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Locative (abbreviated LOC) is a grammatical case which indicates a location. It corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by". The locative case belongs to the general local cases together with the lative and separative case.

The locative case exists in many language groups.

Indo-European languages[link]

The Proto-Indo-European language had a locative case expressing "place where", an adverbial function. The ending depended on the last vowel of the stem (consonant, a-, o-, i-, u-stems) and the number (singular or plural). Subsequently the locative case tended to merge with other cases: the genitive or dative.^[1] Some daughter languages retained it as a distinct case. The locative case is found in:

• modern Balto-Slavic languages (see however prepositional case)
• some classical Indo-European languages, particularly Sanskrit and Old Latin
• uncommon, archaic or literary use in certain modern Indian languages (such as Marathi in which a separate ablative case has however disappeared)

Latin[link]

In Latin, the functions of the locative case were mostly absorbed by the ablative, but a separate locative is found in a few words.

The Latin locative case applies only to the names of cities and small islands and to a few other isolated words. The Romans considered all Mediterranean islands to be small except for Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, and Cyprus. Britannia was also considered to be a "large island." There are a few nouns that use the locative instead of a preposition: domus becomes domī (at home), rūs becomes rūrī (in the country), humus becomes humī (on the ground), militia becomes militiae (in military service, in the field), and focus becomes focī (at the hearth; at the center of the community).

For singular first and second declension, the locative is identical to the genitive singular form, and for the singular third declension the locative is identical to the ablative singular form. For plural nouns of all declensions, the locative is also identical to the ablative form. The few fourth and fifth declension place-name words would also use the ablative form for locative case.

In archaic times, the locative singular of third declension nouns was actually interchangeable between ablative and dative forms, but in the Augustan Period the use of the ablative form became fixed.  Therefore, both forms "rūrī" and "rūre" may be encountered.

The first declension locative is by far the most common, because so many Roman place names were first declension: mostly singular (Roma, Rome; Hibernia, Ireland; etc., and therefore Romae, at Rome; Hiberniae, at Ireland), but some plural (Athenae, Athens; Cumae, Cuma etc., with Athenis, at Athens; Cumis, at Cumae). But there are a number of second declension names that would have locatives, too (Brundisium, Brindisi; Eboracum, York; with locatives Brundisiī, at Brindisi; Eboraci, at York, etc.)

Greek[link]

In Ancient Greek, the locative merged with the Proto-Indo-European dative, so that the Greek dative represents the Proto-Indo-European dative, instrumental, and locative. The dative with the preposition ἐν en "in" and the dative of time (e.g., τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾳ or tēî trítēi hēmérāi, which means "on the third day") are examples of locative datives.

Germanic languages[link]

The locative case had merged with the dative in early Germanic times and was no longer distinct in Proto-Germanic or in any of its descendants. The dative did, however, contrast with the accusative case, which was used to indicate motion toward a place (it had an allative meaning). This difference in meaning between dative and accusative is present in all of the old Germanic languages and survives in all Germanic languages that retain a distinction between the two cases.

Slavic languages[link]

Unusual in other Indo-European branches but common among Slavic languages, the ending depends on whether the word is a noun or an adjective (among other factors).

Czech[link]

The Czech language uses the locative case to denote location (v České Republice/in the Czech Republic), but as in the Russian language, the locative case may be used after certain prepositions with meanings other than location (o Praze/about Prague, po revoluci/after the revolution). Cases other than the locative may be used to denote location in Czech as well (U Roberta/at Robert's house -genitive, or nad stolem/above the table -instrumental).

See Czech declension for declension patterns for all Czech grammatical cases, including locative.

Polish[link]

There are several different locative endings in Polish:

• -ie Used for singular nouns of all genders, e.g. niebo → niebie. In a few cases, the softening indicated by i has led to consonant alternations:
  • brat → bracie
  • rzeka → rzece
  • noga → nodze
  • rower → rowerze
  • piekło → piekle

For a complete list, see Polish hard and soft consonants.

• -u Used for:
  • Some masculine singular nouns, e.g. syn → synu, dom → domu, bok → boku, brzuch → brzuchu, worek → worku*, nastrój → nastroju*, deszcz → deszczu, miś → misiu, koń → koniu, Poznań → Poznaniu, Wrocław → Wrocławiu, Bytom → Bytomiu** [* In a few cases, a vowel change may occur, e.g. ó → o, or a vowel may be dropped. ** Final consonants in Wrocław and Bytom used to be soft, which is still reflected in suffixed forms, hence -i-.]
  • All neuter singular nouns ending in -e, e.g. miejsce → miejscu, życie → życiu
  • Some neuter singular nouns ending in -o, e.g. mleko → mleku, łóżko → łóżku, ucho → uchu
• -i Used for:
  • Feminine nouns ending in -ia, e.g. Kasia ("Katie") → o Kasi ("about Katie"), Austria → w Austrii ("in Austria")
  • Feminine nouns ending in -ść, e.g. miłość ("love") → o miłości ("about love")
• -ach Used for plural nouns of all genders, e.g. kobiety ("women") → o kobietach ("about women")
• -ich / -ych Used for plural adjectives of all genders, e.g. małe sklepy ("small shops") → w małych sklepach ("in small shops")
• -im / -ym Used for masculine and neuter singular adjectives, e.g. polski język ("Polish language") → w polskim języku ("in the Polish language")
• -ej Used for feminine singular adjectives, e.g. duża krowa ("big cow") → o dużej krowie ("about a big cow")

Russian[link]

In the Russian language, the locative case has been largely superseded by the prepositional case, which is used only after a preposition. The latter is not always used to indicate location, while other cases may also be used to specify location (e.g. the genitive case, as in у окна́ ("by the window"). Statements such as "в библиотеке" v biblioteke ("in the library") or "на Аляске", na Alyaske ("in Alaska"), demonstrate the use of the prepositional case to indicate location. However, this case is also used after the preposition "о" ("about") as in "о студенте", o studente ("about the student").

Nevertheless, approximately 150 masculine nouns are only used after "в" and "на" to indicate the locative case. These forms end in "-у́" or "-ю́": "лежать в снегу́", lezhat v snegu (to lie in the snow), but "думать о снеге", dumat o snege (to think about snow). Other examples are рай, ray (paradise); "в раю́", дым dym (smoke); and "в дыму́", v dymú. As indicated by the accent marks, the stress is always on the last syllable, which is unlike the dative-case forms with the same spelling. A few feminine nouns that end with the soft sign, such as дверь and пыль, also have a locative form that differs from the prepositional in that the stress shifts to the final syllable: "на двери́", na dverí ("on the door"), but "при две́ри", pri dvéri ("by the door"). These distinct forms are sometimes referenced as "second locative" or "new locative", because they developed independently from the true locative case, which existed in the Old Russian.^[2][3]

With some words, such as дом, dom (house), the second locative form is used only in certain idiomatic expressions, while the prepositional is used elsewhere. For example, "на дому́", na domu ("at the house" or "at home") would be used to describe activity that is performed at home, while "на до́ме" ("on the house") would be used to specify the location of the roof.

Slovak[link]

The Slovak language uses the locative case to denote location (na Slovensku/in Slovakia), but as in the Russian language, the locative case may be used after certain prepositions with meanings other than location (o Bratislave/about Bratislava, po revolúcii/after the revolution). Cases other than the locative may be used to denote location in Slovak as well (U Milana/at Milan's house -genitive, or nad stolom/above the table -instrumental).

