Assorted cosmetics and tools

Woman applying makeup

Cosmetics are substances used to enhance the appearance or odor of the human body. Cosmetics include skin-care creams, lotions, powders, perfumes, lipsticks, fingernail and toe nail polish, eye and facial makeup, towelettes, permanent waves, colored contact lenses, hair colors, hair sprays and gels, deodorants, hand sanitizer, baby products, bath oils, bubble baths, bath salts, butters and many other types of products. A subset of cosmetics is called "make-up," which refers primarily to colored products intended to alter the user’s appearance. Many manufacturers distinguish between decorative cosmetics and care cosmetics. The word cosmetics derives from the Greek κοσμητική τέχνη (kosmetikē tekhnē), meaning "technique of dress and ornament", from κοσμητικός (kosmētikos), "skilled in ordering or arranging"^[1] and that from κόσμος (kosmos), meaning amongst others "order" and "ornament".^[2]

The manufacture of cosmetics is currently dominated by a small number of multinational corporations that originated in the early 20th century, but the distribution and sale of cosmetics is spread among a wide range of different businesses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) which regulates cosmetics in the United States^[3] defines cosmetics as: "intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body's structure or functions." This broad definition includes, as well, any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category.^[4]

History[link]

Nefertiti bust with eye liner applied

An 1889 Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec painting of a woman applying cosmetics to her face

The first archaeological evidence of cosmetics usage was found in Egypt around 3500 BC during the Old Kingdom.^{[citation needed]} The Ancient Greeks and Romans also used cosmetics.^[5][6] The Romans and Ancient Egyptians used cosmetics containing poisonous mercury and often lead. The ancient kingdom of Israel was influenced by cosmetics as recorded in the Old Testament—2 Kings 9:30 where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC. The Biblical book of Esther describes various beauty treatments as well.

In the Middle Ages, although its use was frowned upon by Church leaders, many women still wore cosmetics. A popular fad for women during the Middle Ages was to have a pale-skinned complexion, which was achieved through either applying pastes of lead, chalk, or flour, or by bloodletting. Women would also put white lead pigment that was known as "ceruse" on their faces to appear to have pale skin.^[7]

Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history. For example, in the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared makeup improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors.^[8]

Women in the 19th century liked to be thought of as fragile ladies. They compared themselves to delicate flowers and emphasized their delicacy and femininity. They aimed always to look pale and interesting. Sometimes ladies discreetly used a little rouge on the cheeks, and used "belladonna" to dilate their eyes to make their eyes stand out more. Make-up was frowned upon in general especially during the 1870s when social etiquette became more rigid.

Actresses however were allowed to use make up and famous beauties such as Sarah Bernhardt and Lillie Langtry could be powdered. Most cosmetic products available were still either chemically dubious, or found in the kitchen amid food colorings, berries and beetroot.

By the middle of the 20th century, cosmetics were in widespread use by women in nearly all industrial societies around the world.

Cosmetics have been in use for thousands of years. The absence of regulation of the manufacture and use of cosmetics has led to negative side effects, deformities, blindness, and even death through the ages. Examples of this were the prevalent use of ceruse (white lead), to cover the face during the Renaissance, and blindness caused by the mascara Lash Lure during the early 20th century.

The worldwide annual expenditures for cosmetics today is estimated at $19 billion.^[9] Of the major firms, the largest is L'Oréal, which was founded by Eugene Schueller in 1909 as the French Harmless Hair Colouring Company (now owned by Liliane Bettencourt 26% and Nestlé 28%; the remaining 46% is traded publicly). The market was developed in the USA during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II and Estée Lauder just after.

Beauty products are now widely available from dedicated internet-only retailers,^[10] who have more recently been joined online by established outlets, including the major department stores and traditional bricks and mortar beauty retailers.

Like most industries, cosmetic companies resist regulation by government agencies like the FDA, and have lobbied against this throughout the years. The FDA does not have to approve or review the cosmetics, or what goes in them before they are sold to the consumers. The FDA only regulates against the colors that can be used in the cosmetics and hair dyes. The cosmetic companies do not have to report any injuries from the products; they also only have voluntary recalls on products.^[11]

Though modern make-up has been used mainly by women traditionally, gradually an increasing number of males are using cosmetics usually associated to women to enhance or cover their own facial features. Concealer is commonly used by cosmetic-conscious men. Cosmetics brands are releasing cosmetic products especially tailored for men, and men are using such products increasily more commonly.^[12]

Criticism and controversy[link]

Ethics[link]

During the 20th century, the popularity of cosmetics increased rapidly.^{[citation needed]} Cosmetics are increasingly used by girls at a young age, especially in the United States. Due to the fast-decreasing age of make-up users, many companies, from high-street brands like Rimmel to higher-end products like Estee Lauder, have catered to this expanding market by introducing more flavored lipsticks and glosses, cosmetics packaged in glittery, sparkly packaging and marketing and advertising using young models.^{[citation needed]} The social consequences of younger and younger beautification has had much attention in the media over the last few years.

