Stoning, or lapidation, is a form of capital punishment whereby a group throws stones at a person until the person dies. No individual among the group can be identified as the one who kills the subject, yet everyone involved plainly bears some degree of moral culpability. This is in contrast to the case of a judicial executioner. Slower than other forms of execution, stoning is a form of execution by torture.

Practices and Methods of Implementation[link]

The methods for carrying out stoning may vary across different histories and cultures.

For example, the Islamic Penal Code of Iran details how stoning punishments are to be carried out for adultery, and even hints in some contexts that the punishment may allow for its victims to avoid death^[1]:

Article 102 – An adulterous man shall be buried in a ditch up to near his waist and an adulterous woman up to near her chest and then stoned to death.

Article 103 – In case the person sentenced to stoning escapes the ditch in which they are buried, then if the adultery is proven by testimony then they will be returned for the punishment but if it is proven by their own confession then they will not be returned.

Article 104 – The size of the stone used in stoning shall not be too large to kill the convict by one or two throws and at the same time shall not be too small to be called a stone.

Depending upon the details of the case, the stoning may be initiated by the judge overseeing the matter or by one of the original witnesses to the adultery.^[1] Certain religious procedures may also need to be followed both before and after the implementation of a stoning execution.^[1]

In history[link]

Stoning is an ancient form of capital punishment. There are historical reports of stoning from Ancient Greece — Herodotus reports the case of Lycidas in his Histories, Book IX. Stoning is also mentioned in Ancient Greek mythology — Oedipus asks to be stoned to death when he learns that he killed his father.

In Judaism[link]

Torah[link]

The Israelite Torah, which is the first five books of the Hebrew Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) contained within the Old Testament and as such serves as a common religious reference for Judaism. The Torah sentences death by stoning for the following:

• Touching Mount Sinai while God was giving Moses the Ten Commandments (Exodus 19:13)
• An ox that gores someone to death should be stoned (Exodus 21:28)
• Breaking Sabbath (Numbers 15:32-36)
• Giving one's "seed" (presumably one's offspring) "to Molech" (Leviticus 20:2-5)
• Having a "familiar spirit" (or being a necromancer) or being a "wizard" (Lev. 20:27)
• Cursing God (Lev. 24:10-16)
• Engaging in idolatry (Deuteronomy 17:2-7) or seducing others to do so (Deut. 13:7-12)
• "Rebellion" against parents (Deut. 21,18-21)
• Getting married as though a virgin, when not a virgin (Deut. 22:13-21)
• Sexual intercourse between a man and a woman engaged to another man (both should be stoned, Deut. 22:23-24)

Mishna[link]

The Mishna gives the following list of persons who should be stoned.^[2][3]

"To the following sinners stoning applies – אלו הן הנסקלין

• one who has had connection with his mother – הבא על האם
• with his father's wife – ועל אשת האב
• with his daughter-in-law – ועל הכלה
• with a human male – ועל הזכור
• or with cattle – ועל הבהמה
• and the same is the case with a woman who uncovers herself before cattle – והאשה המביאה את הבהמה
• with a blasphemer – והמגדף
• an idolater – והעובד עבודת כוכבים
• he who sacrifices one of his children to Molech – והנותן מזרעו למולך
• one that occupies himself with familiar spirits – ובעל אוב
• a wizard – וידעוני
• one who violates Sabbath – והמחלל את השבת
• one who curses his father or mother – והמקלל אביו ואמו
• one who has assaulted a betrothed damsel – והבא על נערה המאורסה
• a seducer who has seduced men to worship idols – והמסית
• and the one who misleads a whole town – והמדיח
• a witch (male or female) – והמכשף
• a stubborn and rebellious son – ובן סורר ומורה"

In practice[link]

There are only scarce mentions of such a punishment being actually legally inflicted. There are three cases in the Bible (see list below) in which a person was stoned to death as a punishment. But there are also five or six cases where someone was stoned by a mob, or not in a legal fashion. A detailed recorded case of stoning occurs in the Book of Joshua (7, 24) when a man named Achan (עכן) was found to have kept loot from Jericho, a conquered Canaanite city, in his tent.