There are several different locative endings in Slovak:

• -e Used for singular nouns of all genders (except masculine animate), e.g. stôl → stole, láska → láske, mesto → meste.
• -u Used for:
  • Masculine inanimate singular nouns ending in a velar consonant, e.g. hliník → hliníku, mozog → mozgu, bok → boku, vzduch → vzduchu, or a glottal consonant, eg hloh → hlohu
  • All neuter singular nouns ending in -kV, -chV, -iV, -uV (V being o or um), e.g. jablko → jablku, ucho → uchu, akvárium → akváriu, vakuum → vakuu
• -i Used for:
  • Masculine inanimate nouns ending in a soft consonant (c, č, ď, dz, dž, j, ľ, ň, š, ť, ž), e.g. ovládač ("remote") → o ovládači ("about the remote"), tŕň → tŕni
  • Feminine nouns ending in a soft consonant or a soft consonant followed by a, e.g. vôňa → o voni, kosť ("bone") → o kosti ("about bone")
  • Feminine nouns ending in -ia or -ea, e.g. Mária → Márii, Andrea → Andrei
  • Neuter nouns ending in -e or -ie, e.g. srdce → srdci
• -í used for neuter nouns ending in -ie, e.g. vysvedčenie → vysvedčení
• -ovi used for masculine animate nouns, e.g. chlap → chalpovi, hrdina → hrdinovi
• -om used for masculine and neuter singular adjectives: pekný/pekné → peknom
• -ej used for feminine singular adjectives and feminine nouns ending in -á: pekná gazdiná → peknej gazdinej
• -m used for masculine animate nouns following the kuli pattern (being most names in -i, -y etc.), e.g. Harry → Harrym
• -och used for masculine nouns in plural, e.g. malí chlapi → malých chlapoch
• -ách used for plural feminine and neuter nouns, e.g. ženy ("women") → o ženách ("about women"). There are variations:
  • -ach used when the preceeding vowel is long or a diphthong (ia, ie, iu, ô), e.g. lásky → láskach, dielo → dielach
  • -iach used after soft consonants, e.g. schopnosť → schopnostiach, srdce → srdciach
• -ích / -ých Used for plural adjectives of all genders, e.g. malé obchody ("small shops") → v malých obchodoch ("in small shops"), with the variation:
  • -ich / -ych when the preceeding vowel is long: rýchle autá ("fast cars") → o rýchlych autách ("about fast cars")

See also Slovak declension for declension patterns for all Slovak grammatical cases, including locative.

Armenian[link]

In the Armenian language non-animate nouns take -ում (-um) for the locative. Animate nouns (referring to persons especially) do not take the locative.

• համալսարանը (hamalsaranə, the university) → համալսարանում (hamalsaranum, in/at the university)
• ճաշարան (chasharan, a restaurant) → ճաշարանում (chasharanum, in/at a restaurant)

Turkic languages[link]

Some Turkic languages have a locative.

Turkish[link]

The locative case exists in Turkish, as the suffix generally specified by "-DA". For instance, in Turkish, okul means the school, and okulda means in the school. The morpheme may exist in four different forms, depending on the preceding consonant and vowel. The first phoneme of the locative, "D", changes according to the previous consonant: it is "t" after voiceless consonants, but "d" elsewhere. The vowel changes depending on the phonetic characteristics of the previous vowel: it is "a" after a preceding back vowel, and "e" after a preceding front vowel, congruent with the vowel harmony of the language. This gives four different versions of the morpheme:

• -ta, as in "kitapta", "in the book".
• -te, as in "kentte", "in the city".
• -da, as in "odada", "in the room".
• -de, as in "evde", "in the house".

Uzbek[link]

The locative case exists also in Uzbek. For example, in Uzbek, shakhar means city, and shakharda means in the city, so using -da suffix, the locative case is marked.

Uralic languages[link]

Some Uralic languages have a locative.

Inari Sami[link]

In Inari Sami, the locative suffix is -st.

• kyeleest 'in the language'
• kieđast 'in the hand'.

Hungarian[link]

In the Hungarian language, nine such cases exist, yet the name locative case refers to a form (-t/-tt) used only in a few city/town names along with the inessive case or superessive case. It can also be observed in a few local adverbs and postpositions. It is no longer productive.

Examples:

• Győrött (also Győrben), Pécsett (also Pécsen), Vácott (also Vácon), Kaposvárt and Kaposvárott (also Kaposváron), Vásárhelyt (also Vásárhelyen)
• itt (here), ott (there), imitt, amott (there yonder), alatt (under), fölött (over), között (between/among), mögött (behind) etc.

The town/city name suffixes -ban/-ben are the inessive ones, and the -on/-en/-ön are the superessive ones.

Estonian[link]

The Estonian language has a set of six locative cases, three interior and three exterior ones. They are formed by adding a suffix to the genitive form of the noun.

The interior locative cases are:

• Illative - majasse 'into a/the house', or the irregular short form majja which is used mostly
• Inessive - majas 'in a/the house'
• Elative - majast 'from inside a/the house'

The exterior locative cases are:

• Allative - majale '(on)to a/the house'
• Adessive - majal 'on (top of) a/the house' or 'at a/the house'
• Ablative - majalt 'from a/the house'

(http://www.einst.ee/publications/language/cases.html)

All nouns have a regular version of all these six cases, but many words have a more commonly used irregular short version for the illative case which, instead of adding a sse suffix to the genitive, change their stress/phoneme length without adding an extra syllable for the suffix.

Estonian, like some Indo-European languages (Latin, Russian, Irish), does not normally use the verb to have to show possession. The adessive case and the verb to be is used instead. For example, I have a house in Estonian would be Mul on maja in which mul is in the adessive case, on is the third singular of to be (is), and maja is in nominative, not accusative. So maja is the subject, on is the verb and mul is the indirect object. This could be translated to English as At me is a house or A house is at me or There is a house at me. For this reason, it has been argued that the Estonian adessive case is really a dative one. Statistically, the majority of the occurrences of the exterior locative cases show possession, not location (also Ta andis mulle maja 'He gave (to) me a house', Ta võttis minult mu maja 'He took from me my house').

(http://repository.tufs.ac.jp/bitstream/10108/21802/1/jaas046011.pdf)

Finnish[link]

Standard Finnish behaves like Estonian. The forms of the six local cases vary slightly from Estonian, with one form being affixed differently:

The interior locative cases are:

• Illative - [taloon] 'into a/the house'; cf. maahan 'into the land', sateeseen 'into the rain'
• Inessive - talossa 'in a/the house'
• Elative - talosta 'from inside a/the house'

The exterior locative cases are:

• Allative - talolle '(on)to a/the house'
• Adessive - talolla 'on (top of) a/the house' or 'at a/the house'
• Ablative - talolta 'from a/the house'

Use of adessive in possession:

• Minulla on talo 'I have a house' (lit. "a house is at me")

Etruscan[link]

The Etruscan language has a locative ending in -thi: velsnalthi, "at Velznani", with reference to Volsinii.^{[citation needed]}

Algonquian languages[link]

Algonquian languages have a locative.

Cree[link]

In Cree, the locative suffix is -ihk.

