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- Tank Man
- Thabo Mbeki
- Todor Zhivkov
- Tomás Estrada Palma
- Tony Snow
- Toshiki Kaifu
- U Nu
- Urho Kekkonen
- Vasco Gonçalves
- Viacheslav Chornovil
- Vicente Fox
- Violeta Chamorro
- Vladimir Bukovsky
- Vladimir Lenin
- Vyacheslav Molotov
- Vytautas Landsbergis
- Václav Havel
- Walter Hallstein
- Walter Lippmann
- Walter Ulbricht
- Wang Dan
- Wikipedia Persondata
- William Gopallawa
- William Shakespeare
- Willy Brandt
- Winston Churchill
- Wojciech Jaruzelski
- Wu Guanzheng
- Władysław Gomułka
- Yasuhiro Nakasone
- Yuri Andropov
- Zail Singh
- Zhao Ziyang
- Zhelyu Zhelev
- Zhou Enlai
- Zianon Pazniak
- Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
- Álvaro Cunhal
- Ángel Castro y Argiz
- Óscar Gans
Castro, Fidel Filmography
- Marilyn Monroe: Murder on Fifth Helena Drive (2013)
- Castro in Winter (2012)
- Palme (2012)
- King Kennedy (2012)
- Santiago Files (2011)
- Zombies: A Living History (2011)
- La Cuba De Fidel (2011)
- Sexocracy: The man of Bunga Bunga (2011)
- Kennedys' Home Movies (2011)
- The Kennedy Detail (2010)
- Fidel Castro: A Life of Revolution (2010)
- Dans la peau de Fidel Castro (2010)
- Will the Real Terrorist Please Stand Up? (2010)
- Moy otets Evgeniy (2010)
- Memorias del desarrollo (2010)
- Double Take (2009)
- La rabbia di Pasolini (2008)
- The Power of Their Song: The Untold Story of Latin America's New Song Movement (2008)
- Maradona by Kusturica (2008)
- How the West Was Lost (2008)
- A President to Remember (2008)
- Superpower (2008)
- Far from the Island (2007)
- Atrapats pel cap d'any (2007)
- The War on Democracy (2007)
- Oswald's Ghost (2007)
- Tasmanian Devil: The Fast and Furious Life of Errol Flynn (2007)
- Alberto Iglesias, el músico fiel (2006)
- 638 Ways to Kill Castro (2006)
- The Good Shepherd (2006)
- The First Miracle: 1960 US Olympic Hockey Team (2006)
- Cuba, el valor de una utopía (2006)
- Hércules 56 (2006)
- Rendezvous mit dem Tod: Warum John F. Kennedy sterben musste (2006)
- Jonestown: The Life and Death of Peoples Temple (2006)
- Looking for Fidel (2006)
- Fidel Castro: L'enfance d'un chef (2005)
- Soy Cuba, O Mamute Siberiano (2005)
- Kordavision (2005)
- Príbehy obycejného sílenství (2005)
- 50 y más (2005)
- The Adventures of Errol Flynn (2005)
- Kung fu 2003 (2004)
- Fidel Castro. Ewiger Revolutionär (2004)
- Moi Fidel Castro (2004)
- The Doomsday Clock (2004)
- Salvador Allende (2004)
- The Big Fat Quiz of the Year (2004)
- Last Laugh '04 (2004)
- Allende - Der letzte Tag des Salvador Allende (2004)
- Seres extravagantes (2004)
- Surplus: Terrorized Into Being Consumers (2003)
- Glauber o Filme, Labirinto do Brasil (2003)
- Castro (2003)
- The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara (2003)
- Les dix (2003)
- Peter Jennings Reporting: The Kennedy Assassination - Beyond Conspiracy (2003)
- Bola de Nieve (2003)
- Comandante (2003)
- Power and Beauty (2002)
- The Weather Underground (2002)
- Reel Radicals: The Sixties Revolution in Film (2002)
- Naqoyqatsi (2002)
- Balseros (2002)
- Dreaming a New Cuba (2002)
- The Secret KGB Paranormal Files (2001)
- Fidel (2001)
- Lieber Fidel - Maritas Geschichte (2001)
- Orientaciones son orientaciones (2001)
- Our Manics in Havana (2001)
- Roots of the Cuban Missile Crisis (2001)
- Sacrificio: Who Betrayed Che Guevara (2001)
- The Kennedys: The Curse of Power (2000)
- Before Night Falls (2000)
- ABC 2000: The Millennium (1999)
- Film 1 (1999)
- Hidden Hollywood II: More Treasures from the 20th Century Fox Vaults (1999)
- The Secret KGB JFK Assassination Files (1999)
- Blast from the Past (1999)
- The Fifties (1997)
- Cronkite Remembers (1997)
- On the Brink: Doomsday (1997)
- Ricardo, Miriam y Fidel (1997)
- Dangerous World: The Kennedy Years (1997)
- Wide World of Sports 35th Anniversary Special (1996)
- 100 Years of Olympic Glory (1996)
- Nixon (1995)
- Juan Carlos I: Crónica de 20 años (1995)
- Ernesto Che Guevara (1995)
- The Perez Family (1995)
- The Art of Governing (1968-1972) (1994)
- Moon Shot (1994)
- The Century of Warfare (1994)
- The Making of a Leader (1919-1968) (1994)
- American Justice: Target - Mafia (1993)
- Fame in the Twentieth Century (1993)
- The JFK Assassination: The Jim Garrison Tapes (1992)
- Beyond 'JFK': The Question of Conspiracy (1992)
- Tribulation 99: Alien Anomalies Under America (1992)
- The JFK Conspiracy (1992)
- JFK (1991)
- ABC's Wide World of Sports 30th Anniversary Special (1991)
- 11-22-63: The Day the Nation Cried (1989)
- The 1960's: Music, Memories & Milestones (1988)
- The 1950's: Music, Memories & Milestones (1988)
- Cuando pienso en el Che (1987)
- Araaayyyyy!!! (1986)
- Cuba: In the Shadow of Doubt (1986)
- Call to Glory (1984)
- Mauvaise conduite (1984)
- Scarface (1983)
- A Good Turn Daily (1983)
- Cuba (1979)
- The Late Great Planet Earth (1979)
- Le fond de l'air est rouge (1977)
- Ritratto di Fidel (1975)
- Waiting for Fidel (1974)
- Général Idi Amin Dada: Autoportrait (1974)
- La société du spectacle (1973)
- Malcolm X (1972)
- La bataille des dix millions (1971)
- Topaz (1969)
- I due Kennedy (1969)
- La hora de los hornos: Notas y testimonios sobre el neocolonialismo, la violencia y la liberación (1968)
- Loin du Vietnam (1967)
- Kuuba tänään (1966)
- John F. Kennedy: Years of Lightning, Day of Drums (1965)
- ¡Cuba Sí! (1961)
- The Truth About Fidel Castro Revolution (1959)
- Easy to Wed (1946)
- Holiday in Mexico (1946)
Castro, Fidel Filmography
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Rusia recuerda primera visita de Fidel Castro a ese país
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:58
- Updated: 16 May 2013
El aniversario 50 de la primera visita a Rusia del líder de la Revolución cubana Fidel Castro, fue conmemorado en esa nación euroasiática.
http://wn.com/Rusia_recuerda_primera_visita_de_Fidel_Castro_a_ese_país
El aniversario 50 de la primera visita a Rusia del líder de la Revolución cubana Fidel Castro, fue conmemorado en esa nación euroasiática.
Fidel Castro past attempted assassinations over 600 times by CIA , ETC
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:57
- Updated: 28 May 2013
Part 17 of the series, "The Time and What Must Be Done" by the Honorable Minister Louis You can watch the full lecture here https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S...
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_past_attempted_assassinations_over_600_times_by_CIA_,_ETC
Part 17 of the series, "The Time and What Must Be Done" by the Honorable Minister Louis You can watch the full lecture here https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S...
- published: 05 May 2013
- views: 529
- author: 48noifoi
Fidel Castro Un Hombre de Poder.(*Conoce a tu enemigo, como a tí mismo.)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 111:49
- Updated: 01 Apr 2013
Cuba: La Patria no es la Revolución ni estar en contra de Castro implica estarlo a favor de la Patria. http://barrioblogcubano.blogspot.se/2011/05/la-patria-...
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_Un_Hombre_de_Poder*Conoce_a_tu_enemigo,_como_a_tí_mismo
Cuba: La Patria no es la Revolución ni estar en contra de Castro implica estarlo a favor de la Patria. http://barrioblogcubano.blogspot.se/2011/05/la-patria-...
- published: 03 Jan 2013
- views: 5932
- author: Julio César Soler Baró
Carta a Fidel Castro del Director General de la FAO
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:15
- Updated: 16 May 2013
El Presidente de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO) envió una carta al líder histórico de la Revolución Cuban...
http://wn.com/Carta_a_Fidel_Castro_del_Director_General_de_la_FAO
El Presidente de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO) envió una carta al líder histórico de la Revolución Cuban...
- published: 06 May 2013
- views: 343
- author: Cuba Hoy
fidel hace fiesta por la maquina del tiempo
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:58
- Updated: 08 May 2013
part 17.
http://wn.com/fidel_hace_fiesta_por_la_maquina_del_tiempo
NDAA National Defense Authorization Act President Barack Obama referenced by Louis Farrakhan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:47
- Updated: 16 May 2013
Part 16 of the series, "The Time and What Must Be Done" by the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan. Released April 27, 2013. To watch full lecture click here ...
http://wn.com/NDAA_National_Defense_Authorization_Act_President_Barack_Obama_referenced_by_Louis_Farrakhan
Part 16 of the series, "The Time and What Must Be Done" by the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan. Released April 27, 2013. To watch full lecture click here ...
- published: 11 May 2013
- views: 1390
- author: 48noifoi
Discurso del Comandante Fidel Castro - Universidad de La Habana (CUB 2005)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 164:41
- Updated: 30 May 2013
http://wn.com/Discurso_del_Comandante_Fidel_Castro_Universidad_de_La_Habana_CUB_2005
"DICEN QUE MADURO GANO CON VOTOS DE MUERTOS,SERA LEGITTIMO O BASTARDO"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:08
- Updated: 10 May 2013
EL PRESIDENTE CHAVEZ PASO EL RIO CON LOS GALLEGOS SIMÓN BOLÍVAR Y FIDEL CASTRO, NICOLAS MADURO QUIERE PASARLO CON CHAVEZ"
http://wn.com/DICEN_QUE_MADURO_GANO_CON_VOTOS_DE_MUERTOS,SERA_LEGITTIMO_O_BASTARDO
EL PRESIDENTE CHAVEZ PASO EL RIO CON LOS GALLEGOS SIMÓN BOLÍVAR Y FIDEL CASTRO, NICOLAS MADURO QUIERE PASARLO CON CHAVEZ"
- published: 10 May 2013
- author: faranduloescritor
Iroel Sánchez en RTVE 24h. Gusanos desahuciados por el régimen de España. Esperanza Aguirre
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 39:10
- Updated: 22 May 2013
100513 Iroel Sánchez en La Tarde en el Mundo en 24h de televisión Española, RTVE (Canal 24h). Gusanos (delincuentes botados de Cuba) desahuciados en la di...
http://wn.com/Iroel_Sánchez_en_RTVE_24h_Gusanos_desahuciados_por_el_régimen_de_España_Esperanza_Aguirre
100513 Iroel Sánchez en La Tarde en el Mundo en 24h de televisión Española, RTVE (Canal 24h). Gusanos (delincuentes botados de Cuba) desahuciados en la di...
- published: 11 May 2013
- views: 345
- author: sucreranda Hugo Chávez Venezuela
Soneros De Verdad - Un Dos Tres Soneros
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:25
- Updated: 10 May 2013
El ultimo video de la banda del antiguo miembro del legendario Buena vista social club.
Luis Frank ( cantante y cabecilla de los soneros de verdad) es un maestro del son cubano, domina esos sentimientos de la música cubana mejor que nadie. Su conjunto "soneros de verdad" se denomina el mismo como la segunda generación del Buena vista, formado por siete musicos de la tierra de Fidel Castro de los que se dice que son los mejores del mundo.
http://wn.com/Soneros_De_Verdad_Un_Dos_Tres_Soneros
El ultimo video de la banda del antiguo miembro del legendario Buena vista social club.
Luis Frank ( cantante y cabecilla de los soneros de verdad) es un maestro del son cubano, domina esos sentimientos de la música cubana mejor que nadie. Su conjunto "soneros de verdad" se denomina el mismo como la segunda generación del Buena vista, formado por siete musicos de la tierra de Fidel Castro de los que se dice que son los mejores del mundo.
- published: 10 May 2013
- views: 64
Grandes biografias - Fidel Castro
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 44:49
- Updated: 19 May 2013
http://wn.com/Grandes_biografias_Fidel_Castro
Entrevista con Fidel Castro Díaz-Balart, el hijo mayor de Fidel Castro
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 28:36
- Updated: 18 May 2013
En exclusiva para RT, Fidel Castro Díaz-Balart, el hijo primogénito del líder revolucionario cubano y asesor del Consejo de Estado para asuntos nucleares, ha...
http://wn.com/Entrevista_con_Fidel_Castro_Díaz-Balart,_el_hijo_mayor_de_Fidel_Castro
En exclusiva para RT, Fidel Castro Díaz-Balart, el hijo primogénito del líder revolucionario cubano y asesor del Consejo de Estado para asuntos nucleares, ha...
- published: 25 Mar 2013
- views: 11618
- author: ActualidadRT
TV CUBANA.FIDEL CASTRO LLORA LA MUERTE DE CHAVEZ ANTE CAMARA..
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:52
- Updated: 21 May 2013
Fidel castro aparece en tv cubana despues de la muerte de hugo chaves . Castro le canta a Hugo Chavez y llora .
http://wn.com/TV_CUBANAFIDEL_CASTRO_LLORA_LA_MUERTE_DE_CHAVEZ_ANTE_CAMARA
Fidel castro aparece en tv cubana despues de la muerte de hugo chaves . Castro le canta a Hugo Chavez y llora .
- published: 23 Apr 2013
- views: 2421
- author: SAPO TUB
Fidel Castro sings Ice Ice Baby
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:18
- Updated: 05 May 2013
Meh. I made this out of pure bordem. So I guess enjoy
I DO NOT OWN ANY PART OF THE MUSIC SHOWN IN THIS VIDEO, I REPEAT, I DO NOT OWN ANY PART OF THE MUSIC SHOWN IN THIS VIDEO
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_sings_Ice_Ice_Baby
Meh. I made this out of pure bordem. So I guess enjoy
I DO NOT OWN ANY PART OF THE MUSIC SHOWN IN THIS VIDEO, I REPEAT, I DO NOT OWN ANY PART OF THE MUSIC SHOWN IN THIS VIDEO
- published: 05 May 2013
- views: 142
OLIVER STONE: COMANDANTE FIDEL CASTRO (2003)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 95:15
- Updated: 10 May 2013
"Comandante" è un film documentario del 2003 su Fidel Castro diretto dal regista statunitense Oliver Stone. Il documentario ha avuto un seguito nel 2004: "Lo...
http://wn.com/OLIVER_STONE_COMANDANTE_FIDEL_CASTRO_2003
"Comandante" è un film documentario del 2003 su Fidel Castro diretto dal regista statunitense Oliver Stone. Il documentario ha avuto un seguito nel 2004: "Lo...
- published: 20 Feb 2013
- views: 2015
- author: Markus Wolf
Fidel Castro - A life of revolution
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 44:39
- Updated: 18 May 2013
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_A_life_of_revolution
La Internacional, The Internationale for Fidel Castro, Cuba April 2011.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:06
- Updated: 19 May 2013
La Internacional The Internationale for Fidel Castro, Cuba April 2011, Cuban Communist party congress. . For the first of may 2013.
http://wn.com/La_Internacional,_The_Internationale_for_Fidel_Castro,_Cuba_April_2011
La Internacional The Internationale for Fidel Castro, Cuba April 2011, Cuban Communist party congress. . For the first of may 2013.
- published: 30 Apr 2013
- views: 440
- author: ondoro
EL LEGENDARIO FIDEL CASTRO LLEGA A VENEZUELA.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:49
- Updated: 04 May 2013
EL LEGENDARIO FIDEL CASTRO LLEGA A VENEZUELA PARA EL FUNERAL DE CHAVEZ.
http://wn.com/EL_LEGENDARIO_FIDEL_CASTRO_LLEGA_A_VENEZUELA
EL LEGENDARIO FIDEL CASTRO LLEGA A VENEZUELA PARA EL FUNERAL DE CHAVEZ.
