For the suffix, see holism.

Holism (from ὂλος holos, a Greek word meaning all, whole, entire, total) , is the idea that natural systems (physical, biological, chemical, social, economic, mental, linguistic, etc.) and their properties, should be viewed as wholes, not as collections of parts. This often includes the view that systems somehow function as wholes and that their functioning cannot be fully understood solely in terms of their component parts.^[1][2]

The term holism was coined in 1926 by Jan Smuts. Reductionism is sometimes seen as the opposite of holism. Reductionism in science says that a complex system can be explained by reduction to its fundamental parts. For example, the processes of biology are reducible to chemistry and the laws of chemistry are explained by physics.

Social scientist and physician Nicholas A. Christakis explains that "for the last few centuries, the Cartesian^{[disambiguation needed ]} project in science has been to break matter down into ever smaller bits, in the pursuit of understanding. And this works, to some extent...but putting things back together in order to understand them is harder, and typically comes later in the development of a scientist or in the development of science."^[3]

History[link]

The term holism was coined in 1926 by Jan Smuts, a South African statesman, in his book, Holism and Evolution.^[4] Smuts defined holism as "The tendency in nature to form wholes that are greater than the sum of the parts through creative evolution."^[4][5]

The idea has ancient roots. Examples of holism can be found throughout human history and in the most diverse socio-cultural contexts, as has been confirmed by many ethnological studies. The French Protestant missionary, Maurice Leenhardt coined the term cosmomorphism to indicate the state of perfect symbiosis with the surrounding environment which characterized the culture of the Melanesians of New Caledonia. For these people, an isolated individual is totally indeterminate, indistinct and featureless until he can find his position within the natural and social world in which he is inserted. The confines between the self and the world are annulled to the point that the material body itself is no guarantee of the sort of recognition of identity which is typical of our own culture.^[6][7]

However, the concept of holism also played a pivotal role in Spinoza's philosophy^[8][9] and more recently in that of Hegel^[10][11] and Husserl.^[12][13]

In science[link]

General scientific status[link]

In the latter half of the 20th century, holism led to systems thinking and its derivatives, like the sciences of chaos and complexity. Systems in biology, psychology, or sociology are frequently so complex that their behavior is, or appears, "new" or "emergent": it cannot be deduced from the properties of the elements alone.^[14]

Holism has thus been used as a catchword. This contributed to the resistance encountered by the scientific interpretation of holism, which insists that there are ontological reasons that prevent reductive models in principle from providing efficient algorithms for prediction of system behavior in certain classes of systems.^{[citation needed]} Holism has also been described as "a soapy term which evades necessary conflict," in accordance with its inventor's philosophy of white supremacy and exclusion of South Africans from political rights.^[15]

Scientific holism holds that the behavior of a system cannot be perfectly predicted, no matter how much data is available. Natural systems can produce surprisingly unexpected behavior, and it is suspected that behavior of such systems might be computationally irreducible, which means it would not be possible to even approximate the system state without a full simulation of all the events occurring in the system. Key properties of the higher level behavior of certain classes of systems may be mediated by rare "surprises" in the behavior of their elements due to the principle of interconnectivity, thus evading predictions except by brute force simulation. Stephen Wolfram has provided such examples with simple cellular automata, whose behavior is in most cases equally simple, but on rare occasions highly unpredictable.^[16]

Complexity theory (also called "science of complexity"), is a contemporary heir of systems thinking. It comprises both computational and holistic, relational approaches towards understanding complex adaptive systems and, especially in the latter, its methods can be seen as the polar opposite to reductive methods. General theories of complexity have been proposed, and numerous complexity institutes and departments have sprung up around the world. The Santa Fe Institute is arguably the most famous of them.

In anthropology[link]

There is an ongoing dispute as to whether anthropology is intrinsically holistic. Supporters of this concept consider anthropology holistic in two senses. First, it is concerned with all human beings across times and places, and with all dimensions of humanity (evolutionary, biophysical, sociopolitical, economic, cultural, psychological, etc.). Further, many academic programs following this approach take a "four-field" approach to anthropology that encompasses physical anthropology, archeology, linguistics, and cultural anthropology or social anthropology.^[17]

Some leading anthropologists disagree, and consider anthropological holism to be an artifact from 19th century social evolutionary thought that inappropriately imposes scientific positivism upon cultural anthropology.^[18]

The term "holism" is additionally used within social and cultural anthropology to refer to an analysis of a society as a whole which refuses to break society into component parts. One definition says: "as a methodological ideal, holism implies ... that one does not permit oneself to believe that our own established institutional boundaries (e.g. between politics, sexuality, religion, economics) necessarily may be found also in foreign societies."^[19]

In business[link]

A holistic brand (also holistic branding) is considering the entire brand or image of the company. For example a universal brand image across all countries, including everything from advertising styles to the stationery the company has made, to the company colours.

In ecology[link]

The Earth seen from Apollo 17.

Ecology is the leading and most important approach to holism, as it tries to include biological, chemical, physical and economic views in a given area. The complexity grows with the area, so that it is necessary to reduce the characteristic of the view in other ways, for example to a specific time of duration.

John Muir, Scots born early conservationist,^[20] wrote "When we try to pick out anything by itself we find it hitched to everything else in the Universe".

More information is to be found in the field of systems ecology, a cross-disciplinary field influenced by general systems theory.

In economics[link]

With roots in Schumpeter, the evolutionary approach might be considered the holist theory in economics. They share certain language from the biological evolutionary approach. They take into account how the innovation system evolves over time. Knowledge and know-how, know-who, know-what and know-why are part of the whole business economics. Knowledge can also be tacit, as described by Michael Polanyi. These models are open, and consider that it is hard to predict exactly the impact of a policy measure. They are also less mathematical.

In philosophy[link]

In philosophy, any doctrine that emphasizes the priority of a whole over its parts is holism. Some suggest that such a definition owes its origins to a non-holistic view of language and places it in the reductivist camp. Alternately, a 'holistic' definition of holism denies the necessity of a division between the function of separate parts and the workings of the 'whole'. It suggests that the key recognizable characteristic of a concept of holism is a sense of the fundamental truth of any particular experience. This exists in contradistinction to what is perceived as the reductivist reliance on inductive method as the key to verification of its concept of how the parts function within the whole.

In the philosophy of language this becomes the claim, called semantic holism, that the meaning of an individual word or sentence can only be understood in terms of its relations to a larger body of language, even a whole theory or a whole language. In the philosophy of mind, a mental state may be identified only in terms of its relations with others. This is often referred to as "content holism" or "holism of the mental". This notion involves the philosophies of such figures as Frege, Wittgenstein and Quine.^[21]

Epistemological and confirmation holism are mainstream ideas in contemporary philosophy. Ontological holism was espoused by David Bohm in his theory^[22] on The Implicate Order.

Hegel's holism[link]

Hegel rejected "the fundamentally atomistic conception of the object," (Stern, 38) arguing that "individual objects exist as manifestations of indivisible substance-universals, which cannot be reduced to a set of properties or attributes; he therefore holds that the object should be treated as an ontologically primary whole." (Stern, 40) In direct opposition to Kant, therefore, "Hegel insists that the unity we find in our experience of the world is not constructed by us out of a plurality of intuitions." (Stern, 40) In "his ontological scheme a concrete individual is not reducible to a plurality of sensible properties, but rather exemplifies a substance universal." (Stern, 41) His point is that it is "a mistake to treat an organic substance like blood as nothing more than a compound of unchanging chemical elements, that can be separated and united without being fundamentally altered." (Stern, 103) In Hegel's view, a substance like blood is thus "more of an organic unity and cannot be understood as just an external composition of the sort of distinct substances that were discussed at the level of chemistry." (Stern, 103) Thus in Hegel's view, blood is blood is blood and cannot be successfully reduced to what we consider are its component parts; we must view it as a whole substance entire unto itself. This is most certainly a fundamentally holistic view.^[23]

In sociology[link]

Émile Durkheim developed a concept of holism which he set as opposite to the notion that a society was nothing more than a simple collection of individuals. In more recent times, Louis Dumont ^[24] has contrasted "holism" to "individualism" as two different forms of societies. According to him, modern humans live in an individualist society, whereas ancient Greek society, for example, could be qualified as "holistic", because the individual found identity in the whole society. Thus, the individual was ready to sacrifice himself or herself for his or her community, as his or her life without the polis had no sense whatsoever.