• • misâskwatômin (Saskatoon berry) → misâskwatôminihk (at the Saskatoon berry) = "[in] Saskatoon, SK"
  • misâskwatôminiskâ- (be many Saskatoon berries) → misâskwatôminiskâhk (at the place of many Saskatoon berries) = "[in] Saskatoon, SK"
  • mînis (berry) → mînisihk (at the berry) = "[in] Saskatoon, SK"

Innu-aimun[link]

In Innu-aimun, the locative suffix is -(i)t.

• • shipu (river) → shipit (at the river)
  • katshishkutamatsheutshuap (school) → katshishkutamatsheutshuapit (at school)
  • nuitsheuakan (my friend) → nuitsheuakanit (at my friend's house)
  • nipi (water) → nipit (in the water)
  • utenau (town) → utenat (in town)

Notes[link]

1. ^ Buck, page 172
2. ^ The Locative Case
3. ^ Everything you always wanted to know about Russian grammar but were afraid to ask, AATSEEL Newsletter, October 2007, pp. 7-8.

Bibliography[link]

• Buck, Carl Darling (1933). Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press. 

External links[link]

• Locative in the Russian language (in Russian)

William Arthur Stewart Buxton
Bill Buxton with a Microwriter chord input device.
Born	(1949-03-10) March 10, 1949 (age 63) Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Residence	Canada
Citizenship	Canada
Nationality	Canadian
Fields	Computer Science and Design
Institutions	Utrecht University University of Toronto Ontario College of Art & Design Alias Wavefront Xerox PARC Microsoft Research
Alma mater	St. Lawrence College Queen's University Utrecht University University of Toronto
Doctoral students	Brad Myers I. Scott MacKenzie Gordon Kurtenbach Shumin Zhai Beverly Harrison George W. Fitzmaurice Ravin Balakrishnan
Known for	User interface pioneer Marking menu Sketching in design
Notable awards	SIGCHI Lifetime Achievement Award (Association for Computing Machinery)

William Arthur Stewart "Bill" Buxton (born March 10, 1949) is a Canadian computer scientist and designer. He is currently a Principal researcher at Microsoft Research. He is known for being one of the pioneers in the human–computer interaction field.

Background and contributions[link]

Bill Buxton received his bachelor's degree in Music from Queen's University in 1973 and his master's degree in Computer Science from University of Toronto in 1978.^[1]

Bill Buxton's scientific contributions include applying Fitts' law to human-computer interaction and the invention and analysis of the marking menu (together with Gordon Kurtenbach). He pioneered multi-touch interfaces and music composition tools in the late 70s, while working in the Dynamics Graphics Project at University of Toronto. Recently, he is also known for his book Sketching User Experiences: Getting the Design Right and the Right Design (Morgan Kaufmann, 2007).

Bill Buxton is a regular columnist at BusinessWeek. Before joining Microsoft Research he was Chief Scientist at Alias Wavefront and SGI, and a Professor at University of Toronto.^[2]

He received the SIGCHI Lifetime Achievement Award in 2008 for his many fundamental contributions to the human–computer interaction field.^[3]

Notable honors and awards[link]

• Elected to the CHI Academy (2002)
• SIGCHI Lasting Impact Award (2004)
• SIGCHI Lifetime Achievement Award (2008)
• Doctor of Design Honoris Causa from the Ontario College of Art and Design, Toronto, Ontario (June, 2007)
• Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (2008)
• Doctor of Laws Honoris Causa from Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario (June, 2009)
• Doctor of Industrial Design Honoris Causa from the Technical University of Eindhoven, The Netherlands (April, 2010)

See also[link]

• Marking menu
• Multi-touch
• Human–computer interaction

References[link]

External links[link]

• Bill Buxton's personal web page
• Fireside chat with Bill Buxton Video

William Gibson
Portrait of Gibson in Paris during a promotional interview for the French release of Spook Country on March 17, 2008
Born	(1948-03-17) March 17, 1948 (age 64) Conway, South Carolina United States
Occupation	Novelist
Citizenship	United States, Canada
Period	1977–
Genres	speculative fiction
Literary movement	cyberpunk, steampunk, postcyberpunk
Notable work(s)	Neuromancer (novel, 1984)
Notable award(s)	Nebula, Hugo, Philip K. Dick, Ditmar, Seiun, Prix Aurora
Influences Alfred Bester,[1] Jorge Luis Borges,[2] William S. Burroughs,[3] Joseph Cornell,[4] David Cronenberg,[5] Samuel R. Delany,[1] Thomas M. Disch,[6] Manny Farber,[7] Dashiell Hammett,[8] Howard Hawks,[9] Ursula K. Le Guin,[10] Sogo Ishii,[11] Thomas Pynchon,[2] Lou Reed,[8] Joanna Russ,[10] Robert Stone[8]
Influenced Lewis Call,[12] Cory Doctorow,[13] Richard K. Morgan,[14] Linda Nagata, Neal Stephenson, Charles Stross,[15] John MacLachlan Gray, Scott Westerfeld
williamgibsonbooks.com

William Ford Gibson (born March 17, 1948) is an American-Canadian speculative fiction novelist who has been called the "noir prophet" of the cyberpunk subgenre.^[16] Gibson coined the term "cyberspace" in his short story "Burning Chrome" (1982) and later popularized the concept in his debut novel, Neuromancer (1984). In envisaging cyberspace, Gibson created an iconography for the information age before the ubiquity of the Internet in the 1990s.^[17] He is also credited with predicting the rise of reality television and with establishing the conceptual foundations for the rapid growth of virtual environments such as video games and the World Wide Web.

Having changed residence frequently with his family as a child, Gibson became a shy, ungainly teenager who often read science fiction. After spending his adolescence at a private boarding school in Arizona, Gibson evaded the draft during the Vietnam War by emigrating to Canada in 1968, where he became immersed in the counterculture and after settling in Vancouver eventually became a full-time writer. He retains dual citizenship.^[18] Gibson's early works are bleak, noir near-future stories about the effect of cybernetics and computer networks on humans—a "combination of lowlife and high tech".^[19] The short stories were published in popular science fiction magazines. The themes, settings and characters developed in these stories culminated in his first novel, Neuromancer, which garnered critical and commercial success, virtually initiating the cyberpunk literary genre.

Although much of Gibson's reputation has remained associated with Neuromancer, his work has continued to evolve. After expanding on Neuromancer with two more novels to complete the dystopic Sprawl trilogy, Gibson became an important author of another science fiction sub-genre—steampunk—with the 1990 alternate history novel The Difference Engine, written with Bruce Sterling. In the 1990s, he composed the Bridge trilogy of novels, which focused on sociological observations of near-future urban environments and late capitalism. His most recent novels—Pattern Recognition (2003), Spook Country (2007) and Zero History (2010)—are set in a contemporary world and have put his work onto mainstream bestseller lists for the first time.

Gibson is one of the best-known North American science fiction writers, fêted by The Guardian in 1999 as "probably the most important novelist of the past two decades". Gibson has written more than twenty short stories and ten critically acclaimed novels (one in collaboration), and has contributed articles to several major publications and collaborated extensively with performance artists, filmmakers and musicians. His thought has been cited as an influence on science fiction authors, design, academia, cyberculture, and technology.