Criticism of cosmetics has come from a variety of sources including some feminists, religious groups, animal rights activists, authors and public interest groups. There is a growing awareness and preference for cosmetics that are without any supposedly toxic ingredients, especially those derived from petroleum, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), and parabens.^[13]

Safety[link]

Numerous published reports have raised concern over the safety of a few surfactants. SLS causes a number of skin issues including dermatitis.^{[14][15][16][17][18]}

Parabens can cause skin irritation and contact dermatitis in individuals with paraben allergies, a small percentage of the general population.^[19] Animal experiments have shown that parabens have a weak estrogenic activity, acting as xenoestrogens.^[20]

Prolonged use of makeup has also been linked to thinning eyelashes.^[21]

Synthetic fragrances are widely used in consumer products. Studies concluded from patch testing show synthetic fragrances are made of many ingredients which cause allergic reactions.^[22]

Cosmetics companies have been criticized for making pseudo-scientific claims about their products which are misleading or unsupported by scientific evidence.^[23][24]

Animal testing[link]

Cosmetics testing on animals is particularly controversial. Such tests, which are still conducted in the U.S., involve general toxicity, eye and skin irritancy, phototoxicity (toxicity triggered by ultraviolet light) and mutagenicity.^[25]

Cosmetics testing is banned in the Netherlands, Belgium, and the UK, and in 2002, after 13 years of discussion, the European Union (EU) agreed to phase in a near-total ban on the sale of animal-tested cosmetics throughout the EU from 2009, and to ban all cosmetics-related animal testing. France, which is home to the world's largest cosmetics company, L'Oreal, has protested the proposed ban by lodging a case at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, asking that the ban be quashed.^[26] The ban is also opposed by the European Federation for Cosmetics Ingredients, which represents 70 companies in Switzerland, Belgium, France, Germany and Italy.^[26]

Psychological Motivations for Cosmetics Use[link]

A correlational study that surveyed thirty English women revealed that anxiety (p= .008), self-presentation (p=.003), and conformity (p= .007) are significantly positively correlated with the application of cosmetics, and social confidence (p=.032), emotional stability (p=.037), self-esteem (p=.003), and physical attractiveness (p=.006) are significantly negatively correlated with cosmetics usage. (Fieldman, Robertson and Hussey, 2008)^[27] This data suggests that anxious, insecure females are motivated to apply cosmetics more so than females who are emotionally secure, socially confident and perceive themselves as physically attractive.

Another study conducted by Cash, Dawson, Davis, Bowen and Galumbeck, utilizing a sample of undergraduate college students, discovered that male peers tend to be harsher judges of a female's physical attractiveness than female peers are. It also revealed that females may overestimate their physical attractiveness when they are wearing makeup cosmetics. (1988)^[28]

However, the current literature on the motivation for cosmetics use is scarce, and society would benefit from the creation and repetition of empirical studies on this topic. The aforementioned studies only studied small samples of females, predominantly consisting of participants of Caucasian descent, in their early twenties and all had some college education. More studies should be conducted including samples taken from people of various races, cultures, religious affiliations, education statuses, social classes, genders and ages.

Cultural Studies

There are many studies conducted that include the use of skin bleaching agents to lighten skin color. In Tanzania ^[29] and Burkina Faso,^[30] studies found that skin bleaching and "depigmenting" products are used among women. Women in Africa, as reported by Lewis, et. al, perform practices such as using creams, gels, and common household products to bleach their skin that is very harmful to the body. There are "six thematic motivations behind the practice of skin bleaching: (a) to remove pimples, rashes, and skin disease; (b) to have soft skin; (c) to be White, ‘‘beautiful,’’ and more European looking; (d) to remove the adverse effects of extended skin bleaching use on the body; (e) to satisfy one’s partner and/or attract male mates; and (f) to satisfy and impress peers. These findings provide empirical support for skin bleaching being linked to self-objectification, colonialism, and Westernization." Researchers find that there is significant evidence that there are cultural factors to why this practice occurs, especially among African women (Lewis, 2011). The roots to why this exists are that there are "racial hierarchies" among Africans passed on by the colonialism era whereby the dark-skinned Africans were inferior to the light skinned Europeans. This left native Africans as vulnerable to the idea that skin color was significant and important within society. In Lewis, et al. study of Tanzanian women, the principle that women internalize the perspectives of others as a primary reference for viewing themselves is a framework for their participant study.

In the study done by Traore, et al., "A desire to change the color of the skin motivated 197 CDP users (43.9%), and a desire to change the texture of the skin motivated 77 (17.2%); 51 users (11.4%) did not give a reason for their CDP use, and 75 gave imitation of others as their motivation (16.8%). Treatment of skin imperfections motivated 48 users (10.7%)." Women two cities in Burkina Faso use bleaching products to mainly maintain acne and other dermatological ailments perceived by the users. Among the users, it was more common for women 40 years and younger, unmarried, or divorced to use bleaching products. The main motivation for use of such products was also to lighten skin for self-fulfilling reasons (Traore, 2011).

Makeup types[link]

Most cosmetics are distinguished by the area of the body intended for application.