- published: 09 Mar 2013
- views: 1123
- author: SAPO TUB
![Fidel Castro - The Untold Story (2001) [Documentary]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130601151436im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/52efX1FQTzY/default.jpg "Fidel Castro - The Untold Story (2001) [Documentary]")
Fidel Castro - The Untold Story (2001) [Documentary]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 91:41
- Updated: 24 May 2013
DocuTV - Documentary about Fidel Castro, covering 40 years of Cuban Revolution. Rare Fidel Castro footage: he appears swimming with a bodyguard, visiting his...
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_The_Untold_Story_2001_Documentary_
DocuTV - Documentary about Fidel Castro, covering 40 years of Cuban Revolution. Rare Fidel Castro footage: he appears swimming with a bodyguard, visiting his...
- published: 01 Mar 2013
- views: 2216
- author: Docuspectiva - Literatura, Arte, Historia y Filosofia
Libro de reflexiones de Fidel Castro se presenta en Francia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:34
- Updated: 13 May 2013
En Francia se publica un libro que recoge las reflexiones del líder cubano Fidel Castro sobre las grandes cuestiones y peligros que acechan a los pueblos y e...
http://wn.com/Libro_de_reflexiones_de_Fidel_Castro_se_presenta_en_Francia
En Francia se publica un libro que recoge las reflexiones del líder cubano Fidel Castro sobre las grandes cuestiones y peligros que acechan a los pueblos y e...
- published: 18 Apr 2013
- author: HispanTV Broadcast Co
![20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [3of6]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130601151436im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/qbUgUJuI6Ak/default.jpg "20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [3of6]")
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [3of6]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:38
- Updated: 22 May 2013
Cuban Media - Capitalism Vs Socialism Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. ...
http://wn.com/20_20_Fidel_Castro_interview_Barbara_Walters_3of6_
Cuban Media - Capitalism Vs Socialism Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. ...
- published: 09 Jul 2008
- views: 227765
- author: Reyes H
23 Jul 2011 Encuentro entre Fidel Castro, Chávez y Maradona en La Habana
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 18:46
- Updated: 11 May 2013
Chávez y Fidel ya estaban juntos y llegó "El Diego", Diego Armando Maradona. Tres figuras que suscitan el inmenso amor de sus pueblos, tres fortalezas que ha...
http://wn.com/23_Jul_2011_Encuentro_entre_Fidel_Castro,_Chávez_y_Maradona_en_La_Habana
Chávez y Fidel ya estaban juntos y llegó "El Diego", Diego Armando Maradona. Tres figuras que suscitan el inmenso amor de sus pueblos, tres fortalezas que ha...
- published: 16 Mar 2013
- views: 689
- author: ¡Gloria al bravo Chávez!
GABRIEL ASTENGO: CARTAGENERA
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:31
- Updated: 12 May 2013
Con esta emblematica cumbia, de la compositora colombiana, Linda Vera y con bellas estampas de Cartagena de Indias, Gabriel nos hace viajar junto a el por to...
http://wn.com/GABRIEL_ASTENGO_CARTAGENERA
Con esta emblematica cumbia, de la compositora colombiana, Linda Vera y con bellas estampas de Cartagena de Indias, Gabriel nos hace viajar junto a el por to...
- published: 10 May 2013
- views: 45
- author: Gabriel Astengo
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![20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [2of6]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130601151436im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/XRkLnA0seA8/default.jpg "20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [2of6]")
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [2of6]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:13
- Updated: 28 May 2013
US Cuba Relations Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original intervi...
http://wn.com/20_20_Fidel_Castro_interview_Barbara_Walters_2of6_
US Cuba Relations Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original intervi...
- published: 09 Jul 2008
- views: 68714
- author: Reyes H
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [3of6]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:38
- Updated: 22 May 2013
Cuban Media - Capitalism Vs Socialism Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. ...
http://wn.com/20_20_Fidel_Castro_interview_Barbara_Walters_3of6_
Cuban Media - Capitalism Vs Socialism Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. ...
- published: 09 Jul 2008
- views: 227765
- author: Reyes H
Looking For Fidel
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 60:15
- Updated: 17 May 2013
Looking for Fidel is a documentary film by Oliver Stone, released in 2004. It is a follow-up to his 2003 documentary Comandante and likewise consists of inte...
http://wn.com/Looking_For_Fidel
Looking for Fidel is a documentary film by Oliver Stone, released in 2004. It is a follow-up to his 2003 documentary Comandante and likewise consists of inte...
- published: 22 Oct 2011
- views: 23102
- author: scorbing
Fidel Castro Interview on Ed Sullivan - 1959
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:51
- Updated: 30 May 2013
http://goo.gl/3Cdeu - Ed Sullivan interviews Fidel Castro on January 11, 1959 in Cuba shortly after the Batista regime is overthrown during the Cuban Revolut...
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_Interview_on_Ed_Sullivan_1959
http://goo.gl/3Cdeu - Ed Sullivan interviews Fidel Castro on January 11, 1959 in Cuba shortly after the Batista regime is overthrown during the Cuban Revolut...
- published: 11 Jan 2011
- views: 44011
- author: TheEdSullivanShow
Fidel Castro Interview by Ted Turner
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:20
- Updated: 07 May 2013
Fidel Castro Interview by Ted Turner in 1990.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_Interview_by_Ted_Turner
Fidel Castro Interview by Ted Turner in 1990.
- published: 11 Oct 2008
- views: 77866
- author: Che the guerrilla
'Fidel Castro feeling well, mudslingers crying "dead" for 50 years'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:35
- Updated: 29 May 2013
RT interviews the son of the Cuban leader Raul Castro, as he talks about Havana's relationship with Washington, the war on terror and Fidel Castro's health. ...
http://wn.com/'Fidel_Castro_feeling_well,_mudslingers_crying_dead_for_50_years'
RT interviews the son of the Cuban leader Raul Castro, as he talks about Havana's relationship with Washington, the war on terror and Fidel Castro's health. ...
- published: 05 Nov 2012
- views: 4973
- author: RT
Fidel - The Untold Story (2001) (Complete)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 91:41
- Updated: 29 May 2013
"Fidel: The Untold Story" is a documentary released in 2001 by Estela Bravo about Fidel Castro. The film featured interviews with: Phillip Agee Muhammad Ali ...
http://wn.com/Fidel_The_Untold_Story_2001_Complete
"Fidel: The Untold Story" is a documentary released in 2001 by Estela Bravo about Fidel Castro. The film featured interviews with: Phillip Agee Muhammad Ali ...
- published: 05 Jan 2012
- views: 169603
- author: goatboy192
![20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [6of6]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130601151436im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/kB4C4AWBY3Q/default.jpg "20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [6of6]")
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [6of6]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:49
- Updated: 20 May 2013
Cuba's Future Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original interview m...
http://wn.com/20_20_Fidel_Castro_interview_Barbara_Walters_6of6_
Cuba's Future Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original interview m...
- published: 26 Aug 2008
- views: 44390
- author: Reyes H
Fidel Castro's letter to George Galloway
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:07
- Updated: 26 Apr 2013
GG talks about receiving a letter from Uncle Fidel.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro's_letter_to_George_Galloway
GG talks about receiving a letter from Uncle Fidel.
- published: 12 May 2012
- views: 2374
- author: MegaChairmanMao's channel
Grandes biografias - Fidel Castro
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 44:49
- Updated: 19 May 2013
http://wn.com/Grandes_biografias_Fidel_Castro
Fidel Castro interview
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:11
- Updated: 12 May 2013
comrade Fidel!
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_interview
Comandante - Oliver Stone trifft Fidel Castro (Dokumentation)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 94:54
- Updated: 22 May 2013
Comandante ist ein Dokumentarfilm aus dem Jahr 2003 von Regisseur Oliver Stone, der dem Zuschauer einen Einblick in das Leben des kubanischen Staatspräsident...
http://wn.com/Comandante_Oliver_Stone_trifft_Fidel_Castro_Dokumentation
Comandante ist ein Dokumentarfilm aus dem Jahr 2003 von Regisseur Oliver Stone, der dem Zuschauer einen Einblick in das Leben des kubanischen Staatspräsident...
- published: 29 Mar 2011
- views: 29337
- author: rakontado
![20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [4of6]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130601151436im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/85YWRhNpCfQ/default.jpg "20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [4of6]")
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [4of6]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:54
- Updated: 20 May 2013
Elian Gonzales - Walter's view on Cuban Society, Tourism, & prostitution Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her firs...
http://wn.com/20_20_Fidel_Castro_interview_Barbara_Walters_4of6_
Elian Gonzales - Walter's view on Cuban Society, Tourism, & prostitution Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her firs...
- published: 09 Jul 2008
- views: 48242
- author: Reyes H
Fidel Castro interview by Edward R Murrow (1959) Fidel lying as usual.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:55
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Fidel Castro interview by Edward R Murrow (1959) Fidel lying as usual.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_interview_by_Edward_R_Murrow_1959_Fidel_lying_as_usual
Fidel Castro interview by Edward R Murrow (1959) Fidel lying as usual.
- published: 22 Apr 2011
- author: Yordan Sedeno
![20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [5of6]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130601151436im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/PyThexALItg/default.jpg "20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [5of6]")
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [5of6]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:07
- Updated: 20 May 2013
Cuban Missile Crisis Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original inte...
http://wn.com/20_20_Fidel_Castro_interview_Barbara_Walters_5of6_
Cuban Missile Crisis Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original inte...
- published: 09 Jul 2008
- views: 36115
- author: Reyes H
Fidel Castro Un Hombre de Poder.(*Conoce a tu enemigo, como a tí mismo.)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 111:49
- Updated: 01 Apr 2013
Cuba: La Patria no es la Revolución ni estar en contra de Castro implica estarlo a favor de la Patria. http://barrioblogcubano.blogspot.se/2011/05/la-patria-...
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_Un_Hombre_de_Poder*Conoce_a_tu_enemigo,_como_a_tí_mismo
Cuba: La Patria no es la Revolución ni estar en contra de Castro implica estarlo a favor de la Patria. http://barrioblogcubano.blogspot.se/2011/05/la-patria-...
- published: 03 Jan 2013
- views: 5932
- author: Julio César Soler Baró
Fidel Castro speaks English after visit to United Nations in the US
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:57
- Updated: 30 May 2013
Fidel Castro speaks English after visit to United Nations in the US.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_speaks_English_after_visit_to_United_Nations_in_the_US
Fidel Castro speaks English after visit to United Nations in the US.
- published: 19 Nov 2010
- views: 75613
- author: iconic
Fidel Castro über die NWO - Comandante 2003 -Teil 1-
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 47:02
- Updated: 05 May 2013
Stone begleitete Castro im Februar 2002 drei Tage lang mit zwei Handkameras. Dabei dokumentierte er sowohl öffentliche Auftritte Castros, zum Beispiel den Be...
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_über_die_NWO_Comandante_2003_-Teil_1-
Stone begleitete Castro im Februar 2002 drei Tage lang mit zwei Handkameras. Dabei dokumentierte er sowohl öffentliche Auftritte Castros, zum Beispiel den Be...
- published: 01 Jan 2011
- author: FreiesDenken100
Fidel Castro con Barbara Walter
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:03
- Updated: 19 Apr 2013
periodismo independiente.
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_con_Barbara_Walter
Barbara Walters on interviewing Fidel Castro
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:08
- Updated: 24 Aug 2012
Barbara Walters on interviewing Fidel Castro. For more on this and over 600 interviews, please visit emmytvlegends.org.
http://wn.com/Barbara_Walters_on_interviewing_Fidel_Castro
Barbara Walters on interviewing Fidel Castro. For more on this and over 600 interviews, please visit emmytvlegends.org.
- published: 27 Aug 2009
- views: 4607
- author: TVLEGENDS
FULL DOCUMENTARY American Experience Fidel Castro
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 54:44
- Updated: 28 May 2013
PLEASE LIKE AND SUBSCRIBE TO SUPPORT THIS CHANNEL FOR MORE FULL LENGTH DOCS.
http://wn.com/FULL_DOCUMENTARY_American_Experience_Fidel_Castro
PLEASE LIKE AND SUBSCRIBE TO SUPPORT THIS CHANNEL FOR MORE FULL LENGTH DOCS.
- published: 28 Apr 2013
- views: 1862
- author: john t
Fidel Castro - A life of revolution
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 44:39
- Updated: 18 May 2013
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_A_life_of_revolution
Fidel Castro Interview Parte I
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:02
- Updated: 06 Jun 2007
Primer fragmento del video más reciente del presidente de la República de Cuba, Fidel Castro Ruz. Entrevista concedida a Randy Alonso, conductor de la Mesa Redonda, popular programa nacional centrado en temas políticos
Recent Castro's video, showing the president very healthy and concerned about nowdays topics
http://wn.com/Fidel_Castro_Interview_Parte_I
Primer fragmento del video más reciente del presidente de la República de Cuba, Fidel Castro Ruz. Entrevista concedida a Randy Alonso, conductor de la Mesa Redonda, popular programa nacional centrado en temas políticos
Recent Castro's video, showing the president very healthy and concerned about nowdays topics
- published: 06 Jun 2007
- views: 34399
9:13
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [2of6]
US Cuba Relations Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years af...
published: 09 Jul 2008
author: Reyes H
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [2of6]
US Cuba Relations Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original intervi...
- published: 09 Jul 2008
- views: 68714
- author: Reyes H
6:38
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [3of6]
Cuban Media - Capitalism Vs Socialism Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana,...
published: 09 Jul 2008
author: Reyes H
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [3of6]
Cuban Media - Capitalism Vs Socialism Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. ...
- published: 09 Jul 2008
- views: 227765
- author: Reyes H
60:15
Looking For Fidel
Looking for Fidel is a documentary film by Oliver Stone, released in 2004. It is a follow-...
published: 22 Oct 2011
author: scorbing
Looking For Fidel
Looking for Fidel is a documentary film by Oliver Stone, released in 2004. It is a follow-up to his 2003 documentary Comandante and likewise consists of inte...
- published: 22 Oct 2011
- views: 23102
- author: scorbing
6:51
Fidel Castro Interview on Ed Sullivan - 1959
http://goo.gl/3Cdeu - Ed Sullivan interviews Fidel Castro on January 11, 1959 in Cuba shor...
published: 11 Jan 2011
author: TheEdSullivanShow
Fidel Castro Interview on Ed Sullivan - 1959
http://goo.gl/3Cdeu - Ed Sullivan interviews Fidel Castro on January 11, 1959 in Cuba shortly after the Batista regime is overthrown during the Cuban Revolut...
- published: 11 Jan 2011
- views: 44011
- author: TheEdSullivanShow
9:20
Fidel Castro Interview by Ted Turner
Fidel Castro Interview by Ted Turner in 1990....
published: 11 Oct 2008
author: Che the guerrilla
Fidel Castro Interview by Ted Turner
Fidel Castro Interview by Ted Turner in 1990.
- published: 11 Oct 2008
- views: 77866
- author: Che the guerrilla
12:35
'Fidel Castro feeling well, mudslingers crying "dead" for 50 years'
RT interviews the son of the Cuban leader Raul Castro, as he talks about Havana's relation...
published: 05 Nov 2012
author: RT
'Fidel Castro feeling well, mudslingers crying "dead" for 50 years'
RT interviews the son of the Cuban leader Raul Castro, as he talks about Havana's relationship with Washington, the war on terror and Fidel Castro's health. ...
- published: 05 Nov 2012
- views: 4973
- author: RT
91:41
Fidel - The Untold Story (2001) (Complete)
"Fidel: The Untold Story" is a documentary released in 2001 by Estela Bravo about Fidel Ca...
published: 05 Jan 2012
author: goatboy192
Fidel - The Untold Story (2001) (Complete)
"Fidel: The Untold Story" is a documentary released in 2001 by Estela Bravo about Fidel Castro. The film featured interviews with: Phillip Agee Muhammad Ali ...
- published: 05 Jan 2012
- views: 169603
- author: goatboy192
7:49
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [6of6]
Cuba's Future Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after ...
published: 26 Aug 2008
author: Reyes H
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [6of6]
Cuba's Future Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original interview m...
- published: 26 Aug 2008
- views: 44390
- author: Reyes H
2:07
Fidel Castro's letter to George Galloway
GG talks about receiving a letter from Uncle Fidel....
published: 12 May 2012
author: MegaChairmanMao's channel
Fidel Castro's letter to George Galloway
GG talks about receiving a letter from Uncle Fidel.
- published: 12 May 2012
- views: 2374
- author: MegaChairmanMao's channel
44:49
Grandes biografias - Fidel Castro
...
published: 24 Feb 2013
author: daniel navarro
Grandes biografias - Fidel Castro
- published: 24 Feb 2013
- views: 5762
- author: daniel navarro
5:11
Fidel Castro interview
comrade Fidel!...
published: 28 Apr 2013
author: drugcomrade
Fidel Castro interview
comrade Fidel!