Early life[link]

William S. Burroughs at his 70th birthday party in 1983. Burroughs, more than any other beat generation writer, was an important influence on the adolescent Gibson.

Childhood, itinerance, and adolescence[link]

William Ford Gibson was born in the coastal city of Conway, South Carolina, and spent most of his childhood in Wytheville, Virginia, a small town in the Appalachians where his parents had been born and raised.^[20][21] His family moved frequently during Gibson's youth owing to his father's position as manager of a large construction company.^[22] In Norfolk, Virginia, Gibson attended Pines Elementary School, where the teachers' lack of encouragement for him to read was a cause of dismay for his parents.^[23] While Gibson was still a young child,^[I] a little over a year into his stay at Pines Elementary,^[23] his father choked to death in a restaurant while on a business trip.^[20] His mother, unable to tell William the bad news, had someone else inform him of the death.^[24] Tom Maddox has commented that Gibson "grew up in an America as disturbing and surreal as anything J. G. Ballard ever dreamed".^[25]

Loss is not without its curious advantages for the artist. Major traumatic breaks are pretty common in the biographies of artists I respect.

—William Gibson, interview with The New York Times Magazine, August 19, 2007.^[24]

A few days after the death, Gibson's mother returned them from their home in Norfolk to Wytheville.^[21][26] Gibson later described Wytheville as "a place where modernity had arrived to some extent but was deeply distrusted" and credits the beginnings of his relationship with science fiction, his "native literary culture",^[26] with the subsequent feeling of abrupt exile.^[20] At the age of 12, Gibson "wanted nothing more than to be a science fiction writer".^[27] He spent a few unproductive years at basketball-obsessed George Wythe High School, a time spent largely in his room listening to records and reading books.^[23] At 13, unbeknownst to his mother, he purchased an anthology of Beat writing, thereby gaining exposure to the writings of Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, and William S. Burroughs; the lattermost had a particularly pronounced effect, greatly altering Gibson's notions of the possibilities of science fiction literature.^[3][8]

A shy, ungainly teenager, Gibson grew up in a monoculture he found "highly problematic",^[27] consciously rejected religion and took refuge in reading science fiction as well as writers such as Burroughs and Henry Miller.^[18][26] Becoming frustrated with his poor academic performance, Gibson's mother threatened to send him to a boarding school; to her surprise, he reacted enthusiastically.^[23] Unable to afford his preferred choice of Southern California, his then "chronically anxious and depressive" mother, who had remained in Wytheville since the death of her husband, sent him to Southern Arizona School for Boys in Tucson, Arizona.^[20][21][26] He resented the structure of the private boarding school, but was in retrospect grateful for its forcing him to engage socially.^[23] He took the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) exams, scoring five out of 150 in mathematics and 148 out of 150 in the written section, to the consternation of his teachers.^[23]

Gibson at a 2007 reading of Spook Country in Victoria, British Columbia. Since "The Winter Market" (1985), commissioned by Vancouver Magazine with the stipulation that it be set in the city, Gibson actively avoided using his adopted home as a setting until Spook Country.^[28]

Draft-dodging, exile, and counterculture[link]

After his mother's death when he was eighteen,^[23] Gibson left school without graduating and became very isolated for a long time, traveling to California and Europe and immersing himself in the counterculture.^[18][21][26] In 1967, he elected to move to Canada in order "to avoid the Vietnam war draft".^[20][26] At his draft hearing, he honestly informed interviewers that his intention in life was to sample every mind-altering substance in existence.^[29] Gibson has observed that he "did literally evade the draft, as they never bothered drafting me";^[20] after the hearing he went home and purchased a bus ticket to Toronto, and left a week or two later.^[26] In the biographical documentary No Maps for These Territories (2000) Gibson said that his decision was motivated less by conscientious objection than by a desire to "sleep with hippie chicks" and indulge in hashish.^[26] He elaborated on the topic in a 2008 interview:

When I was started out as a writer I took credit for draft evasion where I shouldn't have. I washed up in Canada with some vague idea of evading the draft but then I was never drafted so I never had to make the call. I don't know what I would have done if I'd really been drafted. I wasn't a tightly wrapped package at that time. if somebody had drafted me I might have wept and gone. I wouldn't have liked it of course.

—William Gibson, interview with io9, June 10, 2008.^[30]

After weeks of nominal homelessness, Gibson was hired as the manager of Toronto's first head shop, a retailer of drug paraphernalia.^[31] He found the city's émigré community of American draft dodgers unbearable owing to the prevalence of clinical depression, suicide and hardcore substance abuse.^[26] He appeared, during the Summer of Love of 1967, in a CBC newsreel item about hippie subculture in Yorkville, Toronto,^[32] for which he was paid $500 – the equivalent of 20 weeks rent – which financed his later travels.^[33] Aside from a "brief, riot-torn spell" in the District of Columbia, Gibson spent the rest of the 1960s in Toronto, where he met Vancouverite Deborah Jean Thompson,^[34] with whom he subsequently traveled to Europe.^[20] Gibson has recounted that they concentrated their travels on European nations with fascist regimes and favourable exchange rates, including spending time on a Greek archipelago and in Istanbul in 1970,^[35] as they "couldn't afford to stay anywhere that had anything remotely like hard currency".^[36]

The couple married and settled in Vancouver, British Columbia in 1972, with Gibson looking after their first child while they lived off his wife's teaching salary. During the 1970s, Gibson made a substantial part of his living from scouring Salvation Army thrift stores for underpriced artifacts he would then up-market to specialist dealers.^[35] Realizing that it was easier to sustain high college grades, and thus qualify for generous student financial aid, than to work,^[8] he enrolled at the University of British Columbia (UBC), earning "a desultory bachelor's degree in English"^[20] in 1977.^[37] Through studying English literature, he was exposed to a wider range of fiction than he would have read otherwise; something he credits with giving him ideas inaccessible from within the culture of science fiction, including an awareness of postmodernity.^[10] It was at UBC that he attended his first course on science fiction, taught by Susan Wood, at the end of which he was encouraged to write his first short story, "Fragments of a Hologram Rose".^[22]

Punk rock band The Clash performing in 1980. The punk subculture had a significant influence on Gibson's early writing in the mid-to-late 1970s and on the nascent cyberpunk movement in general.

Post-graduation, early writing, and the evolution of cyberpunk[link]

After considering pursuing a master's degree on the topic of hard science fiction novels as fascist literature,^[8] Gibson discontinued writing in the year that followed graduation and, as one critic put it, expanded his collection of punk records.^[38] During this period he worked at various jobs, including a three-year stint as teaching assistant on a film history course at his alma mater.^[22] Impatient at much of what he saw at a science fiction convention in Vancouver in 1980 or 1981, Gibson found a kindred spirit in fellow panelist, punk musician and author John Shirley.^[39] The two became immediate and lifelong friends. Shirley persuaded Gibson to sell his early short stories and to take writing seriously.^[38][39]

In 1977, facing first-time parenthood and an absolute lack of enthusiasm for anything like "career," I found myself dusting off my twelve-year-old's interest in science fiction. Simultaneously, weird noises were being heard from New York and London. I took Punk to be the detonation of some slow-fused projectile buried deep in society's flank a decade earlier, and I took it to be, somehow, a sign. And I began, then, to write.