• Face Primer, Come in various formulas to suite individual skin concerns. Most are meant to reduce the appearance of pore size, prolong the wear of makeup, and allow for a smoother application of makeup. Applied before foundation.
• Eye Primer, Used to prolong the wear of eyeshadows on the eye as well as intensify color payoff from shadows.
• Lipgloss, is a sheer form of lipstick that is in a liquid form.
• Lipstick, lip gloss, lip liner, lip plumper, lip balm, lip conditioner, lip primer, and lip boosters.^[3] Lip stains have a water or gel base and may contain alcohol to help the product stay on the lips. The idea behind lip stains is to temporarily saturate the lips with a dye, rather than covering them with a colored wax. Usually designed to be waterproof, the product may come with an applicator brush or be applied with a finger.
• Concealer, makeup used to cover any imperfections of the skin. Concealer is often used for any extra coverage needed to cover blemishes, or any other marks. Concealer is often thicker and more solid than foundation, and provides longer lasting, and more detailed coverage. Some formulations are meant only for the eye or only for the face.
• Foundation, used to smooth out the face and cover spots or uneven skin coloration. Usually a liquid, cream, or powder, as well as most recently, a light and fluffy mousse, which provides excellent coverage as well.^[3] Foundation primer can be applied before or after to get a smoother finish. Some primers come in powder or liquid form to be applied before foundation as a base, while other primers come as a spray to be applied after you are finished to help make-up last longer.
• Face powder, used to set the foundation, giving a matte finish, and also to conceal small flaws or blemishes.
• Rouge, blush or blusher, cheek coloring used to bring out the color in the cheeks and make the cheekbones appear more defined. This comes in powder, cream, and liquid forms.^[3]
• Contour powder/creams, used to define the face. It can be used to give the illusion of a slimmer face or to even modify a person’s face shape as desired. Usually a few shades darker than ones own skin tone and matte in finish to create the illusion of depth. A darker toned foundation/concealer can be used instead to contour to create a more natural look.
• Highlight, used to draw attention to the high points of the face as well as to add glow to the face. It comes in liquid, cream, and powder form. Often contains shimmer, but sometimes does not. A lighter toned foundation/concealer can be used instead to highlight create a more natural look.
• Bronzer, used to give skin a bit of color by adding a golden or bronze glow.^[3] Can come in either matte, semi matte/satin, or shimmer finishes.
• Mascara is used to darken, lengthen, and thicken the eyelashes. It is available in natural colors such as brown and black, but also comes in bolder colors such as blue, pink, or purple. There are many different formulas, including waterproof for those prone to allergies or sudden tears. Often used after an eyelash curler and mascara primer.^[3] There are now also many mascaras with certain components to help lashes to grow longer and thicker. There are specific minerals and proteins that are combined with the mascara that can benefit, as well as beautify.

Eye shadow being applied

Broadway actor Jim Brochu applies make-up before the opening night of a play.

The chin mask known as chutti for Kathakali, a performing art in Kerala, India is considered the thickest makeup applied for any art form.

• Eyelash glue, Used to adhere false lashes to the eyes. Can come in either clear or colored formulas.
• Eyebrow pencils, creams, waxes, gels and powders are used to color and define the brows.^[3]
• Nail polish, used to color the fingernails and toenails.^[3][31]
• Setting Spray, used to keep applied makeup intact for long periods of time. An alternative to setting spray is setting powder which may be either pigmented or translucent.

Cosmetics can be also described by the physical composition of the product. Cosmetics can be liquid or cream emulsions; powders, both pressed and loose; dispersions; and anhydrous creams or sticks.

• Eyeliner used to enhance and elongate the size of the eye.

Makeup remover is the product used to remove the makeup products applied on the skin. It is used for cleaning the skin for other procedures, like applying any type of lotion at evening before the person go to sleep.

Skin Care Products[link]

Also included in the general category of cosmetics are skin care products. These include creams and lotions to moisturize the face and body which are often formulated for different skin types per range, sunscreens to protect the skin from UV radiation and damage, skin lighteners, and treatment products to repair or hide skin imperfections (acne, wrinkles, dark circles under eyes, etc.), tanning oils to brown the skin.

For each skin type present, the correct types of products must be used in order to maintain healthy and attractive skin.

Skin Types[link]

There are five basic skin types, including:

1. Normal Skin[link]

This type of skin has a fine, even and smooth surface due to having an ideal balance between oil and moisture contents and is therefore neither greasy nor dry. People who have normal skin have small, barely-visible pores. Thus, their skin appears clear and does not develop spots and blemishes. This type of skin needs minimal and gentle treatment.

2. Dry Skin[link]

Dry skin has a parched appearance and tends to flake easily. It is prone to wrinkles and lines due to the inability to retain moisture, as well as, the inadequate production of sebum by sebaceous glands. Dry skin often has problems in cold weather as it dries up even further. Constant protection in the form of a moisturizer by day and a moisture-rich cream by night is essential.

3. Oily Skin[link]

As its name implies, this type of skin’s surface is slightly to moderately greasy, which is caused by the over secretion of sebum. The excess oil on the surface of the skin draws dirt and dust from the environment to stick to it. Oily skin is usually prone to black heads, white heads, spots and pimples. It needs to be cleansed thoroughly every day.