- published: 28 Apr 2013
- views: 28
- author: drugcomrade
94:54
Comandante - Oliver Stone trifft Fidel Castro (Dokumentation)
Comandante ist ein Dokumentarfilm aus dem Jahr 2003 von Regisseur Oliver Stone, der dem Zu...
published: 29 Mar 2011
author: rakontado
Comandante - Oliver Stone trifft Fidel Castro (Dokumentation)
Comandante ist ein Dokumentarfilm aus dem Jahr 2003 von Regisseur Oliver Stone, der dem Zuschauer einen Einblick in das Leben des kubanischen Staatspräsident...
- published: 29 Mar 2011
- views: 29337
- author: rakontado
6:54
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [4of6]
Elian Gonzales - Walter's view on Cuban Society, Tourism, & prostitution Barbara Walters i...
published: 09 Jul 2008
author: Reyes H
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [4of6]
Elian Gonzales - Walter's view on Cuban Society, Tourism, & prostitution Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her firs...
- published: 09 Jul 2008
- views: 48242
- author: Reyes H
3:55
Fidel Castro interview by Edward R Murrow (1959) Fidel lying as usual.
Fidel Castro interview by Edward R Murrow (1959) Fidel lying as usual....
published: 22 Apr 2011
author: Yordan Sedeno
Fidel Castro interview by Edward R Murrow (1959) Fidel lying as usual.
Fidel Castro interview by Edward R Murrow (1959) Fidel lying as usual.
- published: 22 Apr 2011
- author: Yordan Sedeno
Vimeo results:
2:23
La Carreta: The Miami Celebration Spot
Music licensed through With Etiquette.
"Only in Miami" is a phrase that we often hear in ...
published: 22 Jun 2012
author: Belvedere Stories
La Carreta: The Miami Celebration Spot
Music licensed through With Etiquette.
"Only in Miami" is a phrase that we often hear in the humid melting pot that is the Magic City. There are just certain customs and traditions that you would never witness past Broward county. Things that are truly unique to the Latin-infused culture that Miami has to offer.
Well, only in Miami would people fleece their kitchens of their pots and pans and wooden spoons, and congregate around a restaurant to celebrate the Miami Heat's amazing championship victory into the wee hours of night. When something big happens, such as the Florida Marlins winning the World Series, or when the universally detested Fidel Castro gave up power to his brother Raúl, La Carreta Restaurant in Westchester is the gathering spot for the local Miami community. Walk in past La Carreta's coffee window on a busy Saturday night and there's always a lively crowd talking, arguing and sharing stories! It is a microcosm of Miami culture: older people discussing politics, police officers on break, young men and women sharing an authentic Cuban meal, middle-aged bikers on Harleys, and the full spectrum of Miami characters: Cuban, Latin American, and American alike.
The restaurant itself is surely unique, but what we wondered was what draws a large community of people to celebrate at the same spot (especially since it's a chain) for these big moments?
Throughout the Heat's playoff run, the city has been on edge. Miamians wanted a championship so bad they could taste it. This was our year, and we were all confident that our team could do it.
But the one thing we could be sure of was that if and when they won, La Carretta on Bird Road would be flooded with people celebrating. The sounds of banging pots, honking horns and Spanish music blasting from cars would fill the streets and impromptu parades and conga lines would jam the sidewalks.
Last night, Miami did not disappoint! The Heat ended their glorious Finals run against OKC 4-1, and the Miami community did what it does best: jubilant unapologetic celebration.
4:43
A-Mafia | Fidel Castro
A-Mafia video for "Fidel Castro" Directed & edited by TwiZz| & co-Directed by Laprofecy| c...
published: 19 Apr 2010
author: DreamWishDIGITAL
A-Mafia | Fidel Castro
A-Mafia video for "Fidel Castro" Directed & edited by TwiZz| & co-Directed by Laprofecy| check out www.amafiadigital.com | www.dreamwishdigital.com | dipinthemix.com | www.piffavenue.com
54:53
Fidel Castro
Primeira entrevista de Fidel Castro exibida na televisão brasileira. Documentário que traz...
published: 14 Jul 2011
author: Casa do Vídeo
Fidel Castro
Primeira entrevista de Fidel Castro exibida na televisão brasileira. Documentário que traz a coletiva do líder cubano a um grupo de jornalistas, brasileiros inclusive, durante um encontro latinoamericano em Havana, em 1985. Vídeo originalmente co-produzido com a TV Educativa, que acabou sendo exibido pela Abril Vídeo em seus horários na TV Gazeta de São Paulo e em outras emissoras do país. O documentário com a entrevista, onde Fidel fala do Brasil e da divida externa, foi também exibido em salas e teatros, como o Planetário da Gávea, numa época em que o país ainda não mantinha relações diplomáticas com Cuba. Primeira aparição em vídeo da apresentadora Carla Vilhena.
Youtube results:
5:07
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [5of6]
Cuban Missile Crisis Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years...
published: 09 Jul 2008
author: Reyes H
20/20 Fidel Castro interview - Barbara Walters [5of6]
Cuban Missile Crisis Barbara Walters interviews Fidel Castro from Havana, Cuba -- 25 years after her first interview with the Cuban leader. Her original inte...
- published: 09 Jul 2008
- views: 36115
- author: Reyes H
111:49
Fidel Castro Un Hombre de Poder.(*Conoce a tu enemigo, como a tí mismo.)
Cuba: La Patria no es la Revolución ni estar en contra de Castro implica estarlo a favor d...
published: 03 Jan 2013
author: Julio César Soler Baró
Fidel Castro Un Hombre de Poder.(*Conoce a tu enemigo, como a tí mismo.)
Cuba: La Patria no es la Revolución ni estar en contra de Castro implica estarlo a favor de la Patria. http://barrioblogcubano.blogspot.se/2011/05/la-patria-...
- published: 03 Jan 2013
- views: 5932
- author: Julio César Soler Baró
2:57
Fidel Castro speaks English after visit to United Nations in the US
Fidel Castro speaks English after visit to United Nations in the US....
published: 19 Nov 2010
author: iconic
Fidel Castro speaks English after visit to United Nations in the US
Fidel Castro speaks English after visit to United Nations in the US.
- published: 19 Nov 2010
- views: 75613
- author: iconic
47:02
Fidel Castro über die NWO - Comandante 2003 -Teil 1-
Stone begleitete Castro im Februar 2002 drei Tage lang mit zwei Handkameras. Dabei dokumen...
published: 01 Jan 2011
author: FreiesDenken100
Fidel Castro über die NWO - Comandante 2003 -Teil 1-
Stone begleitete Castro im Februar 2002 drei Tage lang mit zwei Handkameras. Dabei dokumentierte er sowohl öffentliche Auftritte Castros, zum Beispiel den Be...
- published: 01 Jan 2011
- author: FreiesDenken100
photo: Creative Commons / Xabier Eskisabel
30 May 2013
Syria has already received the first shipment of an advanced Russian air defence system, Syria's President Bashar al-Assad is reported to have said in a Lebanese TV interview. Russia vowed to go ahead with sending the weapons soon after an EU decision not to renew an arms embargo on Syria. Mr Assad is also reported to have told Hezbollah-linked Al Manar TV that also said the tide of the war was turning ... Hezbollah ... Type ... Source ... ....(size: 3.1Kb)
photo: AP / Hussein Malla
31 May 2013
Although the death toll in this war has reached into the tens of thousands and uncollaborated reports indicate the government forces have started using chemical weapons against rebel controlled territories, almost nothing will justify the United States aiding either side in this war ... America must depend on the Israelis who are not ruling out an attack into Syria in order to destroy the missile batteries ... Suggested by the author. ... Tweet....(size: 6.3Kb)
photo: AP / Nigerian Army
31 May 2013
Nigerian authorities have have arrested three Lebanese men in northern Nigeria on suspicion of being members of the Lebanese movement Hezbollah. Soldiers uncovered a hidden arms cache that authorities believe belonged to members of the Shia political party and armed group, the military and secret police said on Thursday ... All suspects reportedly admitted to being members of Hezbollah under questioning ... News....(size: 8.8Kb)
photo: US Army
30 May 2013
So-called killer robots are due to be discussed at the UN Human Rights Council, meeting in Geneva. A report presented to the meeting will call for a moratorium on their use while the ethical questions they raise are debated ... They include ... ....(size: 1.5Kb)
photo: AP / Cliff Owen
01 Jun 2013
SINGAPORE — Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel delivered a two-pronged message to Beijing — holding out hope for a slowly improving military relationship with the Asian giant while issuing a stern warning on cyberattacks coming from that country. But he was met with immediate skepticism from the Chinese delegation in the audience, who questioned America's role in the Pacific. Connect With Us on Twitter ... Twitter List. Reporters and Editors ... ....(size: 6.2Kb)
photo: AP / Ramon Espinosa
31 May 2013
President Raul Castro's government recently condemned the Boston Marathon bombings ... Cuban President Raul Castro (R) and Cuban General Secretary ... A woman carries a poster of former Cuban President Fidel Castro as thousands of Cubans march under the slogan 'Preserve and Perfect Socialism', at Revolution Square in Havana during Labour Day on May 1, 2012....(size: 2.8Kb)
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Granma Internacional
31 May 2013
THE day that Fidel spoke these words in Havana’s Plaza de la Revolución, Carlos Rodríguez radiant face could not hide a childlike vanity, or the pride of knowing his own worth ... In June 1958 he was designated in the presence of Fidel Castro representative of the Communist Party, then the Partido Socialista Popular, and remained in the Sierra Maestra until the triumph of the Revolution on January 1, 1959....(size: 6.2Kb)
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noodls
31 May 2013
(Source. FIBA - International Basketball Federation). MIES (FIBA Hall of Fame) - On Monday 27 May, FIBA announced the 2013 Class of Inductees of the FIBA Hall of Fame. Over the next three weeks (weekdays from 28 May to 12 June), we will profile all 12 of the inductees. Today we look at Brazil's Maria Paula Gonçalves Da Silva ... Cuba President Fidel Castro was the most famous spectator at that game ... FIBA. distributed by ... (noodl....(size: 3.1Kb)
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The Siasat Daily
31 May 2013
May 30.. The United States today accused Iran of sponsoring "terrorism" at a level unseen in decades and said that the separate threat from Al-Qaeda has been significantly degraded ... "Iran and Hezbollah's terrorist activity has reached a tempo unseen since the 1990s, with attacks plotted in Southeast Asia, Europe and Africa," the report said ... The United States has sought to isolate Cuba since Fidel Castro's communist revolution in 1959....(size: 3.8Kb)
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The News Tribune
31 May 2013
Memorable Eric Wedge quotations are as rare as vintage Honus Wagner baseball cards, but give the Seattle Mariners manager this much ... As outrageously insensitive remarks go, Wedge’s depiction of new-generation stats analysts as failed little leaguers is not to be confused with, say, former Miami Marlins manager Ozzie Guillen, whose team’s fan base was prominent with Cuban refugees, expressing fidelity to Castro....(size: 4.8Kb)
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Chicago Tribune
31 May 2013
In my professorial days, I had a colleague with such a well-honed naysayer persona that he would interrupt a faculty meeting in progress, shout "No!" and no one paid any attention ... President Barack Obama needs someone like that ... President." ... Words matter ... "That's really dumb." ... On the eve of the ill-fated Bay of Pigs invasion, the Kennedy administration briefed members of Congress on its blueprint for toppling Cuban President Fidel Castro....(size: 5.5Kb)
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noodls
31 May 2013
(Source. Government of the Russian Federation). \ Statements and speeches \. Speech and answers to questions of mass media by Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov during joint press conference summarizing the results of negotiations with Foreign Minister of Cuba Bruno Rodríguez, Moscow, 30 May 2013. 1090-30-05-2013 ... By the way, the first visit of the leader of Cuban Revolution Fidel Castro took place on the same days 50 years ago....(size: 6.6Kb)
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Huffington Post
31 May 2013
During conversations conducted on the island, the President of the Senate discussed the relationship between Cuba and France, the policy of the European Union vis-à-vis the government of Raúl Castro, the bilateral conflict between Washington and Havana and prospects for normalization in Barack Obama's second term in office ... Salim Lamrani. Mr ... SL ... JPB ... My generation was highly influenced by the epic revolutionary struggles of Fidel Castro....(size: 13.1Kb)
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Granma Internacional
30 May 2013
While visiting the U.S., Jean Daniel met Ben Bradlee, from Newsweek magazine, and told him of his plans to travel to Cuba, to interview Fidel. Bradlee informed Kennedy, who expressed interest in meeting Jean Daniel, and asking him to convey a message to Fidel. Dr ... "I approved of the proclamation which Fidel Castro made in the Sierra Maestra, when he justifiably called for justice and especially yearned to rid Cuba of corruption ... •....(size: 2.8Kb)
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Headlines India
30 May 2013
New Delhi, May 30. Cuba, which has made rapid advances in medical care and sent thousands of doctors to work in African and other countries, is looking to match synergies with India in medical services and biotechnology engineering, Foreign Minister Bruno Eduardo Rodríguez Parrilla says ... "We are important exporters of medical services ... Even former Cuban president Fidel Castro is taking medicines for his undisclosed illness ... ....(size: 3.5Kb)
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Clarion Ledger
30 May 2013
ST. PETERSBURG, RUSSIA — And now for the gold-medal match. Three months after wrestling got kicked out of the 2020 Olympics, the ancient sport is back in the frame and will compete against baseball-softball and squash for a spot in the games ... "We took the opportunity. We won the first match but there is another one to fight." ... Cuba's Antonio Castro, a son of Fidel Castro and a vice president of the WBSC, was part of the delegation ... ....(size: 7.0Kb)
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Baltimore Sun
30 May 2013
In his recent speech, President Barack Obama set forth what he described as narrow, reasonable guidelines for using drones to carry out targeted killings overseas. The U.S., he said, will only use drone strikes "against terrorists who pose a continuing and imminent threat to the American people." Moreover, the U.S ... Mr ... The U.S ... Mr ... In Panama in 2001, he was convicted of plotting to blow up an auditorium where Fidel Castro was to speak ... ....(size: 4.8Kb)
This name uses Spanish naming customs; the first or paternal family name is Castro and the second or maternal family name is Ruz.
| Fidel Castro | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Castro in 2003 | |
| First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba |
|
| In office October 3, 1965 – April 19, 2011 |
|
| Deputy | Raúl Castro |
| Preceded by | Position established |
| Succeeded by | Raúl Castro |
| 15th President of Cuba | |
| In office December 2, 1976 – February 24, 2008* |
|
| Prime Minister | Himself |
| Vice President | Raúl Castro |
| Preceded by | Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado |
| Succeeded by | Raúl Castro |
| 16th Prime Minister of Cuba | |
| In office February 16, 1959 – February 24, 2008 |
|
| President | Manuel Urrutia Lleó Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado Himself |
| Preceded by | José Miró Cardona |
| Succeeded by | Raúl Castro |
| 7th and 23rd Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement | |
| In office September 16, 2006 – February 24, 2008 |
|
| Preceded by | Abdullah Ahmad Badawi |
| Succeeded by | Raúl Castro |
| In office September 10, 1979 – March 6, 1983 |
|
| Preceded by | Junius Richard Jayawardene |
| Succeeded by | Neelam Sanjiva Reddy |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (1926-08-13) August 13, 1926 (age 85) Birán, Cuba |
| Political party | Communist Party of Cuba |
| Spouse(s) | Mirta Diaz-Balart (1948–1955) Dalia Soto del Valle (1980–present) |
| Relations | (siblings) Raúl Castro Enma Castro Agustina Castro Ramon Castro Ruz Angelita Castro |
| Children | Fidel Ángel Castro Diaz-Balart Alina Fernández-Revuelta Alexis Castro-Soto Alejandro Castro-Soto Antonio Castro-Soto Angel Castro-Soto Alex Castro-Soto Jorge Angel Castro Francisca Pupo |
| Alma mater | University of Havana |
| Profession | Lawyer |
| Religion | Deist[1] |
| Signature |  |
| *Acting presidential powers were transferred to Raúl Castro from July 31, 2006. | |
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (Spanish: [fiˈðel ˈkastro]; born August 13, 1926) is a Cuban revolutionary and politician, having held the position of Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, and then President from 1976 to 2008. He also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from the party's foundation in 1961 until 2011. Politically a Marxist-Leninist, under his administration the Republic of Cuba was converted into a one-party socialist state, with industry and business being nationalized under state ownership and socialist reforms implemented in all areas of society. On the international stage, he also served as the Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and 2006 to 2008.