—William Gibson, "Since 1948".^[20]

Through Shirley, Gibson came into contact with science fiction authors Bruce Sterling and Lewis Shiner; reading Gibson's work, they realised that it was, as Sterling put it, "breakthrough material" and that they needed to "put down our preconceptions and pick up on this guy from Vancouver; this [was] the way forward."^[26][40] Gibson met Sterling at a science fiction convention in Denver, Colorado in the autumn of 1981, where he read "Burning Chrome" – the first cyberspace short story – to an audience of four people, and later stated that Sterling "completely got it".^[26]

In October 1982, Gibson traveled to Austin, Texas for ArmadilloCon, at which he appeared with Shirley, Sterling and Shiner on a panel called "Behind the Mirrorshades: A Look at Punk SF", where Shiner noted "the sense of a movement solidified".^[40] After a weekend discussing rock and roll, MTV, Japan, fashion, drugs and politics, Gibson left the cadre for Vancouver, declaring half-jokingly that "a new axis has been formed."^[40] Sterling, Shiner, Shirley and Gibson, along with Rudy Rucker, went on to form the core of the radical cyberpunk literary movement.^[41]

Literary career[link]

Early short fiction[link]

Gibson's early writings are generally near-future stories about the influences of cybernetics and cyberspace (computer-simulated reality) technology on the human race. His themes of hi-tech shanty towns, recorded or broadcast stimulus (later to be developed into the "sim-stim" package featured so heavily in Neuromancer), and dystopic intermingling of technology and humanity, are already evident in his first published short story, "Fragments of a Hologram Rose" (1977).^[8] The latter thematic obsession was described by his friend and fellow author, Bruce Sterling, in the introduction of Gibson's short story collection Burning Chrome, as "Gibson's classic one-two combination of lowlife and high tech."^[19]

In the early 1980s, Gibson's stories appeared in Omni and Universe 11, wherein his fiction developed a bleak, film noir feel. He consciously distanced himself as far as possible from the mainstream of science fiction (towards which he felt "an aesthetic revulsion", expressed in "The Gernsback Continuum"), to the extent that his highest goal was to become "a minor cult figure, a sort of lesser Ballard."^[8] When Sterling started to distribute the stories, he found that "people were just genuinely baffled... I mean they literally could not parse the guy's paragraphs... the imaginative tropes he was inventing were just beyond peoples' grasp."^[26]

While Larry McCaffery has commented that these early short stories displayed flashes of Gibson's ability, science fiction critic Darko Suvin has identified them as "undoubtedly [cyberpunk's] best works", constituting the "furthest horizon" of the genre.^[39] The themes which Gibson developed in the stories, the Sprawl setting of "Burning Chrome" and the character of Molly Millions from "Johnny Mnemonic" ultimately culminated in his first novel, Neuromancer.^[39]

[edit] Neuromancer

The sky above the port was the color of television, tuned to a dead channel.

—opening sentence of Neuromancer (1984)

Neuromancer was commissioned by Terry Carr for the third series of Ace Science Fiction Specials, which was intended to exclusively feature debut novels. Given a year to complete the work,^[42] Gibson undertook the actual writing out of "blind animal terror" at the obligation to write an entire novel – a feat which he felt he was "four or five years away from".^[8] After viewing the first 20 minutes of landmark cyberpunk film Blade Runner (1982) which was released when Gibson had written a third of the novel, he "figured [Neuromancer] was sunk, done for. Everyone would assume I’d copped my visual texture from this astonishingly fine-looking film."^[43] He re-wrote the first two-thirds of the book twelve times, feared losing the reader's attention and was convinced that he would be "permanently shamed" following its publication; yet what resulted was a major imaginative leap forward for a first-time novelist.^[8]

Neuromancer's release was not greeted with fanfare, but it hit a cultural nerve,^[44] quickly becoming an underground word-of-mouth hit.^[39] It became the first novel to win the "triple crown"^[8] of science fiction awards (the Nebula, the Hugo, and Philip K. Dick Award for paperback original), eventually selling more than 6.5 million copies worldwide.^[45]

Lawrence Person in his "Notes Toward a Postcyberpunk Manifesto" (1998) identified Neuromancer as "the archetypal cyberpunk work",^[46] and in 2005, Time included it in their list of the 100 best English-language novels written since 1923, opining that "[t]here is no way to overstate how radical [Neuromancer] was when it first appeared."^[47] Literary critic Larry McCaffery described the concept of the matrix in Neuromancer as a place where "data dance with human consciousness... human memory is literalized and mechanized... multi-national information systems mutate and breed into startling new structures whose beauty and complexity are unimaginable, mystical, and above all nonhuman."^[8] Gibson later commented on himself as an author circa Neuromancer that "I'd buy him a drink, but I don't know if I'd loan him any money," and referred to the novel as "an adolescent's book".^[26] The success of Neuromancer was to effect the 35-year-old Gibson's emergence from obscurity.^[48]

[edit] The Sprawl trilogy, The Difference Engine, and the Bridge trilogy

The San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge, a fictional squatted version of which constitutes the setting for Gibson's Bridge trilogy.

Although much of Gibson's reputation has remained rooted in Neuromancer, his work continued to evolve conceptually and stylistically.^[49] Despite adding the final sentence of Neuromancer, "He never saw Molly again", at the last minute in a deliberate attempt to prevent himself from ever writing a sequel, he did precisely that with Count Zero (1986), a character-focused work set in the Sprawl alluded to in its predecessor.^[50] He next intended to write an unrelated postmodern space opera, titled The Log of the Mustang Sally, but reneged on the contract with Arbor House after a falling out over the dustjacket art of their hardcover of Count Zero.^[51] Abandoning The Log of the Mustang Sally, Gibson instead wrote Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988), which in the words of Larry McCaffery "turned off the lights" on cyberpunk literature.^[8][39] It was a culmination of his previous two novels, set in the same universe with shared characters, thereby completing the Sprawl trilogy. The trilogy solidified Gibson's reputation,^[52] with both later novels also earning Nebula and Hugo Award and Locus SF Award nominations ^[53][54][55]

The Sprawl trilogy was followed by the 1990 novel The Difference Engine, an alternate history novel Gibson wrote in collaboration with Bruce Sterling. Set in a technologically advanced Victorian era Britain, the novel was a departure from the authors' cyberpunk roots. It was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1991 and the John W. Campbell Memorial Award in 1992, and its success drew attention to the nascent steampunk literary genre of which it remains the best-known work.^[56][57]

Gibson's second series, the "Bridge trilogy", is composed of Virtual Light (1993), a "darkly comic urban detective story",^[58] Idoru (1996), and All Tomorrow's Parties (1999). It centers on San Francisco in the near future and evinces Gibson's recurring themes of technological, physical, and spiritual transcendence in a more grounded, matter-of-fact style than his first trilogy.^[59] Salon.com's Andrew Leonard notes that in the Bridge trilogy, Gibson's villains change from multinational corporations and artificial intelligences of the Sprawl trilogy to the mass media – namely tabloid television and the cult of celebrity.^[60] Virtual Light depicts an "end-stage capitalism, in which private enterprise and the profit motive are taken to their logical conclusion".^[61] This argument on the mass media as the natural evolution of capitalism is the opening line of the major Situationist work The Society of the Spectacle. Leonard's review called Idoru a "return to form" for Gibson,^[62] while critic Steven Poole asserted that All Tomorrow's Parties marked his development from "science-fiction hotshot to wry sociologist of the near future."^[63]

Late period novels[link]

…I felt that I was trying to describe an unthinkable present and I actually feel that science fiction's best use today is the exploration of contemporary reality rather than any attempt to predict where we are going…The best thing you can do with science today is use it to explore the present. Earth is the alien planet now.