4. Combination Skin[link]

This is the most common type of skin. As the name suggests, it is a combination of both oily and dry skin where certain areas of the face are oily and the rest dry. The oily parts are usually found on a central panel, called T – Zone, consisting of the forehead, nose and chin. The dry areas consist of the cheeks and the areas around the eyes and mouth. In such cases, each part of the face should be treated accordingly where the dry areas are treated as for dry skin and the central panel is treated as for oily skin. There are also skin care products made especially for those who have combination skin.

5. Sensitive skin[link]

Sensitive skin has a very fine texture and is excessively sensitive to changes in the climate. This skin type is easily irritated, bruised and/or scarred from bleaching, waxing, threading, perfumes, temperature extremes, soap, shaving creams, etc. People who belong to this skin type should avoid products with dyes, perfumes, or unnecessary chemical ingredients that may aggravate the skin.

General Skin Care Routines[link]

Cleansing[link]

Cleansing is the first essential step to any daily skin care routine. Cleansing the face at least twice a day is suitable for normal skin. If skin is oily, a more frequent cleansing or about four to five times a day is required. However, products that are water-based and gentle are ideal so as to not over-dry the skin. For dry skin, it is best to avoid frequent washing and a suitable oil-based cosmetic cleanser instead of soap is preferred. There are several alternatives to soap and water cleansing. Cleansers can be in the form of creams, milks, lotions, gels and liquids. All are a mixture of oil, wax and water which have been formulated to suit different skin types. A cotton -pad dipped in fresh milk available at home, is an equally effective natural cleanser. To complete the cleansing process, the skin must be rinsed with water. Some who wear long wearing foundation may find it beneficial to pre-cleanse the face with a cleansing oil to remove any silicones left over from the foundation.

Masks[link]

Essentially all face masks have some sort of a cleansing action. Various ingredients are used in the masks, depending on the skin type. Clay forms an important constituent of many face masks that helps to remove dirt, sebum, and dead skin to refresh and soften the skin surface. Fullers earth is a special type of clay often used in face packs. It contains aluminium silicate and as it dries on the skin, it absorbs the superficial dead cells and blots up any excessive oil. It is therefore excellent for oily skin but should not be used on dry skin. Kaolin is also a fine clay which removes grime, oils and dead cells. Again it is best for oily skin and should be avoided on dry skin. Another ingredient of some of the masks is a peeling or exfoliating agent which helps remove the top layer of dead cells from the skin, leaving behind fresh youthful skin. Oatmeal and bran are the commonly used peelers. In addition, natural ingredients such as cucumbers, curds, lemon juice and Brewer's Yeast are added to many masks to restore the acid / alkali balance of the skin. There are three general forms that masks come in: Clay, Peel, and Sheet. The clay formulation is one of the most common. It is usually composed of different clays to draw out the impurities in the skin. Peel masks usually have a gel like consistency and are peeled off of the skin to help exfoliate. Sheet masks are becoming more common in America, they are very popular in Asia. Sheet masks can be used to treat different skin concerns, but one of the most popular concerns is skin brightening.

Toning[link]

Many skin care products include skin fresheners, toners and astringents which generally contain alcohol and water. These products are used after cleansing the skin to freshen and tone up and remove any traces of dirt or impurities from the skin, as well as restore the skin’s acid/ alkali balance. Non-alcoholic fresheners are for dry and sensitive skin. Those with alcohol (astringent) are for oily skin. People with combination skin should use both kinds for the different areas of their face.

Moisturizing[link]

Regular use of a suitable moisturizer benefits the skin as it not only replaces water lost from the skin but also prevents the loss of water. It protects the skin against the drying influences of the environment including the harsh effects of the sun, cold and heat. Tinted moisturizers can be used under foundation cosmetics. It allows make-up to remain moist. Using a moisturizer is particularly beneficial for dry skins. Oil free moisturizers are also available for oily skins. There are two types of moisturizers: Oil - in water emulsions and water -in -oil emulsions. For normal and combination skin, a water based moisturizer containing minimal oil is suitable. Sensitive and dry types of skin need moisturizers containing a high content of oil.

Protecting[link]

The sun is the most damaging environmental factor to the health and appearance of skin. Ultraviolet radiation from sunlight can cause permanent damage to the skin causing it to sag, lose elasticity and form wrinkles. Severe sunburn can even cause skin cancer. Therefore, sunscreen and SPF-foundations protect the skin against these damaging effects. They also shield the skin from direct contact with dirt or pollutants in the air and help the skin retain necessary moisture. Sunscreen's come in lotions and creams. A sunscreen with the sun protection factor (SPF) of number 15 can block most of the sun's ultraviolet radiations before it can damage the skin. The SPF number indicates the length of time that the product will protect the skin, i.e. 15 hours. Sunscreens should be applied at least 10 minutes before exposure to the sun to ensure proper absorption and effective protection.

Ingredients[link]

While there is assurance from the largest cosmetic companies that ingredients have passed quality tests and official regulations, and are therefore generally safe to use, there is a growing preference for cosmetics that are without any "synthetic" ingredients, especially those derived from petroleum. Once a niche market, handmade and certified organic products are becoming more mainstream.