Born the illegitimate son of a wealthy farmer, Castro became involved in leftist anti-imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana. Involving himself in armed rebellions against right-wing governments in the Dominican Republic and Colombia, he concluded that the U.S.-backed Cuban President Fulgencio Batista, who was widely seen as a dictator, had to be overthrown; to this end he led a failed armed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953. Imprisoned for a year, he traveled to Mexico, and with the aid of his brother Raúl Castro and friend Che Guevara, assembled a group of revolutionaries, the July 26 Movement. Returning with them to Cuba, he took a key role in the Cuban Revolution, leading a successful guerrilla war against Batista's forces, overthrowing him in 1959. Castro subsequently became Commander in Chief of the armed forces and shortly thereafter became Prime Minister. The United States was alarmed by his involvement in the overthrow of Batista and relationship with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, implementing an economic blockade of the island. U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower also ordered the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to overthrow him, which they unsuccessfully tried through multiple assassination attempts and the failed Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961. To counter this threat, Castro forged an economic and military alliance with the Soviet Union and allowed them to place nuclear weapons on the island, leading to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
Adopting Marxism-Leninism as his guiding ideology, in 1961 Castro proclaimed the socialist nature of the Cuban revolution, and in 1965 became First Secretary of the newly founded Communist Party, with all other parties being abolished. He then led the transformation of Cuba into a socialist republic, nationalizing industry, introducing free healthcare and education, and suppressing internal opposition. A keen internationalist, Castro introduced Cuban medical brigades who worked throughout the developing world, and aided foreign revolutionary socialist groups in the hope of toppling world capitalism, thereby involving Cuba in the Angolan Civil War and the Ogaden War between Ethiopia and Somalia. In 1976 he stepped down as Prime Minister to become President of both the Council of State and Council of Ministers. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Castro led Cuba into its economic "Special Period", before taking the country into the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas in 2006 and forging alliances with other nations in the Latin American "Pink Tide". Amidst failing health, in 2006 Castro transferred his responsibilities to Vice-President Raúl Castro, who was then elected President when Fidel stepped down in 2008.
Castro is a controversial and highly divisive world figure, being lauded as a champion of anti-imperialism, humanitarianism, socialism and environmentalism by his supporters, but his critics have accused him of being a dictator whose authoritarian administration has overseen multiple human rights abuses both at home and abroad. A prolific author on various topics, he has had a significant influence on the politics of various individuals and groups across the world, including senior leaders like Nelson Mandela, Hugo Chávez and Evo Morales.
Early life[link]
Childhood and education: 1926–1945[link]
Fidel's father, Ángel Castro y Argiz (1875–1956) was a Spaniard born to a poor peasant family in rural Galicia, Northwest Spain. Working as a manual laborer on local farms, in 1895 he was conscripted into the Spanish Army to fight in the Cuban War of Independence against the Cuban revolutionaries who wished to secede from the Spanish Empire. Wishing to gain greater influence in the Caribbean, the United States subsequently declared war on Spain, leading to the Spanish-American War of 1898, in which the U.S. seized control of Cuba, setting up their own government on the island. In 1902, the Republic of Cuba was proclaimed, however it remained only partially independent of the U.S., which retained economic and political dominance over it. For a time, Cuba enjoyed economic growth, and Ángel Castro decided to migrate there permanently in search of employment.[3][4][5] Doing so, he undertook various jobs, eventually earning enough money to set up his own business growing sugar cane on a farm in Birán, near Mayarí in Oriente Province.[4][5][6]
Ángel took a wife, María Luisa Argota, with whom he had two daughters, but they separated after several years and he began a relationship with a household servant who was thirty years his junior.[7][8] This woman, Lina Ruz González (September 23, 1903 – August 6, 1963),[9] came from an impoverished Cuban family of Canarian descent, but became Ángel's domestic partner, bearing him three sons and four daughters.[7][10][11]
Fidel was Lina's third child, being born at his father's farm on August 13, 1926,[7][12][13] and was given his mother's surname of Ruz rather than his father's because he had been born out of wedlock, something that carried a particular social stigma at the time.[14][15] Although he was from a prosperous background, with his father's business proving ever more profitable, his father ensured that he grew up alongside the children of the farm's workforce, many of whom were Haitian economic migrants of African descent,[8][16] something that Fidel would later relate prevented him from absorbing "bourgeois culture" at an early age.[17] Aged six, Fidel, along with his elder siblings Ramón and Angela, was sent to live with their teacher in Santiago de Cuba, and it was here that the children dwelt in cramped conditions and in relative poverty, often failing to have enough to eat because of their tutor's poor economic situation.[18][19] Aged eight, Fidel was then baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, although later gave up his faith in Christianity, becoming an atheist.[18][20][21] Being baptized enabled Fidel to begin attending the La Salle boarding school in Santiago, but here he often got into trouble with the school authorities for misbehavior, and so he was instead sent to the privately-funded, Jesuit-run Dolores School in Santiago.[22][23]
In 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit-run El Colegio de Belén in Havana.[24] Although Fidel took an interest in history and debating at Belén, he did not excel academically, instead devoting much of his time to playing sport, including swimming, mountain climbing, table tennis, athletics, basketball and baseball.[25][26] Meanwhile, Ángel Castro finally dissolved his first marriage when Fidel was fifteen, allowing him to marry Fidel's mother; Fidel was formally recognized by his father when he was seventeen, when his surname was legally changed from Ruz to Castro.[14][15]
University and early political activism: 1945–1947[link]
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Grau and Prío, two Cuban presidents whose administrations were marked by corruption, political repression and obedience to U.S. interests. Castro protested against both of them whilst a student.
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In late 1945, Castro began studying law at the University of Havana.[27][28][29] Here he became immediately embroiled in the student protest movement, which in Cuba at that time was particularly volatile: under the regimes of center-left Cuban Presidents Gerardo Machado (1925–1933), Fulgencio Batista (1933–1944) and Ramón Grau (1944–1948) there had been a government crackdown on student protesters, with student leaders being killed or terrorized by violent gangs.[30][31][32] This led to a form of gangsterismo culture within the university that was dominated by a variety of violent and often armed student groups who spent much of their time fighting one another and running criminal enterprises rather than opposing the government.[33][34] Becoming surrounded by this gang culture, Castro focused on political objectives, unsuccessfully campaigning for the position of President of the Federation of University Students (FEU). To do so he put forward a platform of "honesty, decency and justice" and emphasized his opposition to political corruption, something that he increasingly associated with the involvement of the U.S. government in Cuban politics.[35][36] He became passionate about anti-imperialism and opposing U.S. intervention in the Caribbean, joining the University Committee for the Independence of Puerto Rico and the Committee for Democracy in the Dominican Republic.[37]
He was in contact with members of several student leftist groups at the time, including the Popular Socialist Party (Partido Socialista Popular – PSP), the Socialist Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Socialista Revolucionaria – MSR) and the Insurrectional Revolutionary Union (Unión Insurrecional Revolucionaria – UIR), although did not adopt the Marxist ideas of the former and mistrusted some of MSR's connections to the Grau government. Castro had become critical of the corruption and violence of Grau's regime, delivering a public speech on the subject in November 1946 that earned him a place on the front page of several newspapers. Instead, it was to the UIR that he grew closest to, although whether he ever became a member or not has remained unknown.[38][39] In 1947, Castro joined a newly founded socialist group, the Party of the Cuban People (Partido Ortodoxo), which had been formed by veteran politician Eduardo Chibás (1907–1951). A charismatic figure, Chibás attracted many Cubans with his message of social justice, honest government, and political freedom. The Partido Ortodoxo publicly exposed corruption and demanded governmental and social reform. Though Chibás lost the election, Castro, considering Chibás his mentor, remained committed to his cause, working fervently on his behalf.[40][41][42][43]
Meanwhile, the student gang violence had escalated after Grau employed several prominent gang leaders, including members of the MSR, as officers in the police force, and Castro soon received a threat urging him to either leave the university and its political arena or be killed. He did not give in to the threat, instead carrying a gun and surrounding himself with friends who were similarly armed.[44][45] Various accusations would arise in later years alleging that Castro carried out gang-related assassination attempts at this time, including of prominent UIR member Lionel Gómez, MSR leader Manolo Castro and university policeman Oscar Fernandez, but these are supported by "scant evidence" and remain unproven.[46][47][48]
Latin American rebellions: 1947–1948[link]
In June 1947, Castro learned of a planned international expedition to invade the Dominican Republic and overthrow its right-wing president, Rafael Trujillo, a military general widely seen as a dictator who had overseen a system of "repressive brutality" through the use of a violent secret police which routinely murdered and tortured opponents.[49] An ally of the United States, Trujillo angered many across the world when he ordered the Parsley Massacre that killed 20,000–30,000 impoverished Haitian migrants.[50] Castro had become a heavy critic of Trujillo's regime, rising to the presidency of the University Committee for Democracy in the Dominican Republic, and decided to join the military expedition, which was led by General Juan Rodríguez, a Dominican exile, and supported by Grau's Cuban government which feared Trujillo's militaristic behavior.[46][51][52] The invasion was carried out on July 29, 1947, by around 1,200 men, most of whom were exiled Dominicans or Cubans, although other volunteers came from across Latin America. However, both Dominican and U.S. intelligence had gained foreknowledge of the event, and it was soon quashed by the Dominican army and the Cuban government, who had been pressured by the U.S. to cease their support for it. Whilst Grau's government immediately arrested many of those involved, Castro managed to escape the police by jumping off of the naval frigate he was aboard and swimming to shore in the dark of night.[53][54]
"I joined the people; I grabbed a rifle in a police station that collapsed when it was rushed by a crowd. I witnessed the spectacle of a totally spontaneous revolution... [T]hat experience led me to identify myself even more with the cause of the people. My still incipient Marxist ideas had nothing to do with our conduct – it was a spontaneous reaction on our part, as young people with Martí-an, anti-imperialist, anti-colonialist and pro-democratic ideas."
—Fidel Castro on the Bogotazo, 2009.[55]
The botched mission only served to further Castro's opposition to the Grau administration, and returning to Havana, he took a leading role in the student protests that were centered against the killing of a high school pupil by government bodyguards.[56][57] The protests, accompanied by a U.S.-imposed crackdown on those considered to be communists, led to violent clashes between protesters and police in February 1948, in which Castro was badly beaten.[58] It was at this point that his public speeches took on a distinctively leftist slant, condemning the social and economic inequalities of Cuba under the Grau government, something that was in contrast to his former public criticisms, which had centered around condemning corruption and U.S. imperialism. Castro's biographer Leycester Coltman would later remark that "Castro was not yet expressing a Marxist viewpoint, but he was moving in that direction."[59]
After a quick visit to Venezuela and Panama, in April 1948 Castro traveled to the city of Bogotá in Colombia with a number of other Cuban students on a trip sponsored by the government of Argentine President Juan Perón, whose anti-imperialist politics impressed Castro. Once there, the assassination of popular leftist leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán Ayala led to widespread rioting that came to be known as the Bogotazo. Leaving three thousand dead, the riots revolved around clashes between rightist Conservatives, who then controlled the country's government and who were backed by the army, and leftist Liberals who were supported by a number of Colombian socialist groups. Castro, along with his fellow Cuban visitors, joined in in support of the Liberal cause by stealing guns from a police station, but subsequent police investigations came to the conclusion that neither Castro nor any of the other Cubans had been involved in the killings.[60][61][62][63]
Marriage and Marxism: 1948–1950[link]
Returning to Cuba, Castro became a prominent figure in the widespread protests against the government's attempts to raise bus fares, with buses being the only form of transport available to most students and workers.[64][65] It was also in 1948 that Castro married Mirta Díaz Balart, a student from a wealthy Cuban family through whom he was exposed to the lifestyle of the Cuban elite. The relationship was a love match and was disapproved of by both of their families. Mirta's father gave them tens of thousands of dollars to spend in a three-month honeymoon in New York City, and the couple also received a U.S. $1,000 wedding gift from the military general and former president Fulgencio Batista, a friend of Mirta's family.[66][67][68] That same year, Grau decided not to stand for re-election, and his party instead nominated Carlos Prío Socarrás as their presidential candidate. Prío would go on to win the election, becoming President of Cuba.[69][70] However, he faced widespread protests when members of the MSR, which by this time was allied to the police force, assassinated Justo Fuentes, a "self-taught black man" and prominent member of the UIR who was a friend and ally of Castro's. In response, Prío agreed to try to quell the gangs, but found them to be too powerful to control.[71]
"Marxism taught me what society was. I was like a blindfolded man in a forest, who doesn't even know where north or south is. If you don't eventually come to truly understand the history of the class struggle, or at least have a clear idea that society is divided between the rich and the poor, and that some people subjugate and exploit other people, you're lost in a forest, not knowing anything."
—Fidel Castro on discovering Marxism, 2009.[72]
Castro had begun to move further to the left in his political views, being influenced by the writings of prominent Marxists like Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and Vladimir Lenin. He came to interpret the problems facing Cuba as being an integral part of capitalist society, or the "dictatorship of the bourgeoisie", rather than the failings of corrupt politicians. Coming to believe the Marxist idea that meaningful political change could only be brought about by a revolution led by the working class, Castro set about visiting Havana's poorest neighborhoods, witnessing the nation's huge social and racial inequalities, and became active in the University Committee for the Struggle against Racial Discrimination.[73][74]
In September 1949, Mirta gave birth to a son, Fidelito, and so the couple moved to a larger flat in Havana.[73] Despite the need to care for his family, Castro continued to put himself at risk, staying active in the city's political arena and joining a new organization, the September 30 Movement, which contained within it both communists and members of the Partido Ortodoxo. The group's purpose was to oppose the influence of the violent gangs within the university; despite his promises, President Prío had failed to control the situation, instead offering many of their senior members jobs in government ministries.[75][76] Castro volunteered to deliver a speech for the Movement on November 13, in which he exposed the government's secret deals with the gangs and identified many of their key members. Attracting the attention of the national press, the speech angered the gangs, and Castro was forced to go into hiding, first in various rural areas and then in the U.S.[75] Returning to Havana several weeks later, Castro lay low and focused on his university studies, graduating from university as a Doctor of Law in September 1950.[74][75][77]
Career in law and politics: 1950–1952[link]
Now a Doctor of Law, Castro became a professional lawyer, founding his own legal partnership with two fellow leftist students, Jorge Azpiazu and Rafael Resende, whose intention was to focus on helping poor Cubans in asserting their rights. It was a financial failure, with its main client being a timber merchant who paid them in timber to furnish their office.[78][79] Castro cared little for money or material goods, something his wife found difficult, particularly when their furniture was reposessed and their electricity cut off, in both instances because Castro had failed to pay his bills.[80]
Castro remained active in politics, taking part in a high-school protest in Cienfuegos in November 1950 that involved students fighting a four-hour battle with police in protest at the Education Ministry's ban on the founding of student associations in schools. He was arrested and charged with using violence against police officers, but the magistrate later dismissed the charges.[81] He also became an active member of the Cuban Peace Committee, a part of the international campaign led by British intellectual Betrand Russell to oppose western involvement in the Korean War.[81] His hopes for Cuba still largely centered around Eduardo Chibás and his left wing Partido Ortodoxo; however Chibás had made a mistake when he accused Education Minister Aureliano Sánchez of purchasing a Guatemalan ranch with misappropriated funds, but was unable to substantiate his allegations. The government used this as an opportunity to go on the offensive against Chibás, accusing him of being a liar and a troublemaker. In 1951, while running for president again, Chibás shot himself in the stomach during a radio broadcast in an attempt to issue a "last wake-up call" to the Cuban people. Castro was present and accompanied him to the hospital where he died of his injuries.[82][83][84][85]
Although his political views were further left than the Partido Ortodoxo, Castro believed that those parties on the far left, namely the PSP, were too unpopular to achieve a revolutionary leftist movement in Cuba, and for this reason remained in the Ortodoxo. Seeing himself as the heir to Chibás, Castro wanted to run for Congress in the June 1952 elections, but senior party members feared his radical reputation and refused to nominate him. Instead he gained the support of enough Ortodoxo members in Havana's poorest districts to be nominated as a candidate for the House of Representatives, and put all his energies into campaigning.[86][87] It was at the time that Castro held a meeting with General Fulgencio Batista, the former president who had recently returned to politics by winning a seat in the Senate and founding the Unitary Action Party; although they both opposed the Prío administration, their meeting never got beyond "polite generalities" with no indication that they would later become bitter enemies.[86]
The Ortodoxo had gained a considerable level of support, and there was a "fair chance that the Ortodoxos and Castro would both have succeeded in the election."[88] However, this was quashed in March 1952 when General Batista seized power in a military coup, removing the widely discredited President Prío from office, who then fled to Mexico. Subsequently declaring himself president, Batista cancelled the planned presidential elections, describing his new system as "disciplined democracy": Castro, like many others, instead saw it as the establishment of a one-man dictatorship with no benefit to the Cuban populace.[82][89][90] Although in his earlier democratic terms as president Batista had taken a center-left stance, he now moved to the right and went on to solidify his ties with the United States, severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, suppressing trade unions and persecuting socialist groups in Cuba.[82][91] Intent on opposing the Batista administration, Castro brought several legal cases against them, arguing that Batista had committed sufficient criminal acts to warrant at least 100 years imprisonment and accusing various ministers of breaching labor laws. These came to nothing, leading Castro to begin thinking of alternative ways to oust the new government.[92]
Cuban Revolution[link]
Main article: Cuban Revolution
The Movement and the Moncada Barracks attack: 1952–1953[link]
"In a few hours you will be victorious or defeated, but regardless of the outcome – listen well, friends – this Movement will triumph. If you win tomorrow, the aspirations of Martí will be fulfilled sooner. If we fail, our action will nevertheless set an example for the Cuban people, and from the people will arise fresh new men willing to die for Cuba. They will pick up our banner and move forward... The people will back us in Oriente and in the whole island. As in '68 and '92, here in Oriente we will give the first cry of Liberty or Death!"