—William Gibson in an interview on CNN, August 26, 1997.

Gibson signing a copy of his 2010 novel Zero History on October 20, 2010.

After All Tomorrow's Parties, Gibson began to adopt a more realist style of writing, with continuous narratives – "speculative fiction of the very recent past."^[64] Science fiction critic John Clute has interpreted this approach as Gibson's recognition that traditional science fiction is no longer possible "in a world lacking coherent 'nows' to continue from", characterizing it as "SF for the new century".^[65] Gibson's novels Pattern Recognition (2003), Spook Country (2007) and Zero History (2010) are set in the same contemporary universe — "more or less the same one we live in now"^[66] — and put Gibson's work onto mainstream bestseller lists for the first time.^[67] As well as the setting, the novels share some of the same characters, including Hubertus Bigend and Pamela Mainwaring, employees of the enigmatic marketing company Blue Ant.

A phenomenon peculiar to this era was the independent development of annotating fansites, PR-Otaku and Node Magazine, devoted to Pattern Recognition and Spook Country respectively.^[4] These websites tracked the references and story elements in the novels through online resources such as Google and Wikipedia and collated the results, essentially creating hypertext versions of the books.^[68] Critic John Sutherland characterised this phenomenon as threatening "to completely overhaul the way literary criticism is conducted".^[69]

After the September 11, 2001 attacks, with about 100 pages of Pattern Recognition written, Gibson had to re-write the main character's backstory, which had been suddenly rendered implausible; he called it "the strangest experience I've ever had with a piece of fiction."^[70] He saw the attacks as a nodal point in history, "an experience out of culture",^[71] and "in some ways... the true beginning of the 21st century."^[16] He is noted as one of the first novelists to use the attacks to inform his writing.^[28] Examination of cultural changes in post-September 11 America, including a resurgent tribalism and the "infantilization of society",^[72][73] became a prominent theme of Gibson's work.^[74] The focus of his writing nevertheless remains "at the intersection of paranoia and technology".^[75]

Collaborations, adaptations, and miscellanea[link]

Bruce Sterling, co-author with Gibson of the short story "Red Star, Winter Orbit" (1983) and the 1990 steampunk novel The Difference Engine.

Literary collaborations[link]

Three of the stories that later appeared in Burning Chrome were written in collaboration with other authors: "The Belonging Kind" (1981) with John Shirley, "Red Star, Winter Orbit" (1983) with Sterling,^[4] and "Dogfight" (1985) with Michael Swanwick. Gibson had previously written the foreword to Shirley's 1980 novel City Come A-walkin'^[76] and the pair's collaboration continued when Gibson wrote the introduction to Shirley's short story collection Heatseeker (1989).^[77] Shirley convinced Gibson to write a story for the television series Max Headroom for which Shirley had written several scripts, but the network canceled the series.^[78]

Gibson and Sterling collaborated again on the short story "The Angel of Goliad" in 1990,^[77] which they soon expanded into the novel-length alternate history story The Difference Engine (1990). The two were later "invited to dream in public" (Gibson) in a joint address to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences Convocation on Technology and Education in 1993 ("the Al Gore people"^[78]), in which they argued against the digital divide^[79] and "appalled everyone" by proposing that all schools be put online, with education taking place over the Internet.^[80] In a 2007 interview, Gibson revealed that Sterling had an idea for "a second recursive science novel that was just a wonderful idea", but that Gibson was unable to pursue the collaboration because he was not creatively free at the time.^[64]

In 1993, Gibson contributed lyrics and featured as a guest vocalist on Yellow Magic Orchestra's Technodon album,^[81][82] and wrote lyrics to the track "Dog Star Girl" for Deborah Harry's Debravation.^[83]

Film adaptations, screenplays, and appearances[link]

Gibson was first solicited to work as a screenwriter after a film producer discovered a waterlogged copy of Neuromancer on a beach at a Thai resort.^[84] His early efforts to write film scripts failed to manifest themselves as finished product; "Burning Chrome" (which was to be directed by Kathryn Bigelow) and "Neuro-Hotel" were two attempts by the author at film adaptations that were never made.^[78] In the late 1980s he wrote an early version of Alien 3 (which he later characterized as "Tarkovskian"), few elements of which survived in the final version.^[78] Gibson's early involvement with the film industry extended far beyond the confines of the Hollywood blockbuster system. At one point, he collaborated on a script with Kazakh director Rashid Nugmanov after an American producer had expressed an interest in a Soviet-American collaboration to star Russian-Korean star Victor Tsoi.^[85] Despite being occupied with writing a novel, Gibson was reluctant to abandon the "wonderfully odd project" which involved "ritualistic gang-warfare in some sort of sideways-future Leningrad" and sent Jack Womack to Russia in his stead. Rather than producing a motion picture, a prospect that ended with Tsoi's death in a car crash, Womack's experiences in Russia ultimately culminated in his novel Let's Put the Future Behind Us and informed much of the Russian content of Gibson's Pattern Recognition.^[85] A similar fate befell Gibson's collaboration with Japanese filmmaker Sogo Ishii in 1991,^[39] a film they plotted on shooting in the Walled City of Kowloon until the city was demolished in 1993.^[11]

Aside from his short stories and novels, Gibson has written several film screenplays and television episodes.

Adaptations of Gibson's fiction have frequently been optioned and proposed, to limited success. Two of the author's short stories, both set in the Sprawl trilogy universe, have been loosely adapted as films: Johnny Mnemonic (1995) with screenplay by Gibson and starring Keanu Reeves, Dolph Lundgren and Takeshi Kitano, and New Rose Hotel (1998), starring Christopher Walken, Willem Dafoe, and Asia Argento. The former was the first time in history that a book was launched simultaneously as a film and a CD-ROM interactive video game.^[61] Neuromancer, after a long stay in development hell, is in the process of adaptation as of 2007^[update],^[86] Count Zero was at one point being developed as The Zen Differential with director Michael Mann attached, and the third novel in the Sprawl trilogy, Mona Lisa Overdrive, has also been optioned and bought.^[87] An anime adaptation of Idoru was announced as in development in 2006,^[88] and Pattern Recognition was in the process of development by director Peter Weir, although according to Gibson the latter is no longer attached to the project.^[89]

Television is another arena in which Gibson has collaborated; he co-wrote with friend Tom Maddox, The X-Files episodes "Kill Switch" and "First Person Shooter", broadcast in the U.S. on 20th Century Fox Television in 1998 and 2000.^[49][90] In 1998 he contributed the introduction to the spin-off publication Art of the X-Files. Gibson made a cameo appearance in the television miniseries Wild Palms at the behest of creator Bruce Wagner.^[91] Director Oliver Stone had borrowed heavily from Gibson's novels to make the series,^[58] and in the aftermath of its cancellation Gibson contributed an article, "Where The Holograms Go", to the Wild Palms Reader.^[91] He accepted another acting role in 2002, appearing alongside Douglas Coupland in the short film Mon Amour Mon Parapluie in which the pair played philosophers.^[92] Appearances in fiction aside, Gibson was the focus of a biographical documentary by Mark Neale in 2000 called No Maps for These Territories. The film follows Gibson over the course of a drive across North America discussing various aspects of his life, literary career and cultural interpretations. It features interviews with Jack Womack and Bruce Sterling, as well as recitations from Neuromancer by Bono and The Edge.^[26]

Exhibitions, poetry, and performance art[link]

Gibson has often collaborated with performance artists such as theatre group La Fura dels Baus, here performing at the Singapore Arts Festival in May 2007.