Scholars such as David Bohm ^[25] and M. I. Sanduk ^[26] consider the society through the Plasma Physics. From physics point of view, the interaction of individuals within a group may lead a continuous model. Therefore for M. I. Sanduk “The nature of fluidity of plasma (ionized gas) arises from the interaction of its free interactive charges, so the society may behave as a fluid owing to the free interactive individuals. This fluid model may explain many social phenomena like social instability, diffusion, flow, viscosity...So the society behaves as a sort of intellectual fluid”.

In psychology of perception[link]

A major holist movement in the early twentieth century was gestalt psychology. The claim was that perception is not an aggregation of atomic sense data but a field, in which there is a figure and a ground. Background has holistic effects on the perceived figure. Gestalt psychologists included Wolfgang Koehler, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka. Koehler claimed the perceptual fields corresponded to electrical fields in the brain. Karl Lashley did experiments with gold foil pieces inserted in monkey brains purporting to show that such fields did not exist. However, many of the perceptual illusions and visual phenomena exhibited by the gestaltists were taken over (often without credit) by later perceptual psychologists. Gestalt psychology had influence on Fritz Perls' gestalt therapy, although some old-line gestaltists opposed the association with counter-cultural and New Age trends later associated with gestalt therapy. Gestalt theory was also influential on phenomenology. Aron Gurwitsch wrote on the role of the field of consciousness in gestalt theory in relation to phenomenology. Maurice Merleau-Ponty made much use of holistic psychologists such as work of Kurt Goldstein in his "Phenomenology of Perception."

In teleological psychology[link]

Alfred Adler believed that the individual (an integrated whole expressed through a self-consistent unity of thinking, feeling, and action, moving toward an unconscious, fictional final goal), must be understood within the larger wholes of society, from the groups to which he belongs (starting with his face-to-face relationships), to the larger whole of mankind. The recognition of our social embeddedness and the need for developing an interest in the welfare of others, as well as a respect for nature, is at the heart of Adler's philosophy of living and principles of psychotherapy.

Edgar Morin, the French philosopher and sociobiologist, can be considered a holist based on the transdisciplinary nature of his work.

Mel Levine, M.D., author of A Mind at a Time,^[27] and co-founder (with Charles R. Schwab) of the not-for-profit organization All Kinds of Minds, can be considered a holist based on his view of the 'whole child' as a product of many systems and his work supporting the educational needs of children through the management of a child's educational profile as a whole rather than isolated weaknesses in that profile.

In theological anthropology[link]

In theological anthropology, which belongs to theology and not to anthropology, holism is the belief that the nature of humans consists of an ultimately divisible^{[citation needed]} union of components such as body, soul and spirit.

In theology[link]

Holistic concepts are strongly represented within the thoughts expressed within Logos (per Heraclitus), Panentheism and Pantheism.

In neurology[link]

A lively debate has run since the end of the 19th century regarding the functional organization of the brain. The holistic tradition (e.g., Pierre Marie) maintained that the brain was a homogeneous organ with no specific subparts whereas the localizationists (e.g., Paul Broca) argued that the brain was organized in functionally distinct cortical areas which were each specialized to process a given type of information or implement specific mental operations. The controversy was epitomized with the existence of a language area in the brain, nowadays known as the Broca's area.^[28] Although Broca's view has gained acceptance, the issue isn't settled insofar as the brain as a whole is a highly connected organ at every level from the individual neuron to the hemispheres.

Applications[link]

Architecture[link]

Architecture is often argued by design academics and those practicing in design to be a holistic enterprise.^[29] Used in this context, holism tends to imply an all-inclusive design perspective. This trait is considered exclusive to architecture, distinct from other professions involved in design projects.

Education reform[link]

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives identifies many levels of cognitive functioning, which can be used to create a more holistic education. In authentic assessment, rather than using computers to score multiple choice tests, a standards based assessment uses trained scorers to score open-response items using holistic scoring methods.^[30] In projects such as the North Carolina Writing Project, scorers are instructed not to count errors, or count numbers of points or supporting statements. The scorer is instead instructed to judge holistically whether "as a whole" is it more a "2" or a "3". Critics question whether such a process can be as objective as computer scoring, and the degree to which such scoring methods can result in different scores from different scorers.

Medicine[link]

In primary care the term "holistic," has been used to describe approaches that take into account social considerations and other intuitive judgements.^[15] The term holism, and so called approaches, appear in psychosomatic medicine in the 1970s, when they were considered one possible way to conceptualize psychosomatic phenomena. Instead of charting one-way causal links from psyche to soma, or vice-versa, it aimed at a systemic model, where multiple biological, psychological and social factors were seen as interlinked.^[31]

Other, alternative approaches in the 1970s were psychosomatic and somatopsychic approaches, which concentrated on causal links only from psyche to soma, or from soma to psyche, respectively.^[31] At present it is commonplace in psychosomatic medicine to state that psyche and soma cannot really be separated for practical or theoretical purposes.^{[citation needed]} A disturbance on any level - somatic, psychic, or social - will radiate to all the other levels, too. In this sense, psychosomatic thinking is similar to the biopsychosocial model of medicine.^{[citation needed]}

Alternative medicine practitioners adopt a holistic approach to healing.

See also[link]

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Ludwig von Bertalanffy,1971 General System Theory. Foundations Development Applications. Allen Lane (1968)
• Bohm, D. (1980) Wholeness and the Implicate Order. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7100-0971-2
• Leenhardt, M. 1947 Do Kamo. La personne et le mythe dans le monde mélanésien. Gallimard. Paris.
• Lipowski, Z.J.: "Psychosomatic medicine in seventies". Am. J. Psych. 134:3:233-244
• Jan C. Smuts, 1926 Holism and Evolution MacMillan, Compass/Viking Press 1961 reprint: ISBN 0-598-63750-8, Greenwood Press 1973 reprint: ISBN 0-8371-6556-3, Sierra Sunrise 1999 (mildly edited): ISBN 1-887263-14-4

Further reading[link]

• Dusek, Val, The Holistic Inspirations of Physics: An Underground History of Electromagnetic Theory Rutgers University Press, Brunswick NJ, 1999.
• Fodor, Jerry, and Ernst Lepore, Holism: A Shopper's Guide Wiley. New York. 1992
• Hayek, F.A. von. The Counter-revolution of Science. Studies on the abuse of reason. Free Press. New York. 1957.
• Mandelbaum, M. Societal Facts in Gardner 1959.
• Phillips, D.C. Holistic Thought in Social Science. Stanford University Press. Stanford. 1976.
• Dreyfus, H.L. Holism and Hermeneutics in The Review of Metaphysics. 34. pp. 3–23.
• James, S. The Content of Social Explanation. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1984.
• Harrington, A. Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler. Princeton University Press. 1996.
• Lopez, F. Il pensiero olistico di Ippocrate, vol. I-IIA, Ed. Pubblisfera, Cosenza Italy 2004-2008.
• Robert Stern, Hegel, Kant and the Structure of the Object, London: Routledge Chapman Hall, 1990
• Sen, R. K., Aesthetic Enjoyment: Its Background in Philosophy and Medicine, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1966

External links[link]

Look up holism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Brief explanation of Koestler's derivation of "holon"
• Holism in nature – and coevolution in ecosystems
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy article: "Holism and Nonseparability in Physics"
• James Schombert of University of Oregon Physics Dept on quantum holism
• Theory of sociological holism from "World of Wholeness"

The Right Honourable Jan Christiaan Smuts OM, CH, ED, KC, FRS, PC
4th Prime Minister of South Africa
In office 5 September 1939 – 4 June 1948
Monarch	George VI
Governor General	Sir Patrick Duncan Nicolaas Jacobus de Wet (Acting) Gideon Brand van Zyl
Preceded by	James Barry Munnik Hertzog
Succeeded by	Daniel François Malan
2nd Prime Minister of South Africa
In office 3 September 1919 – 30 June 1924
Monarch	George V
Governor General	The Earl of Buxton The Prince Arthur of Connaught The Earl of Athlone
Preceded by	Louis Botha
Succeeded by	James Barry Munnik Hertzog
Personal details
Born	(1870-05-24)24 May 1870 Bovenplaats, Cape Colony
Died	11 September 1950(1950-09-11) (aged 80) Doornkloof, Irene, Transvaal Province, Union of South Africa
Political party	South African Party United Party
Spouse(s)	Issie Krige
Religion	Calvinist
Signature	Jan Smuts's signature

Jan Christiaan Smuts, OM, CH, ED, KC, FRS,^[1] PC (24 May 1870 – 11 September 1950) was a prominent South African and British Commonwealth statesman, military leader and philosopher. In addition to holding various cabinet posts, he served as Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa from 1919 until 1924 and from 1939 until 1948. He served in the First World War and as a British field marshal^[2] in the Second World War.