As God alone was deemed to be the only arbiter in the use of capital punishment, not fallible people, the Sanhedrin made stoning a hypothetical upper limit on the severity of punishment.^[4]

The Punishment of Korah and the Stoning of Moses and Aaron (1480-1482), by Sandro Botticelli, Sistine Chapel, Rome.

Prior to early Christianity, particularly in the Mishnah, doubts were growing in Jewish society about the morality of capital punishment in general and stoning in particular. The Mishnah states:

A Sanhedrin that puts a man to death once in seven years is called destructive. Rabbi Eliezer ben Azariah says that this extends to a Sanhedrin that puts a man to death even once in seventy years. Rabbi Akiba and Rabbi Tarfon say: Had we been in the Sanhedrin none would ever have been put to death. Rabban Simeon ben Gamaliel says: they would have multiplied shedders of blood in Israel.^[5]

In the following centuries the leading Jewish sages imposed so many restrictions on the implementation of capital punishment as to make it de facto illegal. The restrictions were to prevent execution of the innocent, and included many conditions for a testimony to be admissible that were difficult to fulfill.

Philosopher Moses Maimonides wrote, "It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death."^[6] He was concerned that the law guard its public perception, to preserve its majesty and retain the people's respect. He saw errors of commission as much more threatening to the integrity of law than errors of omission.^[7]

Mode of Judgment[link]

In rabbinic law, capital punishment may only be inflicted by the verdict of a regularly constituted court of three-and-twenty qualified members. There must be the most trustworthy and convincing testimony of at least two qualified eye-witnesses to the crime, who must also depose that the culprit had been forewarned of the criminality and the consequences of his project.^[3] The culprit must be a person of legal age and of sound mind, and the crime must be proved to have been committed of the culprit's free will and without the aid of others.

On the day the verdict is pronounced, the convict is led forth to execution. The Torah law (Leviticus 19:18) prescribes, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself"; and the Rabbis maintain that this love must be extended beyond the limits of social intercourse in life, and applied even to the convicted criminal who, "though a sinner, is still thy brother" (Mak. 3:15; Sanh. 44a): "The spirit of love must be manifested by according him a decent death" (Sanh. 45a, 52a). Torah law provides (Deut. 24:16), "The parents shall not be put to death for the children, neither shall the children be put to death for the parents; every man shall be put to death for his own sins", and rabbinic jurisprudence follows this principle both to the letter and in spirit. A sentence is not attended by confiscation of the convict's goods; the person's possessions descend to their legal heirs.

The Talmud limits the use of the death penalty to Jewish criminals who:

• (A) while about to do the crime were warned not to commit the crime while in the presence of two witnesses (and only individuals who meet a strict list of standards are considered acceptable witnesses); and
• (B) having been warned, committed the crime in front of the same two witnesses.^[8]

In theory, the Talmudic method of how stoning is to be carried out differs from mob stoning. According to the Jewish Oral Law, after the Jewish criminal has been determined as guilty before the Great Sanhedrin, the two valid witnesses and the sentenced criminal go to the edge of a two story building. From there the two witnesses are to push the criminal off the roof of a two story building. The two-story height is chosen as this height is estimated by the Talmud to effect a quick and painless demise but is not so high that the body will become dismembered. After the criminal has fallen, the two witnesses are to drop a large boulder onto the criminal – requiring both of the witnesses to lift the boulder together. If the criminal did not die from the fall or from the crushing of the large boulder, then any people in the surrounding area are to quickly cause him to die by stoning with whatever rocks they can find.

In Islam[link]

Stoning of the Devil, 2006 Hajj

Islamic Sharia Law is based on the Qur'an, the hadith, and the biography of Mohammed. Shia and Sunni hadith collections differ because scholars from the two traditions differ as to the reliability of the narrators and transmitters and the Imamah. Shi'a sayings related to stoning can be found in Kitab al-Kafi,^[9] and Sunni sayings related to stoning can be found in the Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.^[10]

Based on these hadiths, in several Muslim countries, such as Afghanistan, Iran, Nigeria and Saudi Arabia, adultery is punishable by stoning.

