000)
• An American Rhapsody (2001)
• Bounce (2000)
• Joshua (2002)
• Kingdom Hearts (2002) (voice of Tarzan)
• The Last Samurai (2003)
• Without a Trace (2004) (actor in two episodes and director of one episode)
• The Godfather of Green Bay (2005)
• The Last Kiss (2006) (director)
• Grey's Anatomy (2006) (director of two episodes: 1.03 and 2.24)
• Dexter (2006) (actor in one episode and director of four episodes: 1.06, 1.08, 2.01 and 2.03)
• Private Practice (2007) (director of one episode: 1.02)
• The Last House on the Left (2009)
• The Good Wife (2009) (as Judge Henry Baxter in Season 1 Episode "Lifeguard")
• Conviction (2010) (director)
• Promises, Promises (2010) (actor)
• The Mechanic (2011) (actor)
• Scandal (2012) (as Fitzgerald Grant III, President of the United States)

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tony Goldwyn

• Tony Goldwyn at the Internet Movie Database