—Fidel Castro's speech to the Movement just before the Moncada Attack, 1953.[93]
Dissatisfied with the Ortodoxo's policy of non-violent opposition to Batista's regime, Castro formed a group known simply as "The Movement". Consisting of both a civil and a military committee, the former conducted political agitation through an underground newspaper, El Acusador (The Accuser), while the latter armed and trained recruits to take violent action against Batista. With Castro as the Movement's head, the organization was based upon a clandestine cell system, with each cell containing ten members, none of whom knew the whereabouts or activities of the other cells.[94][95] A dozen individuals formed the nucleus of the movement, many of whom were also dissatisfied Ortodoxo members, although from July 1952 the Movement went on a recruitment drive, and within a year it had around 1,200 members, organized into over a hundred cells, with the majority of members coming from the poorer districts of Havana.[96][97][98] Although Castro's political ideology was that of revolutionary socialism, he avoided an alliance with the communist PSP, fearing that this would frighten away the political moderates who were members of the Movement,[99] but did keep in contact with some of the PSP's members, who included his brother and fellow conspirator Raúl.[100] He would later relate that the members of the Movement were on the whole simply anti-Batista, and few had strong socialist or anti-imperialist views, something which Castro attributed to "the overwhelming weight of the Yankees' ideological and advertising machinery" which he felt had suppressed class consciousness amongst Cuba's working class.[98]
Castro's Movement was not the only militant group that wanted to oust Batista. One of the Orthodoxo's founding members, the Professor of Philosophy Rafael García Bárcena, had founded the National Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacional Revolucionaria – MNR). Consisting largely of middle-class members, it contrasted with Castro's predominantly working class support base. In March 1953, the MNR had planned to attack and seize control of the barracks at Camp Colombia, but police had been alerted to the plot, with the conspirators being rounded up and tortured. In all, fourteen people were sentenced to imprisonment for the attack.[101][102][103] Meanwhile, Castro had been having similar ideas, stockpiling weapons in order to lead the armed wing of the Movement in an attack on the Moncada Barracks, a military garrison just outside Santiago de Cuba in Oriente. The plan was for Castro's members to dress in army uniforms and arrive at the base in cars on July 25, the festival of St James, when many of the officers would be on leave or celebrating in the nearby town. The rebels would then seize control of the barracks before the alarm could be raised, raid the armory and then escape before the army could bring in reinforcements.[104] Supplied with a wealth of new weaponry, Castro believed that the Movement could arm local supporters and spark a revolution in Oriente, which was dominated by a population of impoverished cane-cutters. The plan was to then seize control of a radio station in Santiago, from which the Movement could broadcast their manifesto and promote widespread uprisings against Batista.[105] In doing so, Castro's plan was directly emulating those of the 19th century Cuban independence fighters who had raided Spanish barracks, and in keeping with this Castro saw himself as the heir to independence leader and national hero José Martí, both leading national liberation struggles against foreign dominance.[106][107]
Castro had gathered together 165 members of the Movement to take part in the mission, 138 of which were stationed in Santiago, with the other 27 instead positioned in Bayamo. The majority of them were young men from Havana and Pinar del Río, and Castro ensured that, with the exception of himself, none of the volunteers had children.[108] The plan had been carefully orchestrated, and Castro ordered his troops not to cause bloodshed unless they met armed resistance.[109] The attack took place on July 26, 1953, but before it had even begun it ran into trouble; of the sixteen cars that had set out from Santiago, one broke down on the way and two others got separated from the main convoy. When they eventually reached the barracks, further problems arose and soon the alarm was raised by the guards, with most of the rebels being pinned down outside of the base by machine gun fire. Those that managed to get inside faced heavy resistance, and four of them were killed by gunfire before Castro, realizing that he was heavily outnumbered, ordered his men to retreat.[110][111] In the attack, the rebels had suffered 6 fatalities and 15 other casualties, whilst the government forces had faced a heavier toll, with 19 dead and 27 wounded.[112] Meanwhile, some of the other rebels had taken over a civilian hospital, but as the main attack on the barracks failed, government soldiers stormed the hospital, rounding up the rebels, before torturing them for information and finally summarily executing 22 of them without trial.[112] Those rebels that had been able to escape, and who included both Fidel and his brother Raúl, had assembled at their base, the Siboney Farm, where some debated surrender, while others wished to flee to Havana. Accompanied by 19 comrades, Castro however decided to set out for the rugged Gran Piedra mountains several miles to the north, where they could establish a guerrilla base and continue their revolutionary activities.[113][114][115]
In response to the Moncada attack, Batista's government ordered a violent crackdown on all dissent (orchestrated by both the army and the SIM police), declaring martial law and imposing strict censorship on the media. Government propaganda began broadcasting misinformation about the event, claiming that the rebels had murdered patients in the civilian hospital and asserting that the Movement was a communist group financed by the exiled President Prío (ignoring the fact that the latter was a fierce anti-communist). Despite this censorship, news and photographs soon spread of the army's use of torture and summary executions in Oriente, causing widespread public and even some governmental disapproval.[116][117]
Arrest and trial: 1953[link]
"I warn you, I am just beginning! If there is in your hearts a vestige of love for your country, love for humanity, love for justice, listen carefully... I know that the regime will try to suppress the truth by all possible means; I know that there will be a conspiracy to bury me in oblivion. But my voice will not be stifled – it will rise from my breast even when I feel most alone, and my heart will give it all the fire that callous cowards deny it... Condemn me. It does not matter. History will absolve me."
—Fidel Castro in "History Will Absolve Me", 1953.[118]
Over the next few days all of the rebels hiding in the mountains were rounded up by government forces and transported to a prison north of Santiago, although Castro was not executed on the spot as many of his comrades had been.[119][120] Believing that Castro had been incapable of planning the attack by himself, the government accused politicians from the Ortodoxo and communist PSP of being involved in masterminding the attack, and in all 122 defendants, amongst them Castro, were put on trial on September 21 at the Palace of Justice in Santiago.[121][122] Although censored from reporting on it, journalists were permitted to attend the proceedings, which proved an embarrassment for the Batista administration. Acting as his own defense council, Castro convinced the three presiding judges to overrule the army's decision to keep all defendants handcuffed in court, before proceeding to argue that the charge with which they were all accused – of 'organizing an uprising of armed persons against the Constitutional Powers of the State' – was incorrect, for they had risen up not against the Constitutional Powers of the State but against Batista, who had seized power in an unconstitutional manner. When asked who was the intellectual author of the attack, Castro claimed that it was the long deceased national icon José Martí, before quoting some of Martí's works that justified uprisings against tyrannical regimes.[123][124]
As the trial went on, knowledge of the torture that army officers inflicted on their captives emerged. These included castration using a razor and the gouging out of eyes with bayonets; the judges agreed that full investigations into these crimes would have to be undertaken. These revelations proved to be a great embarrassment to the army, who tried unsuccessfully to prevent Castro from testifying any further by claiming that he was too ill to leave his cell.[125] The trial came to an end on October 5, with all of the politicians and many of the rebels being acquitted, although 55 were sentenced to prison terms of between 7 months and 13 years. Castro was sentenced separately, on October 16, during which he proceeded to deliver a speech that would later be printed under the title of History Will Absolve Me.[126][127] Although the maximum penalty for leading an uprising was a 20 year prison sentence, Castro was sentenced to 15 years, being imprisoned in the hospital wing of the Model Prison (Presidio Modelo) on the Isla de Pinos, sixty miles off of Cuba's southwest coast.[127][128]
Imprisonment and the July 26 Movement: 1953–1955[link]
"I would honestly love to revolutionize this country from one end to the other! I am sure this would bring happiness to the Cuban people. I would not be stopped by the hatred and ill will of a few thousand people, including some of my relatives, half the people I know, two-thirds of my fellow professionals, and four-fifths of my ex-schoolmates."
Imprisoned in the Presidio Modelo with 25 of his fellow conspirators, Castro devoted himself to politics once more, changing the name of "The Movement" to the "July 26 Movement", in memory of the date of the failed Moncada attack. Forming a school for prisoners, the Abel Santamaría Ideological Academy, Castro organized five hours a day of teaching, with himself and other Movement members lecturing on such subjects as ancient and modern history, philosophy and the English language.[131][132] Making use of the prison library and gifts from friends outside of prison, he continued reading widely, enjoying the works of Marx, Lenin, and Martí but also reading books by Sigmund Freud, Immanuel Kant, William Shakespeare, Axel Munthe, Somerset Maugham and Fyodor Dostoyevsky, analyzing most of them within a Marxist framework.[133][134] He corresponded with those outside of prison, trying to maintain control over his Movement without giving too much away to the prison censors, who read all of his letters, and also organized the publication of his History Will Absolve Me speech.[135][136] Although at first having a fair amount of freedom within the prison, this came to an end after prison inmates embarrassed the guards by singing anti-Batista songs on a visit by the President in February 1954. In retaliation, the prison authorities removed most of the privileges that Castro and other prisoners were allowed, locking Castro up in solitary confinement indefinitely.[137][138]
Meanwhile, Castro's wife Mirta, who did not share his obsession with political activism, had gained employment in the Ministry of the Interior, thereby working for Batista's government. She had been encouraged to do by her brother, who had been a friend and ally of Batista for many years. This was kept a secret from Castro, who eventually found out through a radio announcement. Appalled, he raged that he would rather die "a thousand times" than "suffer impotently from such an insult". Both Fidel and Mirta initiated divorce proceedings, with Mirta taking custody of their son Fidelito; this angered Castro, who did not want his son growing up in a bourgeois environment.[139][140]
In 1954, Batista's government went ahead with their earlier promises and held presidential elections, but no politician had risked standing against Batista lest they face violent reprisals. Batista won comfortably, but the election was widely recognized as fraudulent. It had however allowed some political opposition to be openly voiced, and supporters of Castro and his Movement had begun agitating for an amnesty for all those imprisoned over the Moncada incident. Some government politicians suggested that such an amnesty would provide good publicity, and the Congress and Batista eventually agreed. Backed by the U.S. government and major corporations, Batista believed that Castro would be no political threat to his regime, and on May 15, 1955 the prisoners were released.[141][142]
Returning to Havana, Castro was met by his supporters, being carried along on the shoulders of students, and set about giving various radio interviews and press conferences.[143][144] Now divorced, Castro had sexual affairs with two of his female supporters, Naty Revuelta and Maria Laborde, who each conceived him a child.[143][145] He also set about to strengthen his anti-Batista revolutionary Movement, welcoming members of the now defunct MNR into it, and establishing an eleven-person National Directorate of the 26 July Revolutionary Movement (or MR-26-7). Despite these structural changes, there was still dissent within the group, with some members questioning Castro's autocratic leadership. Castro dismissed their proposals for the leadership to be transferred to a democratic board, arguing that a successful revolution could not be run by a committee. Some of them subsequently abandoned the MR-26-7, labeling Castro a caudillo (dictator), although the majority accepted his reasoning and remained loyal.[146][147]
Mexico and guerrilla training: 1955–1956[link]
In 1955, a series of bomb attacks and violent demonstrations against Batista's administration led to a crackdown on dissent in Cuba, with Castro being placed under armed guard by his supporters as protection from possible assassination attempts. His brother Raúl was accused of one bomb attack and fled the county, with Fidel deciding to follow on July 7. Those members of the MR-26-7 that remained in Cuba were left with orders to prepare cells for revolutionary action in all of the country's main towns and cities, and await Castro's return, when he would bring with him an army to topple Batista.[149][150] He sent a letter to the country's political leaders and the press, declaring that he was "leaving Cuba because all doors of peaceful struggle have been closed to me. Six weeks after being released from prison I am convinced more than ever of the dictatorship's intention, masked in many ways, to remain in power for twenty years, ruling as now by the use of terror and crime and ignoring the patience of the Cuban people, which has its limits. As a follower of Martí, I believe the hour has come to take our rights and not beg for them, to fight instead of pleading for them."[151]
The Castro brothers and a number of other MR-26-7 members traveled to Mexico, a country with a long history of offering asylum to left-wing exiles.[152][153] Raúl had befriended one such exile, an Argentine doctor and Marxist-Leninist named Ernesto "Che" Guevara (1928–1967), who was a proponent of guerrilla warfare and who was keen to join the Cuban Revolution as a part of his deeply held belief in overthrowing U.S. imperialism in Latin America. Upon meeting Guevara, Fidel took a liking to him, later describing him as being "a more advanced revolutionary than I was."[154][155][156] Another socialist revolutionary whom Castro began associating with was the Cuban-born Spaniard Colonel Alberto Bayo (1892–1967), who had fought for the leftist Republican side in the Spanish Civil War during the 1930s, before being exiled upon the victory of the fascist General Francisco Franco and his Falange. Bayo agreed to teach Fidel's rebels the skills in guerrilla warfare that they would need if they were to return to Cuba to battle Batista, clandestinely meeting them at various premises.[157][158][159]
In desperate need of money to finance his activities, Castro went on a tour of the United States in search of wealthy sympathizers, including the exiled former President Prío (who contributed the considerable sum of $100,000), during which time he was monitored by agents of Batista's government who at one point allegedly orchestrated a failed plot to kill him. These agents also bribed Mexican police to arrest Castro and other MR-26-7 members in the country, but ultimately the revolutionaries were all released, particularly as several members of the Mexican government sympathized with their cause.[160][161] Castro had also kept in contact with the MR-26-7 agents who had remained in Cuba, where they had succeeded in getting a large clandestine support base in several towns in Oriente.[157][162] Other militant groups had also sprung up to oppose Batista within the country, primarily from the ranks of the student movement; most notable of these was the Revolutionary Directorate (DR), which had been founded by the Federation of University Students (FEU) President José Antonio Echevarría. Antonio traveled to Mexico City to meet with Castro, but the two disagreed widely on tactics, with Castro opposing with the young student's policy of supporting indiscriminate assassinations of anyone in the government.[163][164]
Purchasing a decrepit old yacht, the Granma, it was on the 25 November 1956 that Castro set sail from Tuxpan in Veracruz, Mexico with a group of 81 revolutionaries, armed with 90 rifles, 3 machine guns, around 40 pistols and 2 hand-held anti-tank guns.[165][166][167] The 1,200 mile crossing to Cuba was harsh, and in the overcrowded conditions of the ship (which was designed to hold around 20 passengers), many of the men suffered from seasickness, and food supplies began to run low. At some points they had to bail water caused by a leak, and at another a man fell overboard, delaying their journey.[168][169] The plan had been for the journey to take five days, and on the Granma's scheduled day of arrival, 30 November, members of the MR-26-7 in Cuba under the leadership of Frank Pais led an armed uprising against government buildings in Santiago, Manzanillo and several other towns.[168][170] However, the crossing in the Granma ultimately lasted for seven days, and with Castro and his men unable to provide immediate back-up, Pais and those MR-26-7 members under his leadership dispersed to their homes after two days of intermittent attacks, having "suffered very few casualties and arrests".[168]
Guerrilla war in the Sierra Maestra: 1956–1958[link]
File:Pico Torquino in the Sierra Maestra, Cuba's highest mountain, 1974 meters.jpg
The thickly forested mountain range of the Sierra Maestra, from where Castro and his revolutionaries led guerrilla attacks against Batista's forces for two years.