The Qur'an forbids all sexual intercourse outside the marital bond as sinful, but makes no distinction between them. The punishment is flogging 100 times for those found guilty.^[11] Stoning (rajm) as a punishment for adultery is not mentioned in the Quran, so some modernist Muslim scholars like Quran alone Muslim Scholars take the view that stoning to death is not an Islamic law.^[12]

According to the Hanbali jurist Ibn Qudamah, "Muslim jurists are unanimous on the fact that stoning to death is a specified punishment for the married adulterer and adulteress. The punishment is recorded in number of traditions and the practice of Muhammad stands as an authentic source supporting it. This is the view held by all Companions, Successors and other Muslim scholars with the exception of Kharijites."^[13]

Because the word used in the Quran, 'zina', is exactly parallel to the Hebrew 'zanah', which strictly refers to fornication and not adultery (which is 'na'aph'), the Quran may not even be speaking of adultery at all. In that case, the point could be made that the command of the Torah on the punishment of adultery, namely, stoning to death, still stands. However, this is not the usual reason that Muslims support stoning for adultery, as most do not hold the Bible to be reliable, and instead derive from the hadiths.

In hadith (sayings)

Sahih Muslim, Book 17, Chapter 6: Stoning to Death of Jews and Other Dhimmis In Cases of Adultery, Number 4216: Jabir b.'Abdullah reported that Allah's Apostle stoned (to death) a person from Banu Aslam, and a Jew and his wife.^[14]

Sahih Bukhari 6.79, Narrated by Abdullah ibn Umar

The Jews brought to the Prophet a man and a woman from among them who had committed illegal sexual intercourse. The Prophet said to them, "How do you usually punish the one amongst you who has committed illegal sexual intercourse?" They replied, "We blacken their faces with coal and beat them." He said, "Don't you find the order of Ar-Rajm (i.e. stoning to death) in the Torah?" They replied, "We do not find anything in it." 'Abdullah bin Salam (after hearing this conversation) said to them, "You have told a lie! Bring here the Torah and recite it if you are truthful." (So the Jews brought the Torah). And the religious teacher who was teaching it to them, put his hand over the Verse of Ar-Rajm and started reading what was written above and below the place hidden with his hand, but he did not read the Verse of Ar-Rajm. 'Abdullah bin Salam removed his (i.e. the teacher's) hand from the Verse of Ar-Rajm and said, "What is this?" So when the Jews saw that Verse, they said, "This is the Verse of Ar-Rajm." So the Prophet ordered the two adulterers to be stoned to death, and they were stoned to death near the place where biers used to be placed near the Mosque. I saw her companion (i.e. the adulterer) bowing over her so as to protect her from the stones.^[15]

Sahih Bukhari, Volume 3, Book 50: Conditions, Number 885: Narrated Abu Huraira and Zaid bin Khalid Al-Juhani: A bedouin came to Allah's Apostle and said, "O Allah's apostle! I ask you by Allah to judge My case according to Allah's Laws." His opponent, who was more learned than he, said, "Yes, judge between us according to Allah's Laws, and allow me to speak." Allah's Apostle said, "Speak." He (i .e. the bedouin or the other man) said, "My son was working as a laborer for this (man) and he committed illegal sexual intercourse with his wife. The people told me that it was obligatory that my son should be stoned to death, so in lieu of that I ransomed my son by paying one hundred sheep and a slave girl. Then I asked the religious scholars about it, and they informed me that my son must be lashed one hundred lashes, and be exiled for one year, and the wife of this (man) must be stoned to death." Allah's Apostle said, "By Him in Whose Hands my soul is, I will judge between you according to Allah's Laws. The slave-girl and the sheep are to be returned to you, your son is to receive a hundred lashes and be exiled for one year. You, Unais, go to the wife of this (man) and if she confesses her guilt, stone her to death." Unais went to that woman next morning and she confessed. Allah's Apostle ordered that she be stoned to death.^[16]

Usage today[link]

As of September 2010, stoning is a punishment that is included in the laws in seven countries including Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Sudan, Iran, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, and some states in Nigeria.^[17] While stoning may not be codified in the laws of Afghanistan and Somalia, both countries have seen several incidents of stoning to death.^[18][19]

Afghanistan[link]

Before the Taliban government, most areas of Afghanistan, aside from the capital, Kabul, were controlled locally by warlords or tribal leaders and the Afghan legal system depended highly on an individual community's local culture and the political and/or religious ideology of its leaders. Stoning also occurred in lawless areas, where vigilantes committed the act for political purposes. Once the Taliban took over, stoning became the official punishment for many crimes. The U.S.-led occupation ended stoning as an official court ruling, but it still occurs unofficially.^[20][21] A Taliban-ordered public stoning of a couple accused of adultery took place in Kunduz on August 15, 2010.^[22]

Indonesia[link]

In 2009, a law was introduced in Aceh that called for the stoning of married adulterers^[23] but no cases of the sentence having been carried out have yet been reported.