He led commandos in the Second Boer War for the Transvaal. During the First World War, he led the armies of South Africa against Germany, capturing German South-West Africa and commanding the British Army in East Africa. From 1917 to 1919, he was also one of five members of the British War Cabinet, helping to create the Royal Air Force. He became a field marshal in the British Army in 1941, and served in the Imperial War Cabinet under Winston Churchill. He was the only person to sign the peace treaties ending both the First and Second World Wars.

One of his greatest international accomplishments was the establishment of the League of Nations, the exact design and implementation of which relied upon Smuts.^[3] He later urged the formation of a new international organisation for peace: the UN. Smuts wrote the preamble to the United Nations Charter, and was the only person to sign the charters of both the League of Nations and the UN. He sought to redefine the relationship between the United Kingdom and her colonies, helping to establish the British Commonwealth, as it was known at the time. However, in 1946 the General Assembly requested the Smuts government to take measures to bring the treatment of Indians in South Africa into line with the provisions of the United Nations Charter.^[4]

In 2004 he was named by voters in a poll held by the South African Broadcasting Corporation (S.A.B.C.) as one of the top ten Greatest South Africans of all time. The final positions of the top ten were to be decided by a second round of voting, but the programme was taken off the air due to political controversy, and Nelson Mandela was given the number one spot based on the first round of voting. In the first round, Field Marshal Smuts came ninth.^[5]

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Jacobus and Catharina Smuts, 1893.

He was born on 24 May 1870, at the family farm, Bovenplaats, near Malmesbury, in the Cape Colony. His family were prosperous, traditional Afrikaner farmers, long established and highly respected.

Jan was quiet and delicate as a child, strongly inclined towards solitary pursuits. During his childhood, he often went out alone, exploring the surrounding countryside; this awakened a passion for nature, which he retained throughout his life. As the second son of the family, rural custom dictated that he would remain working on the farm; a full formal education was typically the preserve of the first son. However, in 1882, when Jan was twelve, his elder brother died, and Jan was sent to school in his brother's place. Jan attended the school in nearby Riebeek West. He made excellent progress here, despite his late start, and caught up with his contemporaries within four years. He moved on to Victoria College, Stellenbosch, in 1886, at the age of sixteen.

At Stellenbosch, he learned High Dutch, German, and Ancient Greek, and immersed himself further in literature, the classics, and Bible studies. His deeply traditional upbringing and serious outlook led to social isolation from his peers. However, he made outstanding academic progress, graduating in 1891 with double First-class honours in Literature and Science. During his last years at Stellenbosch, Smuts began to cast off some of his shyness and reserve, and it was at this time that he met Isie Krige, whom he was later to marry.

On graduation from Victoria College, Smuts won the Ebden scholarship for overseas study. He decided to travel to the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom to read law at Christ's College.^[6] Smuts found it difficult to settle at Cambridge; he felt homesick and isolated by his age and different upbringing from the English undergraduates. Worries over money also contributed to his unhappiness, as his scholarship was insufficient to cover his university expenses. He confided these worries to a friend from Victoria College, Professor JI Marais. In reply, Professor Marais enclosed a cheque for a substantial sum, by way of loan, urging Smuts not to hesitate to approach him should he ever find himself in need.^[7] Thanks to Marais, Smuts's financial standing was secure. He gradually began to enter more into the social aspects of the university, although he retained his single-minded dedication to his studies.

During his time in Cambridge, he found time to study a diverse number of subjects in addition to law; he wrote a book, Walt Whitman: A Study in the Evolution of Personality, although it was unpublished until 1973.^[8] The thoughts behind this book laid the foundation for Smuts' later wide-ranging philosophy of holism.

Smuts graduated in 1893 with a double First. Over the previous two years, he had been the recipient of numerous academic prizes and accolades, including the coveted George Long prize in Roman Law and Jurisprudence.^[9] One of his tutors, Professor Maitland, a leading figure among English legal historians, described Smuts as the most brilliant student he had ever met.^[10] Lord Todd, the Master of Christ's College said in 1970 that "in 500 years of the College's history, of all its members, past and present, three had been truly outstanding: John Milton, Charles Darwin and Jan Smuts."^[11]

In 1894, Smuts passed the examinations for the Inns of Court, entering the Middle Temple. His old college, Christ's College, offered him a fellowship in Law. However, Smuts turned his back on a potentially distinguished legal future.^[12] By June 1895, he had returned to the Cape Colony, determined that he should make his future there.

Climbing the ladder[link]

Smuts began to practise law in Cape Town, but his abrasive nature made him few friends. Finding little financial success in the law, he began to divert more and more of his time to politics and journalism, writing for the Cape Times. Smuts was intrigued by the prospect of a united South Africa, and joined the Afrikaner Bond. By good fortune, Smuts’ father knew the leader of the group, Jan Hofmeyr; Hofmeyr recommended Jan to Cecil Rhodes, who owned the De Beers mining company. In 1895, Rhodes hired Smuts as his personal legal advisor, a role that found the youngster much criticised by the hostile Afrikaans press. Regardless, Smuts trusted Rhodes implicitly.

When Rhodes launched the Jameson Raid, in the summer of 1895–6, Smuts was outraged. Feeling betrayed by his employer, friend and political ally, he resigned from De Beers, and disappeared from public life. Seeing no future for himself in Cape Town, he decided to move to Johannesburg in August 1896. However, he was disgusted by what appeared to be a gin-soaked mining camp, and his new law practice could attract little business in such an environment. Smuts sought refuge in the capital of the South African Republic, Pretoria.

Through 1896, Smuts’ politics were turned on their head. He was transformed from being Rhodes’ most ardent supporter to being the most fervent opponent of British expansion. Through late 1896 and 1897, Smuts toured South Africa, furiously condemning Great Britain, Rhodes and anyone opposed to the Transvaal President, Paul Kruger.

In April 1897, he married Isie Krige of Cape Town. Professor JI Marais, Smuts’s benefactor at Cambridge, presided over the ceremony. Twins were born to the pair in March 1898, but unfortunately survived only a few weeks.

Kruger was opposed by many liberal elements in South Africa, and, when, in June 1898, Kruger fired the Transvaal Chief Justice, his long-term political rival John Gilbert Kotzé, most lawyers were up in arms. Recognising the opportunity, Smuts wrote a legal thesis in support of Kruger, who rewarded Smuts with an appointment as State Attorney. In this capacity, he tore into the establishment, firing those he deemed to be illiberal, old-fashioned or corrupt^{[citation needed]}. His efforts to rejuvenate the republic polarised Afrikaners.

After the Jameson Raid, relations between the British and the Afrikaners had deteriorated steadily. By 1898, war seemed imminent. Orange Free State President Martinus Steyn called for a peace conference at Bloemfontein to settle each side’s grievances. With an intimate knowledge of the British, Smuts took control of the Transvaal delegation. Sir Alfred Milner, head of the British delegation, took exception to his dominance, and conflict between the two led to the collapse of the conference, consigning South Africa to war.