The Granma landed in Cuba on 2 December 1956, crashing in a mangrove swamp at Playa Las Coloradas, close to Los Cayuelos. Batista's forces had been expecting them, and within several hours of their arrival they were bombarded from a naval vessel. Fleeing inland, they headed for the Sierra Maestra in Oriente, a large forested mountain range from where they could lead a guerrilla war against Batista.[171][172] At daybreak on 5 December they were unexpectedly attacked by a detachment of Batista's Rural Guard; in the confusion, the rebels scattering into different groups which continued making their journey to the Sierra Maestra independently.[173][174] With only two comrades, Castro made it to the mountains, along the way meeting up with others who had survived the attack; ultimately it was discovered that of the 82 rebels who had arrived on the Granma, only 19 had made it to the Sierra Maestra, the rest being killed or captured by Batista's forces.[175][176]
Setting up an encampment in the thick jungle of the Sierra Maestra, the survivors, who included Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, Raúl Castro and Camilo Cienfuegos,[177] began launching attacks on small army posts in the region in order to steal weaponry. In January 1957 they attacked the outpost near to the beach at La Plata, defeating the soldiers stationed there. Being a doctor, Guevara treated the soldiers for any injuries, but the revolutionaries executed the local mayoral (land company overseer) Chicho Osorio, who was despised by the local peasants and who had boasted of killing one of the MR-26-7 rebels several weeks previously.[178] The execution of Osorio aided the rebels in gaining the trust of local people, who typically hated the mayorals as enforcers of the much-despised wealthy landowners. Nonetheless, the locals were initially unenthusiastic in their support for the guerrillas, viewing them with suspicion as outsiders.[179][180] As trust grew between the two communities, some locals joined the rebels, although the majority of new recruits came from urban areas, traveling to the Sierra Maestra in order to aid the revolutionary effort.[181][182] With rising levels of support and increasing number of volunteers joining the rebel army, which now numbered over 200, in July 1957 Castro eventually divided his men into three columns, keeping charge of one and giving control of the others to his brother and Che Guevara.[183] The MR-26-7 members operating in urban areas continued agitating against the government, sending supplies to the Sierra Maestra rebels and on 16 February 1957 Castro met with other leading members of the group to discuss tactics; it was here that he met Celia Sánchez, who would become a close friend.[181][184]
"The story of our beards is very simple: it arose out of the difficult conditions we were living and fighting under as guerrillas. We didn't have any razor blades... everybody just let their beards and hair grow, and that turned into a kind of badge of identity. For the campesinos and everybody else, for the press, for the reporters we were "los barbudos" - the bearded ones. It had its positive side: in order for a spy to infiltrate us, he had to start preparing months ahead of time - he'd have had to have six-months' growth of beard, you see... Later, with the triumph of the Revolution, we kept our beards to preserve the symbolism."
—Fidel Castro on his iconic beard, 2009.[185]
The Cuban Revolution was not contained to the MR-26-7, and across Cuba militant groups were beginning to rise up against Batista. Most notably, Antonio and his DR had been carrying out bombings and acts of sabotage, leading the police to respond with mass arrests, the torture of suspects and extra-judicial killings. In March 1957 the DR launched an attack on the presidential palace, with Batista himself narrowly surviving. The rebels were eventually defeated, and Antonio was shot dead by police in the street as he attempted to issue a radio broadcast. His death would prove beneficial for Castro, removing a charismatic rival to his leadership of the anti-Batista movement.[186][187] Although already a Marxist-Leninist, Castro kept his beliefs a secret from many of the MR-26-7, something in contrast to Guevara and Raúl, whose beliefs were well known. In this way he hoped to gain a wider support base amongst those of other political persuasions, and in 1957 he met with leading members of the Partido Ortodoxo. Castro and the Ortodoxo leaders Raúl Chibás and Felipe Pazos drafted and signed a document called the Sierra Maestra Manifesto in which they laid out their plans for a post-Batista Cuba. Rejecting the idea that Cuba should be run by a provisional military junta following Batista's demise, it demanded that a provisional civilian government be set up that was "supported by all" and which would implement moderate agrarian reform, industrialization and a campaign to wipe out illiteracy before introducing "truly fair, democratic, impartial, elections". It also insisted on both press freedom and free elections within Cuba's trade unions.[188][189][190]
Batista's government censored the Cuban media, and so Castro felt it would be beneficial to reach out and contact foreign media sources in order to spread his message. A U.S. journalist from the The New York Times named Herbert Matthews came to interview Castro, attracting international interest to the rebel's cause and turning him into a celebrity. The New York Times front page story presented Castro as a romantic and appealing revolutionary, and exaggerated the number of troops and resources that he had at his command, with Matthews declaring that "Batista cannot possibly hope to suppress the Castro revolt".[191][192][193][194] Soon, other reporters followed in Matthews' footsteps by traveling to the Sierra Maestra to interview Castro, sent by such news agencies as CBS,[195] while a reporter from Paris Match stayed with the rebels for around 4 months, documenting their daily routine.[196] The number of attacks that Castro's guerrilla's undertook against military outposts in and around the mountains increased, forcing the government to withdraw from all its posts in the region.[183][197] By the spring of 1958 the rebels controlled all of the mountainous areas in Oriente province, controlling a hospital, schools, a printing press, slaughterhouse, land-mine factory and a cigar-making factory.[198]
Countering Operation Verano: 1958[link]
President Batista was coming under increasing pressure by 1958. His army's military failures in Oriente, coupled with his censorship of the media and the repressive techniques of torture and extra-judicial killings employed by the police and armed forces were being increasingly criticized both at home and abroad. Influenced by a wave of anti-Batista sentiment amongst their citizens, the U.S. government made the decision to stop supplying him with weaponry, which he had been using against the rebels, leading him to instead begin buying arms from the United Kingdom.[199] The opposition used this as an opportunity to rise up across the country, proposing a general strike which would be accompanied by armed attacks from the MR-26-7. The strike began on 9 April, and while receiving strong support in the center and east of Cuba, in Havana and other urbanized western parts of the country most workers continued working as usual.[200][201]
"When I saw the [U.S. supplied] rockets being fired at Mario's house, I swore to myself that the Americans would pay dearly for what they are doing. When this war is over a much wider and bigger war will begin for me: the war that I am going to wage against them. I know that this is my real destiny."
Batista's response was to launch an all-out-attack on Castro's guerrilla forces, known as Operation Verano. The army began aerial bombardment of forested areas and villages that were suspected of aiding and hiding the militants, whilst 10,000 soldiers under the command of General Eulogio Cantillo surrounded the Sierra Maestra, driving north to the areas where the rebels were camped. Despite their massive superiority of numbers and weaponry, the army were at a disadvantage, having no experience with guerrilla warfare or the mountainous region. Castro, who by this time had around 300 men at his command, avoided open confrontation, instead using land mines and ambushes to halt the enemy offensive.[204] The army suffered heavy losses and a number of embarrassments; in June 1958 a battalion was trapped in a valley by the rebels and forced to surrender. Their weapons were confiscated, and they were handed over to the Red Cross.[205] Many of Batista's soldiers, appalled at the human rights abuses that they were being ordered to carry out, defected to Castro's rebel force, who also benefited from "overwhelming" popular support in those areas that they captured.[206]
In the summer, the MR-26-7 went on the offensive, pushing the government forces back, out of the mountain range and into the lowlands, with Castro using his columns in a pincer movement to surround the main army concentration in Santiago. By November, Castro's forces had most of Oriente and Las Villas under his control, and although the capitals of Santiago and Santa Clara remained in government hands, their grip on them was slipping. Through control of Las Villas, the rebels had been able to divide the country in two by closing the major roads and rail lines, severely disadvantaging Batista's forces.[207][208]
Batista's fall and Cantillo's military junta: 1958–1959[link]
The U.S. government had come to realize that Batista would probably lose the war, and fearing that Castro, under the influence of known Marxist-Leninists like Che Guevara, would displace U.S. interests with socialist reforms, they decided to support Batista's removal in support of a military junta led by centrist or right wing officers, believing that General Cantillo, who then commanded most of the country's armed forces, would be best placed to lead it. After being approached with this proposal, Cantillo decided to secretly meet with Castro to see if they could bring an end to the fighting, and ultimately it was agreed that the two would call a ceasefire, following which Batista would be apprehended and tried as a war criminal.[210][211] Double crossing Castro, Cantillo warned Batista of the revolutionary's intentions. Wishing to avoid a war crimes tribunal, Batista resigned on 31 December 1958, informing the armed forces that they were now under Cantillo's control. With his family and closest advisers, Batista then fled into exile, taking with him an amassed fortune of more than US$ 300,000,000.[212][211] The following morning Cantillo entered the Presidential Palace in Havana, proclaimed the Supreme Court judge Carlos Piedra to be the new President, and began appointing new members of the government.[212]
Still in Oriente, Castro was furious at Cantillo's actions, recognizing it as the establishment of a military junta. He told his troops to end the ceasefire and continue on the offensive against government forces.[212][213] The MR-26-7 put together a plan to oust the Cantillo-Piedra junta, freeing the high ranking military officer Colonel Barquin from the Isle of Pines prison (where he had been held captive for plotting to overthrow Batista), and commanding him to fly to Havana to place Cantillo under house arrest.[212][213] While there was widespread celebrations as news of Batista's downfall spread across Cuba on 1 January 1959, Castro gave an order to MR-26-7 members to take on the responsibility of policing the country, in order to prevent the widespread looting and vandalism that he had witnessed in the Bogotazo.[214][215]
Whilst Cienfuegos and Guevara led their columns of soldiers into Havana onto 2 January, Castro entered Santiago, where he accepted the surrender of the Moncada Barracks, before giving a speech to the assembled crowds in which he invoked the 19th century wars of independence against the Spanish Empire. He proceeded to speak out against the Cantillo-Piedra junta but highlighted that the majority of soldiers in the armed forces were honorable, and that only the few who had committed human rights abuses would be brought to justice. He also praised the role that women had played in the MR-26-7, and proclaimed that they would have equal rights in the new Cuba.[216] Along the way he also met with the mother of the dead revolutionary, José Antonio Echevarría.[217] Castro immediately became a heroic figure to the Cuban people, striking a "Christ-like figure" and wearing a medallion of the Virgin Mary, with cheering crowds meeting him at every town on his way to Havana. Along the way he gave speeches, press conferences and interviews, with U.S. and other foreign reporters noting that the public adulation of Castro was on an unprecedented scale.[218][219][220]
Provisional government: 1959[link]
In the Sierra Maestra, Castro had made his opinion clear that the lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó (1901–1981) should become the new Cuban president and leader of a provisional civilian government following Batista's fall. A political moderate, Urrutia had defended several MR-26-7 revolutionaries in court during the Batista administration, and had argued that the attack on the Moncada Barracks was legal according to the Cuban constitution. For this reason Castro believed that Urrutia would make a good leader, being both established yet sympathetic to the revolutionary cause. Following the house arrest of Cantillo and the ensuing collapse of the junta, Urrutia was proclaimed to be Cuba's provisional president, with Castro erroneously announcing that he had been selected for the position by "popular election".[221][222] On January 8, 1959, Castro's army rolled victoriously into Havana, and he would shortly thereafter declare that "power does not interest me, and I will not take it."[223] Proclaiming himself to be the Representative of the Rebel Armed Forces of the Presidency,[224] Castro, along with a number of close aides and family members, set up both home and office in the penthouse of the Havana Hilton Hotel, there meeting with journalists, foreign visitors and government ministers.[225][224]
While he officially had no role within the provisional civilian government, in reality Castro exercised a great deal of political control, largely because of his overwhelming popularity with the Cuban populace and his control of the rebel armed forces. He ensured that the government implemented a number of policies designed to cut corruption and fight illiteracy, but did not initially force through any radical proposals. Attempting to rid Cuba's government of Batistanos and their corruption, the Congress that had been elected under Batista was abolished, and all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 were banned from political life. With the government now ruling by decree, Castro ordered a temporary ban on all political parties, but repeatedly claimed that the government would get around to organizing multiparty elections, which ultimately it never did.[226][227] He began secretly meeting with leading members of the banned communist Popular Socialist Party, believing that they had the intellectual capacity to form a socialist government where the MR-26-7 did not.[228][229] He nonetheless kept his true political persuasions a secret from the public eye, and repeatedly denied being a communist.[230]
"We are not executing innocent people or political opponents. We are executing murderers and they deserve it."
In trying to suppress the revolution, Batista's government had orchestrated mass human rights abuses, with estimates putting the death toll in the region of 20,000, and now popular uproar across Cuba demanded that those figures who had been complicit in the widespread torture and killing of civilians be brought to justice. Although he remained a moderating force and tried to prevent the mass reprisal killings of Batistanos advocated by many Cubans, Castro helped to set-up trials of many figures involved in the old regime across the country, resulting in hundreds of executions. Critics, in particular from the U.S. press, argued that many of these did not meet the standards of a fair trial, and condemned Cuba's new government as being more interested in vengeance than justice. Castro retaliated strongly against such accusations, proclaiming that "revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts, but on moral conviction". In a show of support for this "revolutionary justice", he organized the first Havana trial to take place before a mass audience of 17,000 at the Sports Palace stadium; when a group of aviators accused of bombing a village were found not guilty, he ordered a retrial in which they were instead found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment.[233][234]
Widely acclaimed as a hero across Latin America, he soon traveled to Venezuela to attend the first anniversary celebrations of the overthrow of the former right wing president, Marcos Pérez Jiménez. Meeting President-elect Rómulo Betancourt, Castro proposed greater relations between the two nations, unsuccessfully requesting a loan of $300,000,000 and a new deal to obtain Venezuelan oil.[235] Returning home, an argument between Castro and senior government figures broke out when the government banned the National Lottery and closed down the casinos and brothels that had flourished under Batista's regime. While agreeing that gambling and prostitution should be eradicated, Castro was furious with the manner in which this law had been passed, leaving thousands of Cuban waiters, croupiers and prostitutes unemployed, usually with no other skills to fall back on. As a result of the argument, Prime Minister José Miró Cardona resigned, going into exile in the U.S. and eventually involving himself in the militant anti-Castro movement.[236][237]
Premiership[link]
Consolidating leadership: 1959[link]
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Castro in Washington, D.C., arriving at the MATS Terminal (left) and visiting the Lincoln Memorial (right). | |
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Castro in Washington, D.C., arriving at the MATS Terminal (left) and visiting the Lincoln Memorial (right).
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On February 16, 1959, Castro took the vacancy left by Miró, being sworn in as Prime Minister of Cuba. Initially proclaiming his reluctance in taking the role, he agreed to accept it on the condition that the Prime Minister's powers be increased, in part to the detriment of the President.[238][239] One of his first acts as Prime Minister was to travel to the United States between 15 and 26 April, accompanied by a delegation of industrial and diplomatic representatives. Castro hired one of the country's best public relations firms for a charm offensive, appearing as a "man of the people" by answering impertinent questions jokingly and eating hot dogs and hamburgers. The U.S. President, Dwight D. Eisenhower of the Republican Party, avoided meeting with Castro, who instead met with Vice President Richard Nixon, a man Castro took an instant dislike to.[240][241][242] Rather than returning straight to Cuba, Castro traveled to Canada, Trinidad, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, attending an economic conference in Buenos Aires, where he unsuccessfully proposed that the U.S. fund a "Marshall Plan" for Latin America.[243][244]
Castro took a great interest in rural life, and appointed himself to the presidency of the newly created National Institute of Agrarian Reform (INRA). On 17 May 1959, Castro signed into law the First Agrarian Reform, which limited landholdings to 993 acres (4.02 km2) per owner and forbade further foreign land ownership. As a result, all of the large land-holdings were broken up, and the land redistributed to the peasants who worked it; an estimated 200,000 peasants received title deeds as a result of its implementation. To Castro, this was an important progressive step, breaking the control of the wealthy landowning class over Cuba's agriculture; it proved popular among the working class, but also alienated many in the middle classes who had previously supported Castro.[245][246][247] In March 1959, Castro ordered that rents for those who paid less than $100 a month should be cut in half, with measures implemented to increase the Cuban people's purchasing powers, although productivity decreased and the country's financial reserves were drained within two years.[248]
Although at the time he refused to categorize his regime as socialist, Castro appointed known Marxists to senior positions throughout Cuban society. He controversially appointed Che Guevara, an Argentinian with no training in economics, to the position of Governor of the Central Bank and then Minister of Industries, while Marxists took control of most of the country's trade unions. Castro appointed Marxists to senior positions in the armed forces, leading to a backlash from various high ranking anti-communist officers; the commander of the Air Force, Díaz Lanz, soon defected to the United States, calling for the U.S. government to do something before a Marxist regime took over in Cuba.[249][250] These defections were denounced by President Manuel Urrutia Lleó, but he too publicly expressed concern with the rising influence of Marxism. This angered Castro, who publicly announced that he was resigning from his position as Prime Minister because Urrutia "complicated" government, arguing that the president's "fevered anti-Communism" was having a detrimental effect. Castro's sentiments received widespread support as organized crowds of over half a million Castro-supporters surrounded the Presidential Palace demanding Urrutia's resignation, which was duly received. On July 23, Castro resumed his position as Prime Minister and appointed the Marxist Osvaldo Dorticós to be the new President.[251][252]
"Until Castro, the U.S. was so overwhelmingly influential in Cuba that the American ambassador was the second most important man, sometimes even more important than the Cuban president."