Iraq[link]

In 2007, Du'a Khalil Aswad, a Yezidi girl, was stoned by her fellow tribesmen in northern Iraq.^[24]

Iran[link]

The Iranian judiciary officially placed a moratorium on stoning in 2002, although the punishment remained on the books, and there were a few cases of Judges handing down stoning sentences in 2006 and 2007.^[25] In 2008, Iran's judiciary decided to fully scrap the punishment from the books in a legislation submitted to parliament for approval.^[26] As of June 2009, Iran's parliament has been reviewing and revising the Islamic penal code to omit stoning as a form of punishment.^[27]

In Iran, stoning as a punishment did not exist until 1983, when the contemporary Islamic Penal Code was ratified. Many Muslim jurists in Iran are of the opinion that while stoning can be considered Islamic, the criteria under which it can be imposed as a sentence are stringent: Because of the large burden of proof needed to reach a guilty sentence of adultery, its penalty is hardly ever applicable.

Furthermore, while legally on the books, because of vociferous domestic and international controversy and outcry over stoning in the early years of the Islamic republic, the government placed official moratoriums on the punishment and, as a result, it was rarely practiced. Nevertheless, much of the public was outraged that such a practice instituted in the laws of the country.^[25] In 2002, Iran's judiciary indicated that stoning will no longer be practiced in Iran.^[25] However, following the election of Ahmadinejad, there were reports of judges handing down stoning sentences in 2006 and 2007. Finally, in 2008, Iran's judiciary decided to scrap the punishment of stoning in draft legislation submitted to parliament for approval.^[26] The Iranian judiciary spokesman Jamal Karimirad was quoted as saying "Stoning has been dropped from the penal code for a long time, and in the Islamic republic, we do not see such punishments being carried out", further adding that if stoning sentences were passed by lower courts, they were over-ruled by higher courts and "no such verdicts have been carried out."^[28]

Nigeria[link]

Since the Sharia legal system was introduced in the predominantly Muslim north of Nigeria in 2000, more than a dozen Nigerian Muslims have been sentenced to death by stoning for sexual offences ranging from adultery to homosexuality. However, none of these sentences has actually been carried out. They have either been thrown out on appeal or commuted to prison terms as a result of pressure from human rights groups.^[29][30][31]

Saudi Arabia, Sudan[link]

Stonings, with and without legal proceedings, have been reported in Sudan and Saudi Arabia.^[32]

Somalia[link]

In October, 2008, a girl, Aisho Ibrahim Dhuhulow, was buried up to her neck at a Somalian football stadium, then stoned to death in front of more than 1,000 people. The stoning occurred after she had allegedly pleaded guilty to adultery in a sharia court in Kismayo, a city controlled by Islamist insurgents. According to the insurgents she had stated that she wanted sharia law to apply.^[33] However, other sources state that the victim had been crying, that she begged for mercy and had to be forced into the hole before being buried up to her neck in the ground.^[34] Amnesty International later learned that the girl was in fact 13 years old and had been arrested by al-Shabab militia after she had reported being gang-raped by three men.^[35]

In December 2009, another instance of stoning was publicised after Mohamed Abukar Ibrahim was accused of adultery by the Hizbul Islam militant group.^[36]

Views[link]

Support for stoning[link]

A survey carried out by the Indonesia Survey Institute found that 43% of Indonesians support Rajam or stoning for adulterers.^[37]

A survey conducted by the Pew Research Center found relatively widespread popular support for stoning as a punishment for adultery in Egypt (82% of respondents in favor of the punishment), Jordan (70% in favor), Indonesia (42% in favor), Pakistan (82% favor) and Nigeria (56% in favor).^[38]

Groups against stoning[link]

Stoning has been condemned by several human rights organizations. Some groups, such as Amnesty International^[39] and Human Rights Watch, oppose all capital punishment, including stoning. Other groups, such as RAWA (Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan), oppose stoning per se as an especially cruel practice.