The Boer War[link]

Jan Smuts and Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War, ca. 1901

On 11 October 1899, the Boer republics invaded the British South African colonies, beginning the Second Boer War. In the early stages of the conflict, Smuts served as Kruger’s eyes and ears, handling propaganda, logistics, communication with generals and diplomats, and anything else that was required.

In the second phase of the war, Smuts served under Koos de la Rey, who commanded 500 commandos in the Western Transvaal. Smuts excelled at hit-and-run warfare, and the unit evaded and harassed a British army forty times its size. President Kruger and the deputation in Europe thought that there was good hope for their cause in the Cape Colony. They decided to send General de la Rey there to assume supreme command, but then decided to act more cautiously when they realised that General de la Rey could hardly be spared in the Western Transvaal.

Consequently, Smuts left with a small force of 300 men while another 100 men followed him. By this point in the war, the British scorched earth policy left little grazing land. One hundred of the cavalry that had joined Smuts were therefore too weak to continue and so Smuts had to leave these men with General Kritzinger. With few exceptions, Smuts met all the commandos in the Cape Colony and found between 1,400–1,500 men under arms, and not the 3,000 men as had been reported. By the time of the peace Conference in May 1902 there were 3,300 men operating in the Cape Colony. Although the people were enthusiastic for a general rising, there was a great shortage of horses (the Boers were an entirely mounted force) as they had been taken by the British. There was an absence of grass and wheat, which meant that he was forced to refuse nine tenths of those who were willing to join. The Boer forces raided supply lines and farms, spread Afrikaner propaganda, and intimidated those that opposed them, but they never succeeded in causing a revolt against the government. This raid was to prove one of the most influential military adventures of the 20th century and had a direct influence on the creation of the British Commandos and all the other special forces which followed. With these practical developments came the development of the military doctrines of deep penetration raids, asymmetric warfare and, more recently, elements of fourth generation warfare.

To end the conflict, Smuts sought to take a major target, the copper-mining town of Okiep. With a full assault impossible, Smuts packed a train full of explosives, and tried to push it downhill, into the town, where it would bring the enemy garrison to its knees. Although this failed, Smuts had proven his point: that he would stop at nothing to defeat his enemies. Norman Kemp Smith wrote that General Smuts read from Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" on the evening before the raid. Smith contended that this showed how Kant's critique can be a solace and a refuge, as well as a means to sharpen the wit.^[13] Combined with their failure to pacify the Transvaal, Smuts' success left the United Kingdom with no choice but to offer a ceasefire and a peace conference, to be held at Vereeniging.

Before the conference, Smuts met Lord Kitchener at Kroonstad station, where they discussed the proposed terms of surrender. Smuts then took a leading role in the negotiations between the representatives from all of the commandos from the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (15–31 May 1902). Although he admitted that, from a purely military perspective, the war could continue, he stressed the importance of not sacrificing the Afrikaner people for that independence. He was very conscious that 'more than 20,000 women and children have already died in the concentration camps of the enemy'. He felt it would have been a crime to continue the war without the assurance of help from elsewhere and declared, "Comrades, we decided to stand to the bitter end. Let us now, like men, admit that that end has come for us, come in a more bitter shape than we ever thought."^{[cite this quote]} His opinions were representative of the conference, which then voted by 54 to 6 in favour of peace. Representatives of the Governments met Lord Kitchener and at five minutes past eleven on 31 May 1902, Acting President Burger signed the Peace Treaty, followed by the members of his government, Acting President de Wet and the members of his government.

A British Transvaal[link]

For all Smuts' exploits as a general and a negotiator, nothing could mask the fact that the Afrikaners had been defeated and humiliated. Lord Milner had full control of all South African affairs, and established an Anglophone elite, known as Milner's Kindergarten. As an Afrikaner, Smuts was excluded. Defeated but not deterred, in January 1905, he decided to join with the other former Transvaal generals to form a political party, Het Volk (People's Party),^[14] to fight for the Afrikaner cause. Louis Botha was elected leader, and Smuts his deputy.

When his term of office expired, Milner was replaced as High Commissioner by the more conciliatory Lord Selborne. Smuts saw an opportunity and pounced, urging Botha to persuade the Liberals to support Het Volk’s cause. When the Conservative government under Arthur Balfour collapsed, in December 1905, the decision paid off. Smuts joined Botha in London, and sought to negotiate full self-government for the Transvaal within British South Africa. Using the thorny political issue of South Asian labourers ('coolies'), the South Africans convinced Prime Minister Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman and, with him, the cabinet and Parliament.

Through 1906, Smuts worked on the new constitution for the Transvaal, and, in December 1906, elections were held for the Transvaal parliament. Despite being shy and reserved, unlike the showman Botha, Smuts won a comfortable victory in the Wonderboom constituency, near Pretoria. His victory was one of many, with Het Volk winning in a landslide and Botha forming the government. To reward his loyalty and efforts, Smuts was given two key cabinet positions: Colonial Secretary and Education Secretary.

Smuts proved to be an effective leader, if unpopular. As Education Secretary, he had fights with the Dutch Reformed Church, of which he had once been a dedicated member, who demanded Calvinist teachings in schools. As Colonial Secretary, he opposed a movement for equal rights for South Asian workers, led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Despite Smuts’ unpopularity, South Africa's economy continued to boom, and Smuts cemented his place as the Afrikaners’ brightest star.

During the years of Transvaal self-government, no-one could avoid the predominant political debate of the day: South African unification. Ever since the British victory in the war, it was an inevitability, but it remained up to the South Africans to decide what sort of country would be formed, and how it would be formed. Smuts favoured a unitary state, with power centralised in Pretoria, with English as the only official language, and with a more inclusive electorate. To impress upon his compatriots his vision, he called a constitutional convention in Durban, in October 1908.

There, Smuts was up against a hard-talking Orange River Colony delegation, who refused every one of Smuts' demands. Smuts had successfully predicted this opposition, and their objections, and tailored his own ambitions appropriately. He allowed compromise on the location of the capital, on the official language, and on suffrage, but he refused to budge on the fundamental structure of government. As the convention drew into autumn, the Orange leaders began to see a final compromise as necessary to secure the concessions that Smuts had already made. They agreed to Smuts’ draft South African constitution, which was duly ratified by the South African colonies. Smuts and Botha took the constitution to London, where it was passed by Parliament, and signed into law by Edward VII in December 1909. Smuts' dream had been realised.

The Old Boers[link]

The Union of South Africa was born, and the Afrikaners held the key to political power, for they formed the largest part of the electorate. Although Botha was appointed Prime Minister of the new country, Smuts was given three key ministries: those for the Interior, the Mines and Defence. Undeniably, Smuts was the second most powerful man in South Africa. To solidify their dominance of South African politics, the Afrikaners united to form the South African Party, a new pan-South African Afrikaner party.

The harmony and cooperation soon ended. Smuts was criticised for his over-arching powers, and was reshuffled, losing his positions in charge of Defence and the Mines, but gaining control of the Treasury. This was still too much for Smuts' opponents, who decried his possession of both Defence and Finance: two departments that were usually at loggerheads. At the 1913 South African Party conference, the Old Boers, of Hertzog, Steyn and De Wet, called for Botha and Smuts to step down. The two narrowly survived a conference vote, and the troublesome triumvirate stormed out, leaving the party for good.

With the schism in internal party politics came a new threat to the mines that brought South Africa its wealth. A small-scale miners' dispute flared into a full-blown strike, and rioting broke out in Johannesburg after Smuts intervened heavy-handedly. After police shot dead twenty-one strikers, Smuts and Botha headed unaccompanied to Johannesburg to personally resolve the situation. They did, facing down threats to their own lives, and successfully negotiating a cease-fire.

The cease-fire did not hold, and, in 1914, a railway strike turned into a general strike, and threats of a revolution caused Smuts to declare martial law. Smuts acted ruthlessly, deporting union leaders without trial and using Parliament to retrospectively absolve him or the government of any blame. This was too much for the Old Boers, who set up their own party, the National Party, to fight the all-powerful Botha-Smuts partnership. The Old Boers urged Smuts' opponents to arm themselves, and civil war seemed inevitable before the end of 1914. In October 1914, when the Government was faced with open rebellion by Lt Col Manie Maritz and others in the Maritz Rebellion, Government forces under the command of Botha and Smuts were able to put down the rebellion without it ever seriously threatening to ignite into a Third Boer War.