—Earl T. Smith, former American Ambassador to Cuba, during 1960 testimony to the U.S. Senate.[253]
Castro made use of radio and the newly developed technology of television to communicate with the Cuban populace, developing what he called a "dialogue with the people", during which he would pose questions and make intentionally provocative statements.[254] Such tactics proved successful, and Castro's regime remained highly popular with workers, peasants and students, all of whom had benefited from its policies.[255] Nonetheless, opposition continued to grow, particularly within the Cuban middle classes, with thousands of educated doctors, engineers and other professionals emigrating to Florida in the U.S., causing a brain drain on the island's economy.[256][257] Militant anti-Castro groups sprung up, undertaking armed attacks against government forces, with some setting up guerrilla bases in Cuba's mountainous regions. They were funded and armed by various foreign sources, including the exiled Cuban community, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the Dominican government of General Rafael Trujillo.[256] Castro's government began a crackdown on this opposition movement, labeling it counter-revolutionary, and arresting hundreds of dissidents.[255][258][259] Although it rejected the methods of physical torture which had been employed by Batista's regime, Castro's government sanctioned the use of psychological torture, subjecting some prisoners to solitary confinement, rough treatment, hunger and threatening behavior.[260] After conservative editors and journalists began expressing hostility towards the government following its leftward turn, the pro-Castro printers' trade union began to harass and disrupt editorial staff. In January 1960 the government proclaimed that each newspaper would be obliged to publish a "clarification" written by the printers' union to the end of any articles which were critical of the government. This would prove to be the start of press censorship in Castro's Cuba.[261][262]
Soviet support and U.S. opposition: 1960[link]
At the start of the 1960s, the Cold War was raging between the Earth's two great superpowers, the United States, a liberal democracy with a capitalist economy, and the Soviet Union, a Marxist-Leninist one-party state with a socialist economy. Castro had long expressed contempt for the U.S. government and their support of Batista's regime, as well as their imperialist and exploitative attitude towards Cuba, while he shared the ideological views of the Soviet government. Castro subsequently met with a Soviet KGB agent operating in Havana, and discussed the possibility of initiating a trading relationship with the Soviet Union (USSR). Meeting with Soviet First Deputy Premier Anastas Mikoyan, Castro agreed to provide the USSR with sugar in return for crude oil, fertilizers and industrial goods.[263][264] Relations were also established with other Marxist-Leninist governments, such as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the People's Republic of Poland and the People's Republic of China.[265]
The Cuban government ordered the country's refineries (then controlled by the U.S. corporations Shell, Esso and Standard Oil) to process this Soviet oil, but under pressure from the U.S. government, they refused. Castro responded by expropriating the refineries and nationalizing them under state control. In retaliation, the U.S. cancelled its import of Cuban sugar, provoking Castro to nationalize most U.S.-owned assets on the island, including banks and sugar mills.[266][267] Relations between Cuba and the U.S. were further strained following the explosion and sinking of a French vessel, the Le Coubre, in Havana harbor in March 1960. Carrying weapons purchased from Belgium, the cause of the explosion was never determined, but Castro publicly accused the U.S. government of sabotage.[268][269] Secretly, on 17 March 1960, President Eisenhower authorized the CIA to covertly overthrow Castro's government, permitting them to ally with the Mafia criminal organization in doing so; the Mafia despised Castro for closing down their casinos and other businesses in Cuba.[270][265] In October 1960, the U.S. government then prohibited most exports to Cuba, marking the start of an economic embargo that would devastate the island's economy for decades to come.[271]
In September 1960, Castro flew to New York City for the General Assembly of the United Nations. Taking offense at the attitude of the elite Shelburne Hotel, he and his entourage instead stayed at the cheap, run-down Hotel Theresa in the impoverished area of Harlem. Here, he met with a number of journalists as well as anti-establishment figures like the African-American leader Malcolm X. At the hotel he was also visited by the Soviet Premier, Nikita Khruschev, and the two leaders used the occasion as a press opportunity to highlight the poverty faced by many U.S. citizens in areas like Harlem; Castro would later describe New York as a "city of persecution" in reference to the treatment of working class and African-Americans by the establishment. Relations between Castro and Khrushchev were warm, with the two leading the applause to one another's speeches at the General Assembly. Although Castro still publicly denied being a Marxist or even a socialist, Khrushchev would privately inform his entourage that the Cuban would become "a beacon of Socialism in Latin America."[272][273] During the trip, Castro was also visited by two other senior world leaders, the socialists President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and President Jawaharlal Nehru of India.[274]
Returning to Cuba, Castro feared that the U.S. would attempt to overthrow his government, and so purchased tanks and other weaponry from the Soviets.[275] In September 1960, he created the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, a nationwide organization of civilian groups who implemented neighborhood spying in an effort to weed out "counter-revolutionary" activities and who could back up the regular army in the case of invasion. Eventually, 80% of the Cuban population would be involved in these Committees.[275] Health care was socialised.[276]
The Bay of Pigs Invasion: 1961[link]
By January 1961, the U.S. Embassy in Havana had 300 staff, of whom 80% were believed by Castro to be spies. He ordered the Embassy to reduce its size to match that of the Cuban Embassy in Washington D.C. The U.S. response was to cut off all diplomatic relations with Cuba, with the CIA increasing its support for militant dissidents in exile. Such dissident groups began attacking ships trading with Cuba, and organized raiding parties to destroy Cuban factories and sugar mills in an attempt to disrupt the island's economy.[277] Under the Eisenhower administration, the CIA had organized a plan to invade Cuba using exiled Cuban dissidents as soldiers, thereby avoiding an international condemnation that would have arisen if they used U.S. troops. Following the election of Democratic Party nominee John F. Kennedy as U.S. President in 1961, the CIA gained his support for continuing with the plan, which would result in the Bay of Pigs Invasion of April 1961. Brigade 2506, made up of around 1,400 Cuban dissidents, divided into five infantry and one paratrooper battalions, had assembled in Guatemala, a U.S. ally, before being transported to another pro-U.S. state, Nicaragua, from which they set off aboard seven ships toward Cuba on 13 April. On 15 April, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers took off from Nicaragua and bombed three Cuban military airfields, damaging runways and fighter planes, as well as killing 7 and injuring 52. The U.S. government immediately proclaimed that the bombers had belonged to Cuba's air force and had been commandeered by dissidents who wanted to defect to the U.S.; in retaliation, Castro publicly went on state television to denounce their claims, providing evidence to expose their misinformation.[278]
Castro feared that the bombing was a prelude to an invasion, putting the armed forces on maximum alert and ordering the arrest of anyone suspected of having counter-revolutionary sympathies. This constituted at least 20,000 people, who were detained in prisons, theaters and sport centres. At the funerals of the dead airmen on 16 April, he publicly proclaimed that "What the imperialists cannot forgive us, is that we have made a Socialist revolution under their noses." This was his first ever declaration that the Cuban revolutionary movement was socialist in character, and he proceeded to declare that his movement was "a revolution of the humble, with the humble, for the humble, democratic and Socialist."[279]
At night, the invasion fleet landed in Cuba largely undetected along the narrow inlet known as the Bay of Pigs. A local revolutionary militia opened fire on the invaders, but was forced back by heavy fire from the landing craft. Castro had not expected this to be their landing site, and as a result it was a poorly defended stretch of coast. He ordered Captain José Ramón Fernández to launch an immediate counter-offensive, and ordered the country's small air force to destroy the Brigade 2506's ships which contained weapons, food and medical supplies for the dissidents. Eventually taking direct command of the operation, Castro oversaw the counter-offensive, bringing in reinforcements and tanks to use against the rebel army. President Kennedy was unwilling to directly intervene with U.S. military support, and so on 20 April 1189 men of the Brigade 2506 surrendered to the Cuban army.[280]
"Havana gleefully noted the wealth of the captured invaders: 100 plantation owners, 67 landlords of apartment houses, 35 factory owners, 112 businessmen, 179 lived off unearned income, and 194 ex-soldiers of Batista."
Celebrating his victory, Castro ordered that the rebels be interrogated on live television by a panel of journalists. He himself took over the questioning on 25 April, walking in among them with a microphone and asking them why they had taken part in the invasion. 14 of them were then put on trial for crimes that they allegedly committed before the revolution, while all of the others were returned to the U.S. in exchange for medicine and food valued at around U.S. $25 million.[280] Castro's victory was a powerful symbol for his supporters, both at home and across Latin America, but also served to increase some internal opposition, particularly among the thousands of primarily middle-class Cubans who had been detained in the run-up to the invasion. Although most were freed within a few days, many decided to flee Castro's Cuba for Florida.[282]
Embracing Socialism: 1961–1962[link]
Following the Bay of Pigs Invasion, on May Day 1961, Castro officially declared the Cuban government to be socialist.[283] He founded a new political organization, the ORI, under which he united the MR-26-7, the Communists and the Revolutionary Directorate.[284] The Soviet government were hesitant over Cuba's open embrace of socialism, fearing U.S. retaliation, but relations between the two nations deepened, with Castro supporting the USSR during the Sino-Soviet Split and sending his son Fidelito to be schooled in Moscow.[284] In December 1961, Castro officially proclaimed himself to be a Marxist-Leninist, and in his subsequent Second Declaration of Havana called on the peoples of Latin America to rise up in violent revolution against their governments.[285] In response, the U.S.-dominated Organization of American States expelled Cuba, while the Soviet government privately reprimanded Castro for being reckless, believing that other Latin American governments would now crack down on communists, ultimately hindering the cause of socialism.[285]
Castro's government brought in measures to shape society using the Soviet model, persecuting both political opponents and perceived social deviants such as prostitutes and homosexuals. Castro expressed the opinion that homosexuality was a bourgeois decadence absent from working class rural areas, proclaiming that "in the country, there are no homosexuals".[286] Members of his government spoke out against the treatment of gay people, noting the support of homosexual intellectuals in the Cuban Revolution, and ultimately Castro agreed that while they would be prevented from involvement in education, they would not be punished.[287] Nevertheless, many homosexuals were rounded up by police and forced into a manual labor organization for criminals, the Military Units for the Support of Production (UMAP).[288] Decades later, Castro expressed deep regret for these actions, taking full responsibility and calling them "moments of great injustice, great injustice!".[289]
"The revolution has no time for elections. There is no more democratic government in Latin America than the revolutionary government. ... If Mr. Kennedy does not like Socialism, we do not like imperialism. We do not like capitalism"
Castro, 1961.[290]
By 1962, the Cuban economy was in steep decline, a result of poor economic management coupled with the interference and trade embargo of the U.S. government. There were major food shortages, and the government introduced rationing, with a riot breaking out in Cárdenas.[288] Security reports indicated that the Cuban people were increasingly associating the governing communists with austerity, shortages and persecution, and so in March 1962 Castro removed the most prominent "Old Communists" from office, labeling them too "sectarian".[291] On a personal level, Castro was feeling increasingly lonely and isolated in his position as Prime Minister, and relations with his old friend Che Guevara became strained as the latter became increasingly anti-Soviet, instead favoring the Chinese Marxist-Leninist government of Mao Zedong in the Sino-Soviet Split.[292]
The Cuban Missile Crisis: 1962[link]
Main article: Cuban Missile Crisis
Soviet Premier Khrushchev believed that the USSR was vulnerable to attack from the U.S. and its NATO allies, who were both militarily superior and who had nuclear weapons in Western Europe and Turkey, within striking distance of the USSR. He developed a plan to alter the balance of power by placing Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba, from where they could target the U.S.[293] Khrushchev approached Castro with this idea, and while the Cuban leader felt conflicted, he ultimately agreed, believing that it would guarantee Soviet protection of Cuba and enhance the power of the socialist camp.[294] In July 1962, Raúl Castro traveled to Moscow to work out the specifics.[295]
The operation was undertaken in strict secrecy, with only the Castro brothers, Guevara, President Dorticós and security chief Ramiro Valdés knowing the full picture.[295] It was agreed to deploy Soviet R-12 MRBMs on Cuban soil, all of which had the capacity to fire nuclear warheads at all of the U.S.' major cities. However, American Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance discovered the construction of the missile installations on October 15, 1962 before the weapons had actually been deployed. The U.S. government viewed the installation of Soviet nuclear weapons 90 miles (145 km) south of Key West as an aggressive act and a threat to U.S. security. As a result, the U.S. publicly announced its discovery on October 22, 1962, and implemented a quarantine around Cuba that would actively intercept and search any vessels heading for the island. Castro hit back at Kennedy, insisting that Cuba had a right to defend itself from foreign aggression.[296]
Castro privately urged Khrushchev to heighten tensions by threatening a nuclear strike on the U.S. should Cuba be attacked, but Khrushchev was desperate to avoid nuclear war.[297][298] Negotiations took place between Kennedy and Khrushchev, with Castro having no involvement. Ultimately, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. commitment not to invade Cuba and an understanding that the US would secretly remove American MRBMs targeting the Soviet Union from Turkey and Italy, a measure that the U.S. implemented a few months later.[299] After learning of the deal, Castro was furious, believing that Khrushchev had betrayed him and given in to U.S. demands.[300] Depressed, he lost his appetite and became ill.[301]
Furthering Socialism: 1963–1970[link]
In February 1963, Castro received a personal letter from Khrushchev, in which the Soviet Premier had emotionally set out his reasons for coming to an agreement with the U.S. government and in which he invited Castro to come and visit the USSR. Deeply touched by the letter, Castro set aside his resentment and traveled to the country in April, ultimately staying for five weeks. Visiting 14 cities, he gave speeches and met with locals, addressing a rally in Red Square and watching the May Day parade from the wall of the Kremlin. During his visit, he was also awarded the Order of Lenin, becoming the first foreigner to do so.[302] Despite the Soviet government's misgivings, Castro continued to call for armed revolution across the capitalist world, providing funding and support for various militant leftist groups. He supported Guevara's plan for the "Andean project", an unsuccessful plan to set up a guerrilla movement in the highlands of Bolivia, Peru and Argentina, and allowed revolutionary groups from across the world, from the Viet Cong of Vietnam to the Black Panthers of the US, to train in Cuba.[303] In particular, he thought that Sub-Saharan Africa, much of which was dominated by western powers, was rife for revolutionary change, and in 1965 authorized Guevara to travel to Congo Kinshasa in order to train militant revolutionaries.[304]
"The greatest threat presented by Castro's Cuba is as an example to other Latin American states which are beset by poverty, corruption, feudalism, and plutocratic exploitation ... his influence in Latin America might be overwhelming and irresistible if, with Soviet help, he could establish in Cuba a Communist utopia."