Specific sentences of stoning, such as the Amina Lawal case, have often generated international protest. Groups such as Human Rights Watch,^[40] while in sympathy with these protests, have raised a concern that the Western focus on stoning as an especially "exotic" or "barbaric" act distracts from what they view as the larger problems of capital punishment. They argue that the "more fundamental human rights issue in Nigeria is the dysfunctional justice system."

In Iran, the Stop Stoning Forever Campaign was formed by various women's rights activists after a man and a woman were stoned to death in Mashhad in May 2006. The campaign's main goal is to legally abolish stoning as a form of punishment for adultery in Iran.^[25]

Cases of stoning or attempts at stoning[link]

The stoning of St. Stephen (1863) by Gabriel-Jules Thomas

People stoned in religious texts[link]

In the Tanakh (Old Testament):

• The son of an Israelite woman and an Egyptian man, for cursing God (Leviticus 24:10–23)
• A man who gathered wood on Sabbath (Numbers 15:32–36)
• Achan (Joshua 7)
• Adoniram, King Rehoboam's tax man (1 Kings 12:18)
• Naboth, (1 Kings 21)
• Zechariah ben Jehoiada, who denounced the people's disobedience to the commandments (2 Chronicles 24:20–21, perhaps also Matthew 23:35)

In the New Testament:

• Saint Stephen, accused of blasphemy c. AD 31 (Acts 6:8–14, 7:58–60).

In the Talmud

• Yeshu the Nazarene "will be led out to be stoned" (Sanhedrin 43a)^[41]

People who were almost stoned in religious texts[link]

In the Tanakh and Old Testament:

• Moses (Exodus 17:4)
• Moses and Aaron (Numbers 14:6–10)
• David (1 Samuel 30:6)

In the New Testament:

• The Gospel of John chapter 8 gives the story of Jesus and the woman taken in adultery, in which people wanted to stone the woman.
• Jesus (John 10:31)
• The captain of the Temple and his officers (Acts 5:26)
• Paul of Tarsus, stoned at Lystra at the instigation of Jews. He was left for dead, but then revived. (Acts 14:19)

Historical cases not mentioned above[link]

• Palamedes (mythology), stoned to death as a traitor.
• Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, d. 100 BC, grandfather of later triumvir Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
• Pancras of Taormina, about AD 40
• James the Just, in AD 62, after being condemned by the Sanhedrin
• Saint Timothy, after AD 67
• Constantine-Silvanus, founder of the Paulicians, stoned in 684 in Armenia
• Saint Eskil, Anglo-Saxon monk stoned to death by Swedish Vikings, about 1080
• Moctezuma II, 1520, last Aztec Emperor (although the Aztecs claim he was executed by the Spanish)

Modern[link]

• Soraya Manutchehri, 1986, stoned to death in Iran after unconfirmed accusations of adultery
• Du’a Khalil Aswad, 2007, a 17-year-old stoned to death in Iraq
• Solange Medina, 2009, a 20 year old stoned to death in Juárez, Mexico^[42]
• Gustavo Santoro, 2010, a small town mayor in Mexico believed to have been murdered by stoning^[43]
• Murray Seidman, 2011, a 70 year old senior in Philadelphia, stoned to death by 28 year old John Thomas after allegedly making sexual advances towards the younger man. Thomas' defence is that he did it because The Bible says to kill homosexuals.^[44]
• Vali Azad, 30, in Gilan province, Iran, 2009.
• Aisha Ibrahim Duhulow, aged 13 in Kismayo, Somalia, 2008.
• Shano and Daulat Khan Malikdeenkhe, in Khwezai - Baezai area, Pakistan, 2008
• Mahboubeh M. And Abbas H,at Behest-e Zahra cemetery, southern Teheran, Iran, 2006.The public was not invited to the stoning, and the incident was not reported to the media, however it was spread by word to mouth to a journalist and womans rights activist. The activist gathered information and further exposed the happening to the world. In response to this, several womans rights activists, Lawyers and members of the Networks of Voulenteers went on to form the Stop Stoning Forever campaign to stop stoning in Iran.
• Sara Jaffar Nimat, aged 11, in the town of Khanaqin, Iraqi Kurdistan, 2007. She had been hit by bricks and stones, and burnt.
• Jafar Kiani, in Agche - kand, a small village near Takestan, Iran, 2007.
• Kurdistan Aziz, aged 16, Iraqi Kurdistan, 2008. She had been stoned in an act of "Honour" - killing.