Ingredients' listings in cosmetics are highly regulated in many countries. The testing of cosmetic products on animals is a subject of some controversy. It is now illegal in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Belgium, and a ban across the European Union came into effect in 2009. When purchasing cosmetics it is important to know that the highest concentration of ingredients are listed first in the ingredients list on the packaging.

Organic and natural ingredients[link]

Even though many cosmetic products are regulated, there are still health concerns regarding the presence of harmful chemicals within these products.^{[citation needed]} Aside from color additives, cosmetic products and their ingredients are not subject to FDA regulation prior to their release into the market. It is only when a product is found to violate Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) and Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA) after its release that the FDA may start taking action against this violation.^[12] With many new products released into the market every season, it is hard to keep track of the safety of every product. Some products carry carcinogenic contaminant 1,4- dioxane. Many cosmetic companies are coming out with "All natural" and organic products such as anti-ageing and anti-acne creams based on Egg Oil which contains Omega-3 fatty acids and xanthophylls. All natural products contain mineral, egg and plant ingredients and organic products are made with organic agricultural products. Products who claim they are organic are not, unless they are certified "USDA Organic."^[32][33]

Mineral makeup[link]

The term "mineral makeup" applies to a category of face makeup, including foundation, eye shadow, blush, and bronzer, that is made with loose, dry mineral powders. Lipsticks, liquid foundations, and other liquid cosmetics, as well as compressed makeups such as eye shadow and blush in compacts, are also often called mineral makeup if they have the same primary ingredients as dry mineral makeups; however, liquid makeups must contain preservatives and compressed makeups must contain binders, which the dry mineral makeups do not.

Ingredients[link]

The main ingredients in mineral makeups are usually coverage pigments, such as zinc oxide and titanium dioxide, both of which are also physical sunscreens.^[34]

Other main ingredients include mica (Sericite) and pigmenting minerals, such as iron oxide, tin oxide^{[disambiguation needed ]}, and magnesium myristate.

Mineral makeup usually does not contain synthetic fragrances, preservatives, parabens, mineral oil, and chemical dyes. Because of this, many dermatologists consider mineral makeup to be purer and kinder to the skin than makeup that contains those ingredients.^[35]

However, some mineral makeups contain Bismuth oxychloride, which can be irritating to the skin of sensitive individuals. Others also contain talc, over which there is some controversy because of its comedogenic tendencies (tendency to clog pores and therefore cause acne) and because some people are sensitive to talc.

Benefits[link]

Because titanium dioxide and zinc oxide have anti-inflammatory properties, mineral makeups with those ingredients can also have a calming effect on the skin, which is particularly important for those who suffer from inflammatory problems such as rosacea. Zinc oxide is also anti-microbial,^[36] so mineral makeups can be beneficial for those with acne.

Mineral makeup is noncomedogenic (as long as it doesn't contain talc), and it offers a mild amount of sun protection (because of the titanium dioxide and zinc oxide).^[37]

Because they don't contain liquid ingredients, mineral makeups can last in their containers indefinitely as long as the user doesn't contaminate them with liquid.

Cosmetic industry[link]

The cosmetic industry is a profitable business for most manufacturers of cosmetic products. By cosmetic products, we understand anything that is intended for personal care such as skin lotions or sun lotions, makeup and other such products meant to emphasize one's look. Given the technological development and the improvement of the manufacturing process of cosmetics and not least due to the constantly increasing demand of such products, this industry reported an important growth in terms of profit.

The cosmetic industry has not only grown only in the United States, but also in various parts of the world which have become famous for their cosmetic precuts. Some of these include France, Germany, Italy and Japan. It has been estimated that in Germany, the cosmetic industry generated sales of EUR 12.6 billion at retail sales, in 2008^[38] which made of German cosmetic industry the 3rd in the world, after Japan and the United States. Also, it has been shown that in the same country, this industry has grown with nearly 5 percent in one year, from 2007 to 2008. The exports of Germany in this industry reached in 2008 EUR 5.8 billion whereas the imports of cosmetics totaled EUR 3 billion.^[38] The main countries that export cosmetics to Germany are France, Switzerland, the United States and Italy and they mainly consist of makeup and fragrances or perfumes for women.

After the United States, Japan is the second largest market for cosmetics in the world, a market worth about JPY 1.4 trillion per year.^[39]

The worldwide cosmetics and perfume industry currently generates an estimated annual turnover of US$170 billion (according to Eurostaf - May 2007). Europe is the leading market, representing approximately €63 billion, while sales in France reached €6.5 billion in 2006, according to FIPAR (Fédération des Industries de la Parfumerie - the French federation for the perfume industry).^[40] France is another country in which the cosmetic industry plays an important role, both nationally and internationally. Most products on whose label it is stated "Made in France" are valued on the international market. According to data from 2008, the cosmetic industry has risen constantly in France, for 40 consecutive years. In 2006, this industrial sector reached a record level of EUR 6.5 billion. Famous cosmetic brands produced in France include Vichy, Yves Saint Laurent, Yves Rocher and many others.