Soldier and statesman[link]

During the First World War, Smuts (right) and Botha were key members of the British Army.

During the First World War, Smuts formed the South African Defence Force. His first task was to suppress the Maritz Rebellion, which was accomplished by November 1914. Next he and Louis Botha led the South African army into German South West Africa and conquered it (see the South-West Africa Campaign for details). In 1916 General Smuts was put in charge of the conquest of German East Africa. Col (later BGen) J.H.V. Crowe commanded the artillery in East Africa under General Smuts and published an account of the campaign, General Smuts' Campaign in East Africa in 1918.

While the East African Campaign went fairly well, the German forces were not destroyed. Smuts was criticised by his chief Intelligence officer, Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen, for avoiding frontal attacks which, in Meinertzhagen's view, would have been less costly than the inconsequential flanking movements that prolonged the campaign where thousands of Imperial troops died of disease. Meinertzhangen believed Horace Smith-Dorrien (who had saved the British Army during the retreat from Mons), the original choice as commander in 1916 would have quickly defeated the German commander Colonel (later General) Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck. As for Smuts, Meinertzhagen wrote: "Smuts has cost Britain many hundreds of thousands of lives (sic) and many millions of pounds by his caution...Smuts was not an astute soldier; a brilliant statesman and politician but no soldier." ( Army Diary Oliver and Boyd 1960 page 205). However, early in 1917 Smuts was invited to join the Imperial War Cabinet by David Lloyd George, so he left the area and went to London. In 1918, Smuts helped to create a Royal Air Force, independent of the army.

Like most British Empire political and military leaders in World War I, Smuts thought the American Expeditionary Forces lacked the proper leadership and experience to be effective quickly. He supported the Anglo-French amalgamation policy towards the Americans. In particular, he had a low opinion of General John J. Pershing's leadership skills, so much so that he wrote a confidential letter to Lloyd George proposing Pershing be relieved of his command and that the US forces be placed "under someone more confident, like himself". This did not endear him to the Americans once it was leaked.^[15]

Smuts and Botha were key negotiators at the Paris Peace Conference. Both were in favour of reconciliation with Germany and limited reparations. Smuts advocated a powerful League of Nations, which failed to materialise. The Treaty of Versailles gave South Africa a Class C mandate over German South West Africa (which later became Namibia), which was occupied from 1919 until withdrawal in 1990. At the same time, Australia was given a similar mandate over German New Guinea, which it held until 1975. Both Smuts and the Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes feared the rising power of Japan in the post First World War world. When former German East Africa was divided into three mandated territories (Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanganyika) Smutsland was one of the proposed names for what became Tanganyika. Smuts, who had called for South African territorial expansion all the way to the River Zambesi since the late 19th century, was ultimately disappointed with the League awarding South West Africa only a mandate status, as he had looked forward to formally incorporating the territory to South Africa.^[16]

Smuts returned to South African politics after the conference. When Botha died in 1919, Smuts was elected Prime Minister, serving until a shocking defeat in 1924 at the hands of the National Party. After the death of the former American President Woodrow Wilson, Smuts was quoted as saying that: "Not Wilson, but humanity failed at Paris."^[17]

While in Britain for an Imperial Conference in June 1920, Smuts went to Ireland and met Éamon de Valera to help broker an armistice and peace deal between the warring British and Irish nationalists. Smuts attempted to sell the concept of Ireland receiving Dominion status similar to that of Australia and South Africa.^[18]

As a botanist, Smuts collected plants extensively over southern Africa. He went on several botanical expeditions in the 1920s and 1930s with John Hutchinson, former Botanist in charge of the African section of the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens and taxonomist of note.

For most of the 1930s, Smuts was a leading supporter of appeasement. In December 1934, Smuts told an audience at the Royal Institute of International Affairs that:

"How can the inferiority complex which is obsessing and, I fear, poisoning the mind, and indeed the very soul of Germany, be removed? There is only one way and that is to recognise her complete equality of status with her fellows and to do so frankly, freely and unreservedly...While one understands and sympathises with French fears, one cannot, but feel for Germany in the prison of inferiority in which she still remains sixteen years after the conclusion of the war. The continuance of the Versailles status is becoming an offence to the conscience of Europe and a danger to future peace...Fair play, sportsmanship-indeed every standard of private and public life-calls for frank revision of the situation. Indeed ordinary prudence makes it imperative. Let us break these bonds and set the complexed-obsessed soul free in a decent human way and Europe will reap a rich reward in tranquility, security and returning prosperity."^[19]

Though in his Oct.17th 1934 Rectorial Address delivered at St Andrews University he states that:

"The new Tyranny, disguised in attractive patriotic colours, is enticing youth everywhere into its service. Freedom must make a great counterstroke to save itself and our fair western civilisation. Once more the heroic call is coming to our youth. The fight for human freedom is indeed the supreme issue of the future, as it has always been." ^[20]

Holism and related academic work[link]

While in academia, Smuts pioneered the concept of holism, defined as "the tendency in nature to form wholes that are greater than the sum of the parts through creative evolution" in his 1926 book, Holism and Evolution. Smuts' formulation of holism has been linked with his political-military activity and his belief in white supremacy^{[citation needed]}. One biographer said:^{[citation needed]}

It had very much in common with his philosophy of life as subsequently developed and embodied in his Holism and Evolution. Small units must needs develop into bigger wholes, and they in their turn again must grow into larger and ever-larger structures without cessation. Advancement lay along that path. Thus the unification of the four provinces in the Union of South Africa, the idea of the British Commonwealth of Nations, and, finally, the great whole resulting from the combination of the peoples of the earth in a great league of nations were but a logical progression consistent with his philosophical tenets.

Others, doctor and author Julian Tudor Hart, have considered Smuts' formulation of holism as "a soapy term which evades necessary conflict," which fitted with his belief in excluding the African majority from democracy.^[21]

After Einstein studied "Holism and Evolution" soon upon its publication, he wrote that two mental constructs will direct human thinking in the next millennium, his own mental construct of relativity and Smuts' of holism. In the work of Smuts he saw a clear blueprint of much of his own life, work and personality.^[22]

Smuts and segregation[link]

Although some people^[who?] have at times hailed him as a liberal,^{[Need quotation to verify]} Smuts is often depicted^[who?] as a white supremacist who played an important role in establishing and supporting a racially segregated society in South Africa.^{[citation needed]} He thought that it was "the duty of whites to deal justly with Africans," "raise them up in civilisation," and that they should not be given political power.^[23] Giving the right to vote to the black African majority he feared would imply the ultimate destruction of Western civilisation in South Africa.^{[24][dead link][Need quotation to verify]}

Smuts was for most of his political life a vocal supporter of segregation of the races, and in 1929 he justified the erection of separate institutions for blacks and whites in tones prescient of the later practice of apartheid:

In general, Smuts' view of Africans was patronising, he saw them as immature human beings that needed the guidance of whites, an attitude that reflected the common perceptions of most non-Africans in his lifetime. Of Africans he stated that:

He was not alone in these views. On 7 March 1908, Gandhi wrote in the Indian Opinion of his time in a South African prison: "Kaffirs are as a rule uncivilised—the convicts even more so. They are troublesome, very dirty and live almost like animals."^[26] On the subject of immigration in 1903, Gandhi commented in 1903: "We believe as much in the purity of race as we think they do... We believe also that the white race in South Africa should be the predominating race."^[27] Gandhi protested repeatedly about the social classification of blacks with Indians in South Africa and described Indians as "undoubtedly infinitely superior to the Kaffirs".^[28] Remarks such as these have led some to accuse Gandhi of racism.^[29] It is worth noting though that the word Kaffir had a different connotation in Gandhi's time than its current day meaning.^[30]