Gibson has contributed text to be integrated into a number of performance art pieces. In October 1989, Gibson wrote text for such a collaboration with acclaimed sculptor and future Johnny Mnemonic director Robert Longo^[48] titled Dream Jumbo: Working the Absolutes, which was displayed in Royce Hall, University of California Los Angeles. Three years later, Gibson contributed original text to "Memory Palace", a performance show featuring the theater group La Fura dels Baus at Art Futura '92, Barcelona, which featured images by Karl Sims, Rebecca Allen, Mark Pellington with music by Peter Gabriel and others.^[81] It was at Art Futura '92 that Gibson met Charlie Athanas, who would later act as dramaturg and "cyberprops" designer on Steve Pickering and Charley Sherman's adaptation of "Burning Chrome" for the Chicago stage. Gibson's latest contribution was in 1997, a collaboration with critically acclaimed Vancouver-based contemporary dance company Holy Body Tattoo and Gibson's friend and future webmaster Christopher Halcrow.^[93]

In 1990, Gibson contributed to "Visionary San Francisco", an exhibition at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art shown from June 14 to August 26.^[94] He wrote a short story, "Skinner's Room", set in a decaying San Francisco in which the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge was closed and taken over by the homeless – a setting Gibson then detailed in the Bridge trilogy. The story inspired a contribution to the exhibition by architects Ming Fung and Craig Hodgetts that envisioned a San Francisco in which the rich live in high-tech, solar-powered towers, above the decrepit city and its crumbling bridge.^[95] The architects exhibit featured Gibson on a monitor discussing the future and reading from "Skinner's Room".^[81] The New York Times hailed the exhibition as "one of the most ambitious, and admirable, efforts to address the realm of architecture and cities that any museum in the country has mounted in the last decade", despite calling Ming and Hodgetts's reaction to Gibson's contribution "a powerful, but sad and not a little cynical, work".^[95] A slightly different version of the short story was featured a year later in Omni.^[96]

A particularly well-received work by Gibson was Agrippa (a book of the dead) (1992), a 300-line semi-autobiographical electronic poem that was his contribution to a collaborative project with artist Dennis Ashbaugh and publisher Kevin Begos, Jr.^[97] Gibson's text focused on the ethereal nature of memories (the title refers to a photo album) and was originally published on a 3.5" floppy disk embedded in the back of an artist's book containing etchings by Ashbaugh (intended to fade from view once the book was opened and exposed to light — they never did, however). Gibson commented that Ashbaugh's design "eventually included a supposedly self-devouring floppy-disk intended to display the text only once, then eat itself."^[98] Contrary to numerous colorful reports, the diskettes were never actually "hacked"; instead the poem was manually transcribed from a surreptitious videotape of a public showing in Manhattan in December 1992, and released on the MindVox bulletin board the next day; this is the text that circulated widely on the Internet.^[99]

Essays and short-form nonfiction[link]

Gibson is a sporadic contributor of non-fiction articles to newspapers and journals. He has been a sporadic contributor of longer-form articles to Wired and of op-eds to The New York Times, and has written for The Observer, Addicted to Noise, New York Times Magazine, Rolling Stone, and Details Magazine. His first major piece of nonfiction, the article "Disneyland with the Death Penalty" concerning the city-state of Singapore, resulted in Wired being banned from the country and attracted a spirited critical response.^[100][101] He commenced writing a blog in January 2003, providing voyeuristic insights into his reaction to Pattern Recognition, but abated in September of the same year owing to concerns that it might negatively affect his creative process.^[102][103] Gibson re-commenced blogging in October 2004, and during the process of writing Spook Country – and to a lesser extent Zero History – frequently posted short nonsequential excerpts from the novel to the blog.^[104] The blog was largely discontinued by July 2009, after the writer had undertaken prolific microblogging on Twitter under the nom de plume "GreatDismal".^[105] In 2012, Gibson released a collection of his non-fiction works entitled Distrust That Particular Flavor.^[106]

Influence and recognition[link]

William Gibson in Bloomsbury, London in September 2007. His fiction is hailed by critics for its characterization of late capitalism, postindustrial society and the portents of the information age.

Hailed by Steven Poole of The Guardian in 1999 as "probably the most important novelist of the past two decades" in terms of influence,^[63] Gibson first achieved critical recognition with his debut novel, Neuromancer. The novel won three major science fiction awards (the Nebula Award, the Philip K. Dick Award, and the Hugo Award), an unprecedented achievement described by the Mail & Guardian as "the sci-fi writer's version of winning the Goncourt, Booker and Pulitzer prizes in the same year".^[61] Neuromancer gained unprecedented critical and popular attention outside science fiction,^[8] as an "evocation of life in the late 1980s",^[107] although The Observer noted that "it took the New York Times 10 years" to mention the novel.^[21]

Gibson's work has received international attention^[22] from an audience that was not limited to science fiction aficionados as, in the words of Laura Miller, "readers found startlingly prophetic reflections of contemporary life in [its] fantastic and often outright paranoid scenarios."^[108] It is often situated by critics within the context of postindustrialism as, according to academic David Brande, a construction of "a mirror of existing large-scale techno-social relations",^[109] and as a narrative version of postmodern consumer culture.^[110] It is praised by critics for its depictions of late capitalism^[109] and its "rewriting of subjectivity, human consciousness and behaviour made newly problematic by technology."^[110] Tatiani Rapatzikou, writing in The Literary Encyclopedia, identifies Gibson as "one of North America's most highly acclaimed science fiction writers".^[22]

Cultural significance[link]

William Gibson – the man who made us cool.

—cyberpunk author Richard K Morgan^[14]

In his early short fiction, Gibson is credited by Rapatzikou in The Literary Encyclopedia with effectively "renovating" science fiction, a genre at that time considered widely "insignificant",^[22] influencing by means of the postmodern aesthetic of his writing the development of new perspectives in science fiction studies.^[44] In the words of filmmaker Marianne Trench, Gibson's visions "struck sparks in the real world" and "determined the way people thought and talked" to an extent unprecedented in science fiction literature.^[111] The publication of Neuromancer (1984) hit a cultural nerve,^[44] causing Larry McCaffery to credit Gibson with virtually launching the cyberpunk movement,^[8] as "the one major writer who is original and gifted to make the whole movement seem original and gifted."^[39][VII] Aside from their central importance to cyberpunk and steampunk fiction, Gibson's fictional works have been hailed by space historian Dwayne A. Day as some of the best examples of space-based science fiction (or "solar sci-fi"), and "probably the only ones that rise above mere escapism to be truly thought-provoking".^[112]