The Italian cosmetic industry is also an important player in the European cosmetic market. Although not as large as in other European countries, the cosmetic industry in Italy was estimated to reach EUR 9 billion in 2007.^[41] The Italian cosmetic industry is however dominated by hair and body products and not makeup as in many other European countries. In Italy, hair and body products make up approximately 30% of the cosmetic market. Makeup and facial care however are the first cosmetic products to be exported in the United States.

Due to the popularity of cosmetics, especially fragrances and perfumes, many designers who are not necessarily involved in the cosmetic industry came up with different perfumes carrying their names. Moreover, some actors and singers have their own perfume line (such as Celine Dion). The designer perfumes are, like any other designer products, the most expensive in the industry as the consumer pays not only for the product but also for the brand. Famous Italian fragrances are produced by Giorgio Armani, Dolce and Gabbana and so on.

Recently, Procter & Gamble, which sells CoverGirl and Dolce & Gabbana makeup, funded a study^[42] concluding that makeup makes women seem more competent.^[43] Due to the source of funding, the quality of this Boston University study comes into question.

The cosmetic industry worldwide seems to be continuously developing, now more than ever with the advent of the Internet companies. Many famous companies sell their cosmetic products online also in countries in which they do not have representatives.

Legislation[link]

The main directive in the EU affecting the manufacture, labelling and supply of cosmetics and personal care products is the Cosmetics Directive 76/768/EEC.^[44] It applies to all the countries of the EU as well as Iceland, Norway and Switzerland. These regulations apply to single-person companies making or importing just one product as well as to large multinationals. In the UK the directive is enacted as the Cosmetic Product (safety) Regulations 2008. ^[45] For manufacturers and importers of cosmetic products it is necessary to comply to the applying regulations in order to sell their products. In this industry it is common fall back on a suitably qualified person, such as an independent third party inspection and testing company, to verify the cosmetics’ compliance against the requirements of applicable cosmetic regulations and other relevant legislation, including REACH, GMP, hazardous substances, etc. ^[46][47]

In the European Union, the circulation of cosmetic products and their safety are law subjects since 1976. One of the newest amendments of the directive concerning cosmetic industry comes as a result of the attempt to ban animal testing. Therefore, testing cosmetic products on animals is illegal in the European Union from September 2004 and testing separate ingredients of such products on animals is also prohibited by law starting with March 2009.^[48]

In the U.S. the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the body making legislation in what concerns cosmetic industry and its various aspects within the United States.^[49] The FDA joined with thirteen other Federal agencies in forming the Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM) in 1997 which is an attempt to ban animal testing and find other methods to test the cosmetic products.^[50]

Cosmetic careers[link]

An account executive is responsible for visiting all department and specialty store counter sales and doors. They explain new products and "gifts with purchase" (free items given out upon purchase of a certain cosmetics item that costs more than a set amount).

A beauty adviser provides product advice based on the client's skin care and makeup requirements. Beauty advisers can become certified through the Anti-Aging Beauty Institute.

Model Alek Wek receiving make-up from a professional.

A cosmetician is a professional who provides facial and body treatments for clients. The term cosmetologist is sometimes used interchangeably with this term, but most commonly refers to a certified professional. A freelance makeup artist provides clients with beauty advice and cosmetics assistance—usually paid by the cosmetic company by the hour, however they sometimes work as independently without a company.

Professionals in cosmetics marketing careers manage research focus groups, promote the desired brand image, and provide other marketing services (sales forecasting, allocation to different retailers, etc.).

Many involved within the cosmetics industry often specialize in a certain area of cosmetics such as special effects makeup or makeup techniques specific to the film, media and fashion sectors.

See also[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cosmetics

• Winter, Ruth (2005) [2005] (in English). A Consumer's Dictionary of Cosmetic Ingredients: Complete Information About the Harmful and Desirable Ingredients in Cosmetics (Paperback). US: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 1-4000-5233-5. 
• Begoun, Paula (2003) [2003] (in English). Don't Go to the Cosmetics Counter Without Me(Paperback). US: Beginning Press. ISBN 1-877988-30-8. 
• Carrasco, Francisco (2009) [2009] (in Spanish). Diccionario de Ingredientes Cosmeticos(Paperback). Spain: www.imagenpersonal.net. ISBN 978-84-613-4979-1. 

Kim Kardashian
Kim Kardashian Fragrance Launch, Glendale, CA on February 22, 2011
Born	Kimberly Noel Kardashian (1980-10-21) October 21, 1980 (age 31) Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Nationality	American
Ethnicity	Armenian, Dutch, Scottish
Occupation	Businesswoman, socialite, television personality, model, actress
Years active	2007–present
Height	5 ft 2.5 in (1.59 m)
Television	Keeping Up with the Kardashians Kourtney and Kim Take New York
Spouse	Damon Thomas (m. 2000–2004) «start: (2000)–end+1: (2005)»"Marriage: Damon Thomas to Kim Kardashian" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Kim_Kardashian) Kris Humphries (m. 2011) «start: (2011)»"Marriage: Kris Humphries to Kim Kardashian" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Kim_Kardashian) (separated)
Parents	Robert Kardashian (father) Kris Jenner (mother) Bruce Jenner (stepfather)
Relatives	Kourtney Kardashian (sister) Khloé Kardashian (sister) Robert Kardashian Jr. (brother) Kylie Jenner (half-sister) Kendall Jenner (half-sister)
Website
kimkardashian.celebuzz.com