Although Gandhi and Smuts were adversaries in many ways, they had a mutual respect and even admiration for each other. Before Gandhi returned to India in 1914, he presented General Jan Smuts with a pair of sandals made by himself. In 1939, Smuts, then prime minister, wrote an essay for a commemorative work compiled for Gandhi’s 70th birthday and returned the sandals with the following message: "I have worn these sandals for many a summer, even though I may feel that I am not worthy to stand in the shoes of so great a man."^[31]

Smuts is often accused of being a politician who extolled the virtues of humanitarianism and liberalism abroad while failing to practice what he preached at home in South Africa. This was most clearly illustrated when India, in 1946, made a formal complaint in the UN concerning the legalised racial discrimination against Indians in South Africa. Appearing personally before the United Nations General Assembly, Smuts defended the policies of his government by fervently pleading that India's complaint was a matter of domestic jurisdiction. However, the General Assembly censured South Africa for its racial policies ^[4] and called upon the Smuts government to bring its treatment of the South African Indians in conformity with the basic principles of the United Nations Charter.^[4][32]

At the same conference, the African National Congress President General Alfred Bitini Xuma along with delegates of the South African Indian Congress brought up the issue of the brutality of Smuts' police regime against the African Mine Workers' Strike earlier that year as well as the wider struggle for equality in South Africa.^{[33][dead link]}

The international criticism of racial discrimination^{[citation needed]} in South Africa led Smuts to modify his rhetoric around segregation. In a bid to make South African racial policies sound more acceptable to Britain he declared already in 1942 that "segregation had failed to solve the Native problem of Africa and that the concept of trusteeship offered the only prospect of happy relations between European and African".

In 1948 he went further away from his previous views on segregation when supporting the recommendations of the Fagan Commission that Africans should be recognised as permanent residents of White South Africa and not only temporary workers that really belonged in the reserves.^[23] This was in direct opposition to the policies of the National Party that wished to extend segregation and formalise it into apartheid.

There is however no evidence that Smuts ever supported the idea of equal political rights for blacks and whites. The Fagan Commission did not advocate the establishment of a non-racial democracy in South Africa, but rather wanted to liberalise influx controls of Africans into urban areas in order to facilitate the supply of African labour to the South African industry. It also envisaged a relaxation of the pass laws that had restricted the movement of Africans in general.^[34] The commission was at the same time unequivocal about the continuation of white political privilege, it stated that "In South Africa, we the White men, cannot leave and cannot accept the fate of a subject race".

Second World War[link]

Smuts, standing left, at the 1944 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference.

Smuts in his Field Marshal's Uniform

After nine years in opposition and academia, Smuts returned as Deputy Prime Minister in a 'grand coalition' government under J. B. M. Hertzog. When Hertzog advocated neutrality towards Nazi Germany in 1939, he was deposed by a party caucus, and Smuts became Prime Minister for the second time. He had served with Winston Churchill in World War I, and had developed a personal and professional rapport. Smuts was invited to the Imperial War Cabinet in 1939 as the most senior South African in favour of war. On 28 May 1941 Smuts was appointed a field marshal of the British Army, becoming the first South African to hold that rank.

Smuts' importance to the Imperial war effort was emphasised by a quite audacious plan, proposed as early as 1940, to appoint Smuts as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, should Churchill die or otherwise become incapacitated during the war. This idea was put by Sir John Colville, Churchill's private secretary, to Queen Mary and then to George VI, both of whom warmed to the idea.^[35] As Churchill lived for another twenty-five years, the plan was never put into effect and its constitutionality was never tested. This closeness to the British establishment, to the King, and to Churchill made Smuts very unpopular amongst the Afrikaners, leading to his eventual downfall.

In May 1945, he represented South Africa in San Francisco at the drafting of the United Nations Charter. Just as he did in 1919, Smuts urged the delegates to create a powerful international body to preserve peace; he was determined that, unlike the League of Nations, the UN would have teeth. Smuts signed the Paris Peace Treaty, resolving the peace in Europe, thus becoming the solitary person who was a signatory of the treaties ending both the First and Second World Wars.

In 1945, he was mentioned by Halvdan Koht among seven candidates that were qualified for the Nobel Prize in Peace. However, he did not explicitly nominate any of them. The person actually nominated was Cordell Hull.^[36]

After the war[link]

Jan Smuts Museum, Irene, Pretoria

Smuts continued to represent his country abroad. He was a leading guest at the 1947 wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. ^[37] At home, his preoccupation with the war had severe political repercussions in South Africa. Smuts's support of the war and his support for the Fagan Commission made him unpopular amongst the Afrikaners and Daniel François Malan's pro-Apartheid stance won the Reunited National Party the 1948 general election. Although this result was widely forecast, it is a credit to Smuts's political acumen that he was only narrowly defeated by eight seats (and, in fact, won the popular vote by 620,682 votes to 462,332). Smuts, who had been confident of victory, lost his own seat in the House of Assembly and retired from politics. He still hoped that the tenuous National Party government would fall; but it was to remain in power until 1994, when after nearly five decades of Apartheid, a transitional government of national unity was formed.

The car Jan Smuts used when he was the Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa. Jan Smuts Museum, Irene, Pretoria

He accepted the appointment as Colonel-In-Chief of Regiment Westelike Provinsie as from 17 September 1948.^[38]

It is widely believed in Lesotho that the British attempted to bolster Smuts against Malan's PNP by breaking the power of the Basutoland chieftaincy and allowing the protectorate to be incorporated into South Africa. Two dominant chiefs, Bereng Griffith (twice presumptive heir to the throne) and Gabashane were hanged in controversial circumstances for ritual murder (liretlo) but this occurred after Smuts' election defeat.^{[citation needed]}

Smuts's inauguration as chancellor of the University of Cambridge shortly after the election restored his morale, but the sudden and unexpected death of his eldest son, Japie, in October 1948 brought him to the depths of despair. In the last two years of his life, now frail and visibly aged, Smuts continued to comment perceptively, and on occasion presciently, on world affairs. Europe and the Commonwealth remained his dominant concerns. He regretted the departure of the Irish republic from the Commonwealth, but was unhappy when India remained within it after it became a republic, fearing the example this would set South Africa's Nationalists. His outstanding contributions as a world statesman were acknowledged in innumerable honours and medals. At home his reputation was more mixed. Nevertheless, despite ill health he continued his public commitments.

On 29 May 1950, a week after the public celebration of his eightieth birthday in Johannesburg and Pretoria, he suffered a coronary thrombosis. He died of a subsequent heart attack on his family farm of Doornkloof, Irene, near Pretoria, on 11 September 1950, and was cremated in Pretoria on 16 September. His ashes were scattered in the veld on his farm Doornkloof.

Statue in Parliament Square, London, by Jacob Epstein

Support for Zionism[link]

South African supporters of Theodor Herzl contacted Smuts in 1916. Smuts, who supported the Balfour Declaration, met and became friends with Chaim Weizmann, the future President of Israel, in London. In 1943 Weizmann wrote to Smuts, detailing a plan to develop Britain's African colonies to compete with the United States. During his service as Premier, Smuts personally fundraised for multiple Zionist organisations.^[39] His government granted de facto recognition to Israel on 24 May 1948 and de jure recognition on 14 May 1949 following the defeat of Smuts' United Party by the Reunited National Party in the 26 May 1948 General Election, 12 days after David Ben Gurion declared Jewish Statehood and giving the newly formed nation the name Israel.^[40] However, Smuts was deputy prime minister when the Hertzog government in 1937 passed the Aliens Act that was aimed at preventing Jewish immigration to South Africa. The act was seen as a response to growing anti-Semitic sentiments among Afrikaners.^[41]

He lobbied against the White Paper of 1939.^[42]

Several streets and a kibbutz, Ramat Yohanan, in Israel are named after Smuts.^[40]

Smuts' wrote an epitaph for Weizmann, describing him as the greatest Jew since Moses."^[43]

Smuts once said:

Other offices held[link]

In 1931, Smuts became the first President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science not from the United Kingdom. In that year, he was also elected the second non-British Lord Rector of St Andrews University (after Fridtjof Nansen). In 1948, he was elected Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, becoming the first person from outside the United Kingdom to hold that position. He held the position until his death.