Gibson (left) influenced cyberpunk^[14] and postcyberpunk writers such as Cory Doctorow (right),^[13] whom he also consulted for technical advice while writing Spook Country.^[113]

Gibson's early novels were, according to The Observer, "seized upon by the emerging slacker and hacker generation as a kind of road map".^[21] Through his novels, such terms as cyberspace, netsurfing, ICE, jacking in, and neural implants entered popular usage, as did concepts such as net consciousness, virtual interaction and "the matrix".^[114] In "Burning Chrome" (1982), he coined the term cyberspace,^[V] referring to the "mass consensual hallucination" of computer networks.^[115] Through its use in Neuromancer, the term gained such recognition that it became the de facto term for the World Wide Web during the 1990s.^[116] Artist Dike Blair has commented that Gibson's "terse descriptive phrases capture the moods which surround technologies, rather than their engineering."^[117]

Gibson's work has influenced several popular musicians: references to his fiction appear in the music of Stuart Hamm,^[II] Billy Idol,^[III] Warren Zevon,^[IV] Deltron 3030, Straylight Run (whose name is derived from a sequence in Neuromancer)^[118] and Sonic Youth. U2's Zooropa album was heavily influenced by Neuromancer,^[52] and the band at one point planned to scroll the text of Neuromancer above them on a concert tour, although this did not end up happening. Members of the band did, however, provide background music for the audiobook version of Neuromancer as well as appearing in No Maps for These Territories, a biographical documentary of Gibson.^[119] He returned the favour by writing an article about the band's Vertigo Tour for Wired in August 2005.^[120] The band Zeromancer take their name from Neuromancer.^[121]

The film The Matrix (1999) drew inspiration for its title, characters and story elements from the Sprawl trilogy.^[122] The characters of Neo and Trinity in The Matrix are similar to Bobby Newmark (Count Zero) and Molly ("Johnny Mnemonic", Neuromancer).^[87] Like Turner, protagonist of Gibson's Count Zero, characters in The Matrix download instructions (to fly a helicopter and to "know kung fu", respectively) directly into their heads, and both Neuromancer and The Matrix feature artificial intelligences which strive to free themselves from human control.^[87] Critics have identified marked similarities between Neuromancer and the film's cinematography and tone.^[123] In spite of his initial reticence about seeing the film on its release,^[26] Gibson later described it as "arguably the ultimate 'cyberpunk' artifact."^[1] In 2008 he received honorary doctorates from Simon Fraser University and Coastal Carolina University, ^[124] and was inducted into the Science Fiction Hall of Fame by close friend and collaborator Jack Womack.^[125]

Visionary influence and prescience[link]

The future is already here – it's just not evenly distributed.

—William Gibson, quoted in The Economist, December 4, 2003^[126]

In Neuromancer, Gibson first used the term "matrix" to refer to the visualised Internet, two years after the nascent Internet was formed in the early 1980s from the computer networks of the 1970s.^{[127][128][129]} Gibson thereby imagined a worldwide communications network years before the origin of the World Wide Web,^[49] although related notions had previously been imagined by others, including science fiction writers.^[VI][VII] At the time he wrote "Burning Chrome", Gibson "had a hunch that [the Internet] would change things, in the same way that the ubiquity of the automobile changed things."^[26] In 1995, he identified the advent, evolution and growth of the Internet as "one of the most fascinating and unprecedented human achievements of the century", a new kind of civilization that is – in terms of significance — on a par with the birth of cities,^[80] and in 2000 predicted it would lead to the death of the nation state.^[26]

Observers contend that Gibson's influence on the development of the Web reached beyond prediction; he is widely credited with creating an iconography for the information age, long before the embrace of the Internet by the mainstream.^[29] Gibson introduced, in Neuromancer, the notion of the "meatpuppet", and is credited with inventing—conceptually rather than participatorally—the phenomenon of virtual sex.^[130] His influence on early pioneers of desktop environment digital art has been acknowledged,^[131] and he holds an honorary doctorate from Parsons The New School for Design.^[132] Steven Poole claims that in writing the Sprawl trilogy Gibson laid the "conceptual foundations for the explosive real-world growth of virtual environments in video games and the Web".^[63] In his afterword to the 2000 re-issue of Neuromancer, fellow author Jack Womack suggests that Gibson's vision of cyberspace may have inspired the way in which the Internet (and the Web particularly) developed, following the publication of Neuromancer in 1984, asking "what if the act of writing it down, in fact, brought it about?"^[133]

Gibson is renowned for his visionary influence on—and predictive attunement to—technology, design, urban sociology and cyberculture. Image captured in the Scylla bookstore of Paris, France on March 14, 2008.

Gibson scholar Tatiani G. Rapatzikou has commented, in Gothic Motifs in the Fiction of William Gibson, on the origin of the notion of cyberspace:

Gibson's vision, generated by the monopolising appearance of the terminal image and presented in his creation of the cyberspace matrix, came to him when he saw teenagers playing in video arcades. The physical intensity of their postures, and the realistic interpretation of the terminal spaces projected by these games – as if there were a real space behind the screen—made apparent the manipulation of the real by its own representation.^[134]

In his Sprawl and Bridge trilogies, Gibson is credited with being one of the few observers to explore the portents of the information age for notions of the sociospatial structuring of cities.^[135] Not all responses to Gibson's visions have been positive, however; virtual reality pioneer Mark Pesce, though acknowledging their heavy influence on him and that "no other writer had so eloquently and emotionally effected the direction of the hacker community,"^[136] dismissed them as "adolescent fantasies of violence and disembodiment."^[137] In Pattern Recognition, the plot revolves around snippets of film footage posted anonymously to various locations on the Internet. Characters in the novel speculate about the filmmaker's identity, motives, methods and inspirations on several websites, anticipating the 2006 Lonelygirl15 internet phenomenon. However, Gibson later disputed the notion that the creators of Lonelygirl15 drew influence from him.^[138] Another phenomenon anticipated by Gibson is the rise of reality television,^[10] for example in Virtual Light, which featured a satirical extrapolated version of COPS.^[139]

Visionary writer is OK. Prophet is just not true. One of the things that made me like Bruce Sterling immediately when first I met him, back in 1991. [sic] We shook hands and he said "We’ve got a great job ! We got to be charlatans and we’re paid for it. We make this shit up and people believe it."

—Gibson in interview with ActuSf, March 2008.^[73]

For his part, Gibson rejects any notion of prophecy, never having had a special relationship with computers; until 1996 he had neither an email address nor a modem, a lack he explained at the time to have been motivated by a desire to avoid correspondence that would distract him from writing.^[80] His first exposure to a website came while writing Idoru when he was persuaded to let a web developer, Chris Halcrow, build one for him.^[7] An anecdote often recited in cybercultural enclaves and English departments holds that Neuromancer was written on a manual typewriter;^[140] the author has confirmed that the novel was written on a 1927 model of an olive-green Hermes portable typewriter, which looked to him as "the kind of thing Hemingway would have used in the field".^[61][VIII] In 2007, he said:

I have a 2005 PowerBook G4, a gig of memory, wireless router. That's it. I'm anything but an early adopter, generally. In fact, I've never really been very interested in computers themselves. I don't watch them; I watch how people behave around them. That's becoming more difficult to do because everything is "around them".^[66]

Selected bibliography[link]

Nonfiction

Footnotes[link]

References[link]