People who were almost stoned[link]

• Amina Lawal, sentenced to death by stoning in Nigeria in 2002, but freed on appeal
• Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani sentenced to death by stoning in Iran in 2007, but sentence is under review
• Safiya Husseini, sentenced to death by stoning in Nigeria but freed on appeal.^[45]
• Shaheen Abdel Rahman and Unnamed woman, in Fujeirah, United Arab Emirates, 2006

In literature[link]

• Shirley Jackson's "The Lottery" depicts a lottery in which one member of a small, isolated American community is stoned to death ritually each year as a sacrifice. It explores themes of scapegoating, man's inherent evil and the destructive nature of observing ancient, outdated rituals. The music video for "Man That You Fear" by Marilyn Manson is based on these events.
• Robert A. Heinlein's Stranger in a Strange Land reaches its climax with a stoning execution.
• Freidoune Sahebjam's The Stoning of Soraya M. is a true story of a woman who was stoned to death in Iran in 1986.
• Simon Perry's All Who Came Before climaxes with a stoning as Barabbas enters Jerusalem.^[46]

In film and television[link]

• Seven Sleepers, 2005 – A series running on Iranian TV, in which medieval (300–400 AD) Jews stone Christians.^[47]
• A Stoning in Fulham County, 1988 – A made-for-TV movie surrounding the vigilante stoning in an American Amish community.^[48]
• Monty Python's Life of Brian presents a Jesus of Nazareth-era stoning in a humorous context, ending with a massive boulder being dropped on the Jewish official, not the victim. The film mentions that women are not allowed at stonings, yet almost all of the stone-throwers turn out to be women disguised as men.
• Shirley Jackson's "The Lottery" was made into a short (20 minute) film by Larry Yust in 1969 as part of an educational release for Encyclopædia Britannica's "Short Story Showcase".^[49]
• The film The Kite Runner depicts the stoning of an adulteress by the Taliban in a public stadium during a football match.
• The film Mission Istanbul depicts the stoning of an adulteress in Kabul, by the fictional terrorist group Abu Nazir until it is interrupted by the protagonist Vikas Sagar.
• The Stoning of Soraya M. 2009
• Year One
• Zorba The Greek, a 1946 Novel by Nikos Kazantzakis and 1964 movie with Anthony Quinn, has grim stoning scene where the woman is rescued only to be stabbed at the scene
• The stoning (2006), a film by Harald Holzenleiter
• Osama (2003) by director Siddiq Barmak depicts a women being buried in preparation for stoning
• In one CSI: Miami 2011 episode a female college bully is murdered by lapidation

Although Islamic law prescribes stoning for married adulterers, the television - series Sleeper Cell, about an underground radical Islamist group, depicts a scene where a member is stoned for treason.

See also[link]

• Ishikozume (Japan)
• Shab Qadar Incident
• Stoning of the Devil

Individuals

• Malak Ghorbany
• Amina Lawal
• Stoning of Du'a Khalil Aswad

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Stoning

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Stonings

• Realite-eu.org, Amnesty International Report condemns Iran’s practice of death by stoning]
• Frequently Asked Questions About Stoning
• Stoning and Human Rights
• Stoning and Islam
• Stoning Cases
• Extract of the Kitab Al-Hudud (The book pertaining to punishments prescribed by Islam)
• Khaleej Times (United Arab Emirates: Fujairah Shariah court orders man to be stoned to death for adultery – 11 June 2006)
• Muslims against stoning
• QuranicPath – Qur'an against stoning
• 1991 Video of Stoning of Death in Iran: WMV format | Real Player
• Video of stoning of a woman in Iraq
• Graphic: Anatomy of a stoning (National Post, November 20, 2010)