Kimberly Noel "Kim" Kardashian^[1] (born October 21, 1980^[2]) is an American socialite, celebutante, television personality, model, actress and businesswoman. She is known for starring in Keeping Up with the Kardashians, the E! reality series that she shares with her family, and its spin-offs including Kourtney and Kim Take New York.^[3]

Prior to the development of her career as a reality television star, Kardashian gained notoriety as the subject of a sex tape that subsequently resulted in a court awarding her $5 million. She has been involved in the production of several lines of clothing and fragrances. In 2010, she was the highest earning reality star, with estimated earnings of $6 million, and is one of the most highly documented and followed celebrities in the world in popular media.

In August 2011, Kardashian married basketball player Kris Humphries in a widely publicized ceremony. In October 2011, Kardashian filed for divorce, 72 days after the wedding.

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Kardashian was born in Los Angeles, California, the daughter of attorney Robert Kardashian and his wife Kris Kardashian (née Houghton). Her father was a third generation Armenian American, and her mother is of Dutch and Scottish descent.^[4] Kardashian has two sisters, Kourtney and Khloé, and one brother, Robert. She has stepbrothers Burton Jenner, Brandon Jenner, and reality TV star Brody Jenner, step-sister Casey Jenner, and half-sisters Kendall Jenner and Kylie Jenner.^[5] She attended Marymount High School.^[6]

In 2000, Kardashian married music producer Damon Thomas; their relationship ended in divorce in 2004. Subsequently she dated R&B singer Ray J, NFL star Reggie Bush^[7] and Dallas Cowboys wide receiver Miles Austin.^[8] She also dated model Gabriel Aubry.^[9]

2003–07: Controversy and reality television[link]

In February 2007, a home sex video that she made with singer Ray J in 2003^[10] was leaked.^[11] Vivid Entertainment bought the rights for $1 million and released the film as Kim Kardashian: Superstar on February 21.^[11] Kardashian sued Vivid for ownership of the tape. In late April 2007, Kardashian dropped the suit and settled with Vivid Entertainment for $5 million.^[12]

Kardashian was a friend of Paris Hilton, who introduced her to the socialite scene.^[13] Her first acting role was in the television series Beyond the Break. In October 2007, along with her two sisters, mother, brother, half-sisters, and stepfather she starred in the E! television series, Keeping Up with the Kardashians. As of October 2011, the series has aired 69 episodes over six seasons.

2007–2010: Modeling and retail[link]

Kardashian in Santa Monica, California on May 13, 2009 at Maxim's 10th Annual Hot 100 Celebration

Kardashian co-owns a clothing boutique called D-A-S-H with her sisters Kourtney and Khloé.^[14] In December 2007, Kardashian posed nude for Playboy.^[15] In February 2008, Bongo Jeans announced that she would be their face model.^[16] She has also modeled for Carl's Jr., Sugar Factory lollipops, and various other products.^[17][18]

Kardashian starred in the 2008 disaster film spoof Disaster Movie as Lisa,^[19] and appeared in the How I Met Your Mother episode "Benefits". She also appeared on the Season 3 premiere of the series 90210 with her sisters Khloé and Kourtney; they all played themselves.^[20] Kardashian was a guest hostess of WrestleMania XXIV and appeared as a guest judge during Cycle 13 of America's Next Top Model.^[21] On December 16, 2009, Kardashian made a guest star appearance on CBS's CSI: NY with Vanessa Minnillo.^[22][19] In 2009 she had a cameo as club bouncer in the 2009 porn film spoof Deep in the Valley^[19]

Kardashian was one of 13 participants on the seventh season of Dancing with the Stars.^[23][19] She was partnered with Mark Ballas and was the third contestant voted off the show on September 30, 2008, finishing in 11th place overall.^[24] Sanford Siegal, the creator of the Cookie Diet, sued Kardashian, claiming she defamed him on Twitter. According to Siegal, Kardashian tweeted in October 2009 that he was "falsely promoting" that she was on the cookie diet. Siegal filed a claim in a Florida state court claiming the statements are false and defamatory. He also alleges that Kardashian was on QuickTrim's payroll when she posted the tweet. Kardashian's tweet appears to stem from an article on CookieDiet.com, that named Kardashian as one of many celebrities who saw positive results on the diet. Kardashian sent a cease-and-desist order to Siegal, demanding the link be removed.^[25]

Kardashian released her own fragrance product in 2010.^[26] In March 2009, Kardashian launched an endorsement with ShoeDazzle shopping,^[27] of which she is the co-founder and chief fashion stylist.^[17] The following month on April 9, 2009, Kardashian released a workout DVD series, Fit In Your Jeans By Friday, with trainers Jennifer Galardi and Patrick Goudeau.^[14][28] In September 2009, Fusion Beauty and Seven Bar Foundation launched "Kiss Away Poverty", with Kardashian as the face of the campaign. For every LipFusion lipgloss sold, $1 went to the Foundation to fund women entrepreneurs in the US.^[29]