Jan Smuts in popular culture[link]

The Libertines recorded a song titled General Smuts in reference to a pub named after him located in Bloemfontein Road, Shepherds Bush, London, close to QPR football club. It appeared as a B-side to their single Time for Heroes.

Smuts is played by South African playwright Athol Fugard in the 1982 film Gandhi.

Wilbur Smith refers to and portrays Jan Smuts in several of his South Africa based novels including When the Lion Feeds, The Sound of Thunder, A Sparrow Falls, Power of the Sword and Rage. Smuts is often referred to as "Slim (Clever) Jannie" or Oubaas (Old Boss) as well as by his proper names.

Place names[link]

The international airport serving Johannesburg was known as Jan Smuts Airport from its construction in 1952 until 1994. In 1994, it was renamed to Johannesburg International Airport to remove any political connotations. In 2006, it was renamed again to its current name, OR Tambo International Airport, for the ANC politician Oliver Tambo.

Residences at the University of Cape Town and at Rhodes University are named after him, as is a library housing international law materials at the University of the Witwatersrand.

In 1932, the kibbutz Ramat Yohanan in Israel was named after him. Smuts was a vocal proponent of the creation of a Jewish state, and spoke out against the rising anti-Semitism of the 1930s.^[45]

Honours[link]

Medals, Commonwealth and South African Order of Merit Order of the Companions of Honour Dekoratie voor Trouwe Dienst Efficiency Decoration Queen's South Africa Medal 1914–15 Star British War Medal Victory Medal General Service Medal King George V Silver Jubilee Medal King George VI Coronation Medal Africa Star Italy Star France and Germany Star Defence Medal France and Germany Star War Medal 1939–1945 Africa Service Medal International and Foreign Awards European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal, (United States of America) 60px Order of the Tower and Sword, Grand Cross (Portugal) Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross (Netherlands) 60px Order of Muhammad Ali, Grand Cordon (Egypt) Order of the Redeemer, Grand Cross (Greece) Order of Léopold, Grand Cross (Belgium) Croix de guerre (Belgium), (Belgium) Légion d'honneur, Commander (France) Order of the African Star, Grand Cross (Belgium) 60px King Christian X Frihedsmedaille (Denmark) Cross of Valour, (Greece) 60px Woodrow Wilson Peace Medal (United States of America) Other awards and decorations[link] Privy Counsellor King's Counsel Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) Bencher of the Middle Temple Albert Medal See also[link] Military history of South Africa When Smuts Goes History of Kenya – Colonial History History of Tanzania – First World War Footnotes[link] ^ Root, Waverley (1952). "Jan Christiaan Smuts. 1870-1950". Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society 8 (21): 271–226. DOI:10.1098/rsbm.1952.0017. JSTOR 768812.  edit ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (11 September 1950). "Prime Minister Lloyd George at once recognized his abilities and made him minister of air. From then on he was used in a variety of tasks. He organized the Royal Air Force and was concerned in all major decisions about the war.". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-6721/Jan-Smuts. Retrieved 1 May 2010.  ^ Crafford p. 141 ^ a b c "United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/44(I)". United Nations General Assembly. 8 December 1946. http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/032/95/IMG/NR003295.pdf?OpenElement. Retrieved 7 June 2011.  ^ http://152.111.1.87/argief/berigte/dieburger/2004/09/27/DB/3LDNk/04.html ^ Venn, J.; Venn, J. A., eds. (1922–1958). "Smuts, Jan Christian". Alumni Cantabrigienses (10 vols) (online ed.). Cambridge University Press.  ^ Letter from Marais to Smuts, 8 Aug 1892; Hancock et al. (1966–73): vol. 1, p. 25 ^ Jan C Smuts: Walt Whitman - a Study in the Evolution of Personality, Wayne State University Press 1973 ^ Smuts (1952), p. 23 ^ Letter from Maitland to Smuts, 15 June 1894; Hancock et al. (1966–73): vol. 1, pp. 33–34 ^ Jan Smuts – Memoirs of the Boer War (1994) Introduction, p. 19 ^ Smuts (1952), p. 24 ^ Norman Kemp Smith. A Commentary to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.  ^ Williams, Basil (1946). Botha Smuts And South Africa. Hodder And Stoughton. pp. 52–53. http://www.archive.org/details/bothasmutsandsou035110mbp. Retrieved 14 October 2010.  ^ Byron Farwell (1999). Over There: The United States in the Great War, 1917-1918.  ^ Dugard, John (1973). The South West Africa/Namibia Dispute: Documents and Scholarly Writings on the Controversy Between South Africa and The United Nations. University of California Press. p. 38. ISBN 0-520-02614-4.  ^ Howe, Quincy, A World History of Our Own Times, 1949, page 74 ^ J.C. Smuts, J. C. Smuts, 1952, p. 252 ^ Kee, Robert Munich, Hamish Hamilton: London, United Kingdom, 1988 page 54. ^ Smuts, J.C. 'Freedom', Alexander Maclehose & Co, London, UK, 1934 page 28-29. ^ Julian Tudor Hart (2010) The Political Economy of Health Care, pp.106, 258 quotation: Complex problems of this sort, which account for most of the work of primary care, [...] have to depend on clinical and social jusdgements (sic). [...] The conventional way to refer to more comprehensive and intuitive judgements is to describe such approaches as holistic. It has become extremely popular among liberally inclined healthcare workers of all kinds, but I have not found it useful. The central idea of holism is that any evolved whole is greater than the sum of his parts, and that no single thing can be fully understood in isolation from its extended context. Though this is obviously true, it does nothing to get us beyond banal observation. [...] Known in South Africa as Janni (sic) the fox, Smuts managed in a single like to combine three large reputations - as a leader of the Boers' guerrilla resistence (sic) to the English, as senior statesman and recurrent Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa and champion of the British Empire, and as a philosopher. To achieve this on the basis of white supremacy in a country where people of African descent, a supremacy he never questioned, required a philosophy fitted for contemplation of reality rather than struggle to change it. So it has been for holism, a soapy term which evades necessary conflict. ^ Letter from Einstein to Smuts, 24 June 1936, Vol 54, Folio 33, Cambridge University Library ^ a b "Jan Christiaan Smuts , South African History Online". Sahistory.org.za. http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/people/bios/smuts-j.htm. Retrieved 1 May 2010.  ^ [1][dead link] ^ a b "Journal of Heredity – Sign In Page". Jhered.oxfordjournals.org. http://www.jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/21/5/225.pdf. Retrieved 1 May 2010.  ^ The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. 8. p. 199.  ^ The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. 3. p. 255.  ^ The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. 2. p. 270.  ^ Rory Carroll, "Gandhi branded racist as Johannesburg honours freedom fighter", The Guardian, 17 October 2003. ^ "Kaffirs". Encyclopædia Britannica. 15. 1911. pp. 627–629.  ^ "Following the footsteps of a great man". Sunday Times. http://heritage.thetimes.co.za/memorials/gp/MohandasGandhi/article.aspx?id=565973. Retrieved 30 April 2006.  ^ "Unverified article attributed to the Delhi News Chronicle". South African Communist Party. 25 September 1949. http://www.sacp.org.za/docs/history/dadoo-38.html. Retrieved 1 May 2010.  ^ R.E.Press. "THE AFRICAN MINERS` STRIKE OF 1946". Anc.org.za. http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/history/misc/miners.html. Retrieved 1 May 2010. [dead link] ^ "Fagan Commission and Report". Africanhistory.about.com. 26 May 1948. http://africanhistory.about.com/od/apartheidterms/g/def_Fagan.htm. Retrieved 1 May 2010.  ^ Colville, Sir John: The Fringes of Power, pages 269–271 (ISBN 1-84212-626-1) ^ "Record from The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Peace, 1901–1956". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nomination/peace/nomination.php?action=show&showid=3322. Retrieved 14 May 2010. [dead link] ^ Royal Collection: Seating plan for the Ball Supper Room http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/royalwedding1947/object.asp?grouping=&exhibs=NONE&object=9000366&row=82&detail=magnify ^ Union Defence Force Order No.4114. 5 July 1949 ^ Jane Hunter and Jane Haapiseva-Hunter. Israeli Foreign Policy: South Africa and Central America, 1987. Pages 21–22. ^ a b Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin. The Israeli Connection: Whom Israel Arms and Why, 1988. Page 109-111. ^ "South Africa – The Great Depression and the 1930s". Countrystudies.us. http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/22.htm. Retrieved 1 May 2010.  ^ Howard Stafford Crossman, Richard. A Nation Reborn: A Personal Report on the Roles Played by Weizmann, Bevin and Ben-Gurion in the story of Israel, 1960. Page 76. ^ Lockyer, Norman. Nature, digitized 5 February 2007. Nature Publishing Group. ^ S. Klieman, Aaron. The Rise of Israel, 1987. Page 16. ^ "Jewish American Year Book 5695" (PDF). Jewish Publication Society of America. 1934. http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/Vol_36__1934_1935.pdf. Retrieved 12 August 2006. . Tel Aviv and several other Israeli cities have a Jan Smuts Street. Bibliography[link] Primary sources[link] Smuts, J.C. (1940). The Folly of Neutrality - Speech by the prime Minister, General the Rt. Hon. J.C.Smuts, P.C., C.H., K.C., D.T.D., in The Senate of the Union Parliament at Cape Town on January 30, 1940. Union Unity Truth Service. http://www.archive.org/details/TheFollyOfNeutralitywwIi.  Hancock, WK and van der Poel, J (eds) – Selections from the Smuts Papers, 1886–1950, (7 vols), (1966–73) Spies, SB and Natrass, G (eds) – Jan Smuts – Memoirs of the Boer War Jonathan Ball, Johannesburg 1994 Crowe, BGen J.H.V. -General Smuts' Campaign in East Africa, (1918) Secondary sources[link] Armstrong, HC – Grey Steel: A Study of Arrogance, (1939), ASIN B00087SNP4) Clark, NL – South Africa: The Rise and Fall of Apartheid, (2004), (ISBN 0 582 41437 7) Crafford, FS – Jan Smuts: A Biography, (1943), ISBN 1-4179-9290-5 Friedman, B – Smuts: A Reappraisal, (1975) Geyser, O – Jan Smuts and His International Contemporaries, (2002), (ISBN 1-919874-10-0) Hancock, WK – Smuts: 1. The Sanguine Years, 1870—1919, (1962) Hancock, WK – Smuts: 2. Fields of Force, 1919–1950, (1968) Hutchinson, John – A Botanist in Southern Africa, (1946), PR Gawthorn Ltd. Ingham, K – Jan Christian Smuts: The Conscience of a South African, (1986) Lentin, Antony – General Smuts: South Africa, London, Haus, (2010). ISBN 978-1-905791-82-8 Millin, SG – General Smuts, (2 vols), (1933) Reitz, D – Commando: A Boer Journal of the Boer War, (ISBN 0-9627613-3-8) Smuts, JC – Jan Christian Smuts, (1952), e-book (ISBN 978-1-920091-29-3) External links[link] Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Jan Smuts Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jan Smuts "Revisiting Urban African Policy and the Reforms of the Smuts Government, 1939–48", by Gary Baines Africa And Some World Problems by Jan Smuts at archive.org Holism And Evolution by Jan Smuts The White man's task by Jan Smuts Political offices Preceded by New office Minister for the Interior 1910–1912 Succeeded by Abraham Fischer Preceded by New office Minister for Defence (first time) 1910–1920 Succeeded by Hendrik Mentz Preceded by Henry Charles Hull Minister for Finance 1912–1915 Succeeded by Sir David Pieter de Villiers Graaff Preceded by Louis Botha Prime Minister (first time) 1919–1924 Succeeded by James Barry Munnik Hertzog Preceded by Oswald Pirow Minister for Justice 1933–1939 Succeeded by Colin Fraser Steyn Preceded by James Barry Munnik Hertzog Prime Minister (second time) 1939–1948 Succeeded by Daniel François Malan Preceded by Oswald Pirow Minister for Defence (second time) 1939–1948 Succeeded by Frans Erasmus Preceded by James Barry Munnik Hertzog Minister for Foreign Affairs 1939–1948 Succeeded by Daniel François Malan Party political offices Preceded by Louis Botha Leader of the South African Party 1919–1934 SAP Merged into United Party Preceded by James Barry Munnik Hertzog Leader of the United Party 1939–1950 Succeeded by Jacobus Gideon Nel Strauss Academic offices Preceded by Sir Wilfred Grenfell Rector of the University of St Andrews 1931–1934 Succeeded by Guglielmo Marconi Preceded by The Prince of Wales later became King Edward VIII Chancellor of the University of Cape Town 1936–1950 Succeeded by Albert van der Sandt Centlivres Preceded by Stanley Baldwin Chancellor of the University of Cambridge 1948–1950 Succeeded by The Lord Tedder v t e Jan Smuts I: Early life II: The South African Republic III: The Boer War IV: A British Transvaal V: The Old Boers v t e Prime Ministers of South Africa Louis Botha · Jan Christiaan Smuts · James Barry Munnik Hertzog · Jan Christiaan Smuts · Daniel François Malan · Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom · Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd · Balthazar Johannes Vorster · Pieter Willem Botha Governor-General of the Union of South Africa · State President of South Africa v t e Leaders of the (Parliamentary) Opposition in South Africa Jameson Smartt Hertzog Smuts vacant (1933-1934) Malan Hertzog Malan Smuts Strauss Graaff Cadman Eglin Slabbert Eglin Treurnicht Hartzenberg vacant (1994–1996) de Klerk Schalkwyk Leon Botha Trollip Mazibuko v t e Justice ministers of South Africa pre-Apartheid (1910-1948) Hertzog • Sauer • de Wet • Roos • Pirow • Smuts • Steyn • Lawrence Apartheid-era (1948-1994) Swart • Erasmus • Vorster • Pelser • Kruger • Schlebusch • Coetsee Post-Apartheid (1994-present) Omar • Maduna • Mabandla • Surty • Radebe v t e Defence ministers of South Africa Pre-Apartheid (1910-1948) Smuts • Mentz • Creswell • Pirow • Smuts (as Prime Minister) Apartheid-era (1948-1994) Erasmus • Fouché • Botha • Malan • Meyer • Louw • Coetsee Post-Apartheid (1994-present) Modise • Lekota • Nqakula • Sisulu v t e Foreign ministers of South Africa pre-Apartheid (1910–1948) Hertzog • Smuts Apartheid-era (1948–1994) Malan • Strijdom • Louw • Muller • Botha Post-Apartheid (1994–present) Nzo • Dlamini-Zuma • Nkoana-Mashabane Note: Until the appointment of Louw in 1955 the Prime Minister was also foreign minister. v t e Home affairs ministers of South Africa pre-Apartheid (1910-1948) Smuts • Fischer • Theron • Watt • Duncan • Malan • Hofmeyr • Stuttaford • Lawrence • Clarkson • Lawrence Apartheid-era (1948-1994) Dönges • Naudé • de Klerk • Le Roux • Muller • Viljoen • Gerdener • Mulder • Schlebusch • Heunis • de Klerk • Botha • Louw • Pienaar • Schutte Post-Apartheid (1994-present) Buthelezi • Mapisa-Nqakula • Dlamini-Zuma v t e Finance ministers of South Africa pre-Apartheid (1910-1948) Hull • Smuts • Graaff • Burton • Orr • Burton • Havenga • Hofmeyr • Sturrock Apartheid-era (1948-1994) Havenga • Louw • Naudé • Dönges • Diederichs • Horwood • Du Plessis • Keys Post-Apartheid (1994-present) Keys • Liebenberg • Manuel • Gordhan Persondata Name Smuts, Jan Christian Alternative names Short description Date of birth 24 May 1870 Place of birth Bovenplaats, near Malmesbury, Western Cape, Cape Colony Date of death 11 September 1950 Place of death Doornkloof, Irene, Gauteng, near Pretoria, South Africa