She has also been featured in numerous international editions of FHM, including the cover of the April 2010 Australian edition and the UK March 2011 edition.^[30] Famous Cupcakes, a Los Angeles bakery, created a vanilla cupcake mix for Kardashian. The cupcake flavor is called Va-Va-Va-Nilla.^[17] Kardashian has also created jewelry along with her sisters, Khloé and Kourtney. They produced a collection for Virgins, Saints, and Angels in 2010.^[31]

Again with her sisters, Kardashian has released various clothing lines. One called K-Dash was to be sold on QVC in 2010,^[32] and in the same year they produced a range for Bebe.^[33][34][35] As of August 2011 they are creating another for Sears, called the Kardashian Kollection.^[36] In addition, Kardashian and her sisters created a sunless tanner called Kardashian Glamour Tan in 2010.^[37] On July 1, 2010, the New York City branch of Madame Tussauds revealed a wax figure of Kardashian.^[38]

2010–present: Marriage and other ventures[link]

Kardashian is the producer of The Spin Crowd, a reality television show about Command PR, a New York City public relations firm, run by Jonathan Cheban and Simon Huck. The show follows them as they settle into their new offices in Los Angeles. Kardashian is friends with both, specifically Cheban, and frequently appears on her reality shows. She also appeared at the 2010 MTV VMAs on September 12, 2010.^[39] She also appeared in and was the subject and judge of a task on the ninth episode of Season 10 of The Apprentice in 2010; the two teams had to create an in-store display for her new perfume line, to be sold at Perfumania.^[40][41] Kim, Kourtney, and Khloé wrote an autobiography entitled Kardashian Konfidential, which was released in stores on November 23, 2010.^[42]

Kardashian at the Style Your Slim event.

In April 2010, Kardashian sparked controversy over the way she held a cat for a photograph.^[43] The same year, animal rights organization PETA criticized Kardashian for repeatedly wearing fur coats, and named her as one of the five worst people or organizations of 2010 when it came to animal welfare.^[44] In June 2010, The Guardian commented on her ability to attract payments of up to US$10,000 from sponsors for each tweet that she broadcasts.^[45]

In December 2010, Kardashian filmed a music video for a song titled "Jam (Turn It Up)". The video was directed by Hype Williams; Kanye West makes a cameo in the video.^[46] Kardashian premiered the song during a New Year's Eve party at TAO Las Vegas on December 31, 2010.^[47] The song was produced by The-Dream and Tricky Stewart. When asked if an album is in the works, Kardashian replied: "There's no album in the works or anything – just one song we did for Kourtney and Kim Take New York, and a video Hype Williams directed, half of the proceeds we're giving away to a cancer foundation, because The-Dream's and one of my parents passed away from cancer. It's just all having fun – with a good cause".^[48] Jim Farber, writing for the Daily News, called the song a "dead-brained piece of generic dance music, without a single distinguishing feature," and suggested that the single made Kardashian the "worst singer in the reality TV universe."^[49]

Kardashian's 2010 earnings were the highest among Hollywood-based reality stars, being estimated at $6 million.^[50]

Kardashian has supported the recognition of the Armenian Genocide on numerous occasions and has encouraged Barack Obama and the United States government to consider its acknowledgement. On April 21, 2011, a few days before the 96th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide, she wrote about the issue on her blog in an effort to put it under spotlight and also sent a tweet to her fans urging its recognition.^[51]

Kardashian began dating NBA player Kris Humphries of the New Jersey Nets in October 2010. They became engaged in May 2011,^[52] and married on August 20, 2011 in Montecito, California.^[53] A two-part TV special showing the preparations and the wedding itself aired on E! in early October 2011, amidst what the Washington Post called a "media blitz" related to the wedding.^[54] After 72 days of marriage, Kardashian filed for divorce from Humphries on October 31, 2011, citing irreconcilable differences.^[55] After filing for the divorce, Kardashian asked the court to order Humphries to pay his own legal expenses.^[56] On December 1, 2011, Humphries filed his response to Kardashian's petition, requesting an annulment on the grounds of fraud or if the court will not grant an annulment, a decree of legal separation rather than Kardashian's requested divorce.^[57]

Several news outlets have surmised that Kardashian's marriage to Humphries was merely a publicity stunt to promote the Kardashian family's brand and their subsequent television ventures.^[58] Her former publicist has also claimed that her short-lived wedding was indeed staged and a ploy to generate money. Kardashian has since filed suit against him, saying his claims were untrue.^[59] A widely circulated petition asking to remove all Kardashian related programing off the air has been followed since their split.^[60] In March 2012, Kardashian and her sisters Kourtney and Khloe were named in a $5 million class action lawsuit against QuickTrim, the weight loss supplement they endorse.^[61]

Filmography[link]

References[link]

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External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Kim Kardashian

• Official website
• Kim Kardashian at the Internet Movie Database
• Kardashians join forces with Australian designer at Mediasearch