Domestically, Castro agreed to allow anyone wishing to leave Cuba – with the exception of males aged between 15 and 26 – to do so. This helped rid the government of many of its opponents, but thousands took up the government's offer, many more than Castro had wanted.[306] In October 1965, the government officially changed its name to the Cuban Communist Party, and published the membership of its Central Committee.[306] In 1966 he staged the first Tri-Continental Conference of Africa, Asia and Latin America in Havana, further establishing himself as a significant player on the world stage despite the small and dependent nature of Cuba's economy.[307] Castro himself suffered personal tragedy when his friend Guevara was killed by CIA-backed troops in Bolivia in October 1967, publicly attributing it to Che's disregard for his own safety in the revolutionary cause.[308]
In 1968, Castro proclaimed a Great Revolutionary Offensive in Cuba, influenced by the Great Leap Forward in China. As a part of this, any remaining privately-owned shops and businesses were shut down, with Castro denouncing their owners as capitalist counter-revolutionaries.[309] On August 23, 1968, Castro made a public gesture to the USSR that caused the Soviet leadership to reaffirm their support for him. Two days after the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia to repress the Prague Spring, Castro took to the airwaves and publicly denounced the Czech rebellion. Castro warned the Cuban people about the Czechoslovakian "counterrevolutionaries", who "were moving Czechoslovakia towards capitalism and into the arms of imperialists". He called the leaders of the rebellion "the agents of West Germany and fascist reactionary rabble."[310][311]
In January 1969, Castro publicly celebrated the tenth anniversary of his administration in Revolution Square, but used the occasion to ask the assembled crowds if they would tolerate greater sugar rations, reflecting the economic problems facing the country.[309] The majority of the country's sugar crop was being sent to the Soviet Union to maintain Cuba's trade quota, but the 1969 crop was heavily damaged by a hurricane. As a result, the government postponed the Christmas and New Year holidays of 1969/1970 so that the harvest could continue with detailed monthly targets being set for every mill, while the military were drafted in to aid in the agricultural effort.[312] Ultimately, the country failed to achieve that year's production quota for sugar. Castro publicly proclaimed it to be a worse set-back for the Revolution than the failed Moncada Barracks Attack, and offered to resign, but assembled crowds denounced the idea, cheering their support for Castro.[313] Despite the country's economic problems, Castro remained hugely popular in Cuba, whose population were largely supportive of the "Achievements of the Revolution" in education, medical care and road construction, as well as the government's policy of "direct democracy".[313]
Economic stagnation and Third World politics: 1970–1974[link]
In May 1970, Alpha 66, a militant Cuban dissident group based in Florida, sank two Cuban fishing boats and captured their crews, demanding the release of Alpha 66 members imprisoned in Cuba. Under U.S. government pressure, the hostages were released, with Castro welcoming them back as heroes.[313] In April 1971, Castro gained international condemnation after ordering the arrest of Herberto Padilla, a Cuban poet who had won an international prize but whose views were critical of the government. Padilla fell ill, with Castro visiting him in hospital; soon after, the poet publicly confessed his guilt and was released. Soon, the government formed the National Cultural Council through which it ensured that intellectuals and artists produced work that supported their administration.[314]
In 1971, Castro made his first foreign visit since 1964, this time to Chile, where the Marxist President Salvador Allende (1908–1973) had just been elected as the head of a left-wing coalition. Implementing socialist reforms by nationalizing industry, Allende gained Castro's support, and Castro spent 23 days touring the country, giving speeches and press conferences, talking to both admiring socialists and right wing opponents. He was however cautious of the Chilean military, which remained staunchly right wing and anti-socialist and advised Allende to purge such opponents from the armed forces before they led a coup. Castro was proven right. In 1973, the military, backed by the U.S. government, led a coup d'etat against Allende's government, banning elections and establishing a military junta led by Commander-in-Chief Augusto Pinochet. Castro considered it a tragedy, but was unsurprised.[315]
Following his trip to Chile, Castro traveled to West Africa to meet with Sékou Touré (1922–1984), the President of Guinea. A socialist and nationalist, Touré had much in common with Castro, and they forged an alliance; the Cuban even told a crowd of Guineans that theirs was the greatest leader in Africa.[316] From Guinea he went on a seven-week tour visiting various other leftist allies in Africa and Eurasia: Algeria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia and the then Soviet Union. On every trip he seemed eager to travel among the people by visiting factories and farms, and chatted and joked with those whom he met. Although publicly highly supportive of these governments, in private he urged them to do more to aid revolutionary socialist movements in other parts of the world, and in particular in Vietnam, where the Vietnam War was then raging between the Soviet-backed communists and U.S.-backed capitalists.[317] In September 1973 he returned to Algiers to attend the Fourth Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Various members of the NAM were critical of Castro's attendance, claiming that Cuba was aligned to the USSR and the Eastern Bloc and therefore should not be at the conference, particularly as he praised the Soviet Union in his speech and asserted that it was not imperialistic in nature.[318]
In 1974, Castro broke off relations with the Israeli government over both their treatment of Palestinian civilians during the Israel-Palestine conflict and their increasingly close relationship with the United States. This earned him respect from leaders throughout the Arab world. In particular he was praised by Muammar Gaddafi (1942–2011), the socialist president of the Libyan Arab Republic, with Castro and Gaddafi becoming friends and allies.[319] That year, Cuba also experienced an economic boost, due primarily to the high international price of sugar, but also influenced by new trade credits with Canada, Argentina, and various countries in Western Europe.[320] With such economic growth, the Cuban government decided to call the first National Congress of the Cuban Communist Party. It adopted a new constitution based upon the Soviet model, which abolished both the position of President and Prime Minister.[321]
Presidency[link]
Foreign wars and NAM Presidency: 1975–1979[link]
On November 4, 1975, Castro ordered the deployment of Cuban troops to Angola, southern Africa, to aid the Marxist MPLA-ruled government against the South African-backed UNITA opposition forces in the Angolan Civil War. Altogether, 15,000 Cuban troops had been stationed in the country by January 1976, and played a major part in defeating UNITA and the invading South African military.[322] Considering Africa to be "the weakest link in the imperialist chain", Castro celebrated the Angolan victory with Angolan President Agostinho Neto, Guinean President Sékou Touré and Guinea-Bissaun President Luís Cabral, together agreeing to support the government of Mozambique from the threat of white supremacist Rhodesia.[323] Heading north in February, Castro visited his allies in Algeria and then Libya, where he spent ten days in the company of friend and ally President Muammar Gadaffi. Moving on to talks with the Marxist government of South Yemen, he then traveled to Somalia, Tanzania, Mozambique and Angolan, being greeted by crowds as a hero for Cuba's role in opposing the apartheid government of South Africa.[324]
In 1977, the Ogaden War broke out between Somalia and Ethiopia as the government of the former, headed by pro-Soviet President Siad Barre, decided to annex the Ethiopian region of Ogaden to create Greater Somalia. In his earlier talks with Barre, Castro had advised him not to take such action, and as war broke out, Castro sided with the Ethiopians, whose Marxist President Mengistu Haile Mariam of the Workers' Party of Ethiopia appealed to fellow Marxist governments for help. Like the Soviet Union, Castro complied, sending troops under the command of General Arnaldo Ochoa to aid the overwhelmed Ethiopian army.[325] In addition, Castro extended support to Marxist revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, such as aiding the Sandinista National Liberation Front in overthrowing the government of right-wing president Anastasio Somoza Debayle in Nicaragua, leading to their victory in July 1979.[326] It has been claimed by the anti-Castro Carthage Foundation-funded Center for a Free Cuba that an estimated 14,000 Cubans were killed in Cuban military actions abroad.[327][328][329]
"There is often talk of human rights, but it is also necessary to talk of the rights of humanity. Why should some people walk barefoot, so that others can travel in luxurious cars? Why should some live for thirty-five years, so that others can live for seventy years? Why should some be miserably poor, so that others can be hugely rich? I speak on behalf of the children in the world who do not have a piece of bread. I speak on the behalf of the sick who have no medicine, of those whose rights to life and human dignity have been denied."
Castro's message at the UN General Assembly, 1979.[325]
In 1979, the Conference of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was held in Havana, while that year Castro was selected as the president of the NAM, a position that he would hold till 1982. In his capacity as both President of the NAM and of Cuba he appeared at the United Nations General Assembly in October 1979, giving a speech on the disparity between the world's rich and poor. His speech was greeted with much applause from other world leaders, although American anti-communist protesters demonstrated against him outside the building.[325] Relations between Cuba and other North American states improved, with the Mexican President Luis Echeverría reiterating ties between the two countries in the face of U.S. domination and the Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau even proclaiming "Viva Castro!".[330] Relations with the U.S. also improved following the election of Democratic Party candidate Jimmy Carter in 1977. Carter continued to criticize the human rights abuses of Castro's government, but took a more respectful approach which gained Castro's attention. Believing Carter to be well meaning and sincere, Castro freed certain political prisoners and allowed some Cuban exiles to visit relatives on the island, hoping that in turn Carter would abolish the U.S. economic embargo and halt the CIA's support for militant dissident groups.[331]
Reagan and Gorbachev: 1980–1989[link]
By the start of the 1980s, the Cuban economy was again in trouble, following a decline in the price of sugar on the open market and a decimated harvest following 1979's bad weather and plant infestations.[332] Increasing numbers of Cubans began hijacking boats and fleeing toward Florida, enticed by the wealth and consumer goods of the U.S., leading Castro to call them traitorous "scum".[333] In one incident, 10,000 Cubans eager to leave had stormed the Peruvian Embassy requesting asylum, embarrassing both the Peruvians and Cubans. The U.S. agreed that it would accept 3,500 Cubans, and so an angry Castro agreed that those who wanted to leave could do so from the port of Mariel. Hundreds of boats arrived from the U.S., leading to a mass exodus of 120,000; Castro's government took advantage of the situation by unloading criminals and the mentally ill onto the boats destined for Florida.[334]
In 1980, the Republican Party nominee Ronald Reagan was elected to the U.S. Presidency, pursuing a hard line approach against Castro,[335] and by 1981, Castro was accusing the U.S. of undertaking biological warfare against Cuba.[335] Although he despised the right wing military junta in Argentina, Castro supported them in the 1982 Falklands War against the British, whom he viewed as an imperialist aggressor, even offering military aid to the Argentinians, although British forces had won the war before this ever materialized.[336] Castro had also been supportive of the leftist New Jewel Movement that had seized power in Grenada in 1979, sending in doctors, teachers, and technicians to aid the country's development, and befriending the Grenadine Marxist president, Maurice Bishop. When Bishop was murdered by members of his own government in October 1983, Castro cautiously continued supporting the Grenadine government, which remained Marxist. However, the U.S. and six Caribbean nations opposed the coup as a basis for invading the island and overthrowing the government; those Cuban soldiers who fought alongside their Grenadian comrades were killed. Castro denounced the invasion and compared the U.S. to Nazi Germany, with condemnation also coming from the Soviet Union and the U.N. General Assembly.[337] Fearing a U.S. invasion of Nicaragua, Castro sent General Ochoa to help train the Sandinistas, particularly in the tactics of guerrilla warfare, but received little support from the Soviet Union.[338]
The Cuban government were desperate for money to boost the economy and fund its internationalist ambitions, in doing so turning to almost any economic transaction, however un-socialist. They began secretly selling off paintings from the national collections on the international market and illicitly traded to obtain U.S. electronic goods through Panama.[339] Castro became passionate in his denunciation of the Third World debt problem, arguing that the Third World would never escape the debt that the First World banks and governments had imposed upon it. In 1985 alone Havana hosted five international conferences on the world debt problem.[339]
In October 1985, Castro gave up regularly smoking Cuban cigars on medical advice, helping to set an example for the rest of the populace.[340]
Cuba's "Special Period": 1990–2000[link]
When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited Cuba in 1989, the camaraderie between Havana and Moscow was strained by Gorbachev's implementation of economic and political reforms in the USSR. "We are witnessing sad things in other socialist countries, very sad things", lamented Castro in November 1989, in reference to the changes that were sweeping such communist allies as the Soviet Union, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland.[341] The subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had an immediate and devastating effect on Cuba.
José María Aznar, former Spanish Prime Minister, wrote that the embargo was Castro's greatest ally, and that Castro would lose his presidency within three months if the embargo was lifted.[342] Castro retained control after Cuba became bankrupt and isolated following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The synergistic contraction of Cuban economy resulted in eighty-five percent of its markets disappearing, along with subsidies and trade agreements that had supported it, causing extended gas and water outages, severe power shortages, and dwindling food supplies.[343] In 1994, the island's economy plunged into what was called the "Special Period"; teetering on the brink of collapse. Cuba legalized the US dollar, turned to tourism, and encouraged the transfer of remittances in US dollars from Cubans living in the USA to their relatives on the Island. After massive damage caused by Hurricane Michelle in 2001, Castro proposed a one-time cash purchase of food from the U.S. while declining a U.S. offer of humanitarian aid.[344]
The U.S. authorized the shipment of food in 2001, the first since the embargo was imposed.[345] During 2004, Castro shut down 118 factories, including steel plants, sugar mills and paper processors to compensate for the crisis due to fuel shortages,[346] and in 2005 directed thousands of Cuban doctors to Venezuela in exchange for oil imports.[347]
Cuba and the Pink Tide: 2001–2008[link]
"As I have said before, the ever more sophisticated weapons piling up in the arsenals of the wealthiest and the mightiest can kill the illiterate, the ill, the poor and the hungry, but they cannot kill ignorance, illness, poverty or hunger."— Fidel Castro, 2002[348]
Cuba and Panama restored diplomatic ties in 2005 after breaking them off a year prior when Panama's former president pardoned four Cuban exiles accused of attempting to assassinate Cuban President Fidel Castro in 2000. The foreign minister of each country re-established official diplomatic relations in Havana by signing a document describing a spirit of fraternity that has long linked both nations.[349] Cuba, once shunned by many of its Latin American neighbors, now has full diplomatic relations with all but Costa Rica and El Salvador.[349]
Although the relationship between Cuba and Mexico remains strained, each side appears to make attempts to improve it. In 1998, Fidel Castro apologized for remarks he made about Mickey Mouse which led Mexico to recall its ambassador from Havana. He said he intended no offense when he said earlier that Mexican children would find it easier to name Disney characters than to recount key figures in Mexican history. Rather, he said, his words were meant to underscore the cultural dominance of the US.[350] Mexican president Vicente Fox apologized to Fidel Castro in 2002 over statements by Castro, who had taped their telephone conversation, to the effect that Fox forced him to leave a United Nations summit in Mexico so that he would not be in the presence of President Bush, who also attended.[351]
At a summit meeting of sixteen Caribbean countries in 1998, Castro called for regional unity, saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy.[352] Caribbean nations have embraced Cuba's Fidel Castro while accusing the US of breaking trade promises. Castro, until recently a regional outcast, has been increasing grants and scholarships to the Caribbean countries, while US aid has dropped 25% over the past five years.[353] Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Suriname, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. This development makes Cuba the only country to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community.[354]
Castro was known to be a friend of former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and was an honorary pall bearer at Trudeau's funeral in October 2000. They had continued their friendship after Trudeau left office until his death. Canada became one of the first American allies openly to trade with Cuba. Cuba still has a good relationship with Canada. In 1998, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien arrived in Cuba to meet President Castro and highlight their close ties. He is the first Canadian government leader to visit the island since Pierre Trudeau was in Havana in 1976.[355]
The European Union accuses the Castro regime of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms".[356] In December 2001, European Union representatives described their political dialogue with Cuba as back on track after a weekend of talks in Havana. The EU praised Cuba's willingness to discuss questions of human rights. Cuba is the only Latin American country without an economic co-operation agreement with the EU. However, trade with individual European countries remains strong since the US trade embargo on Cuba leaves the market free from American rivals.[357]
In 2005, EU Development Commissioner Louis Michel ended his visit to Cuba optimistic that relations with the communist state will become stronger. The EU is Cuba's largest trading partner. Cuba's imprisonment of 75 dissidents and the execution of three hijackers have strained diplomatic relations. However, the EU commissioner was impressed with Fidel Castro's willingness to discuss these concerns, although he received no commitments from Castro. Cuba does not admit to holding political prisoners, seeing them rather as mercenaries in the pay of the United States.[358]
Castro is seen as an icon by leaders of recent socialist governments in Latin America. Hugo Chávez of Venezuela is a long-time admirer and reached agreements with Cuba to provide subsidized petroleum in exchange for Cuban medical assistance. Evo Morales of Bolivia has described him as "the grandfather of all Latin American revolutionaries".[359]
Speculation on illness: 1998–2005[link]
Due to the issue of presidential succession and Castro's longevity, there have long been rumors, speculation and hoaxing about Castro's health and demise. In 1998 there were reports that he had a serious brain disease, later discredited.[360] In June 2001, he apparently fainted during a seven-hour speech under the Caribbean sun.[361] Later that day he finished the speech, walking buoyantly into the television studios in his military fatigues, joking with journalists.[362]
In January 2004, Luis Eduardo Garzón, the mayor of Bogotá, said that Castro "seemed very sick to me" following a meeting with him during a vacation in Cuba.[363] In May 2004, Castro's physician denied that his health was failing, and speculated that he would live to be 140 years old. Dr. Eugenio Selman Housein said that the "press is always speculating about something, that he had a heart attack once, that he had cancer, some neurological problem", but maintained that Castro was in good health.[364]
On October 20, 2004, Castro tripped and fell following a speech he gave at a rally, breaking his kneecap and fracturing his right arm.[365] He was able to recover his ability to walk and publicly demonstrated this two months later.[366]
In 2005, the CIA said it thought Castro had Parkinson's disease.[367][368] Castro denied such allegations, while also citing the example of Pope John Paul II in saying that he would not fear the disease.[369]
Transfer of duties, speculation on illness 2006–2007[link]
On July 31, 2006, Castro delegated his duties as President of the Council of state, President of the Council of Ministers, First Secretary of the Cuban Communist Party and the post of commander in chief of the armed forces to his brother Raúl Castro. This transfer of duties was described at the time as temporary while Fidel recovered from surgery he underwent due to an "acute intestinal crisis with sustained bleeding".[370] Fidel Castro was too ill to attend the nationwide commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Granma boat landing on December 2, 2006, which also became his belated 80th birthday celebrations. Castro's non-appearance fueled reports that he had terminal pancreatic cancer and was refusing treatment,[371] but on December 17, 2006 Cuban officials stated that Castro had no terminal illness and would eventually return to his public duties.[372]
However, on December 24, 2006, Spanish newspaper El Periódico de Catalunya reported that Spanish surgeon José Luis García Sabrido had been flown to Cuba on a plane chartered by the Cuban government. Dr. García Sabrido is an intestinal expert who further specializes in the treatment of cancer. The plane that Dr. García Sabrido traveled in also was reported to be carrying a large quantity of advanced medical equipment.[373][374] On December 26, 2006, shortly after returning to Madrid, Dr. García Sabrido held a news conference in which he answered questions about Castro's health. He stated that "He does not have cancer, he has a problem with his digestive system", and added, "His condition is stable. He is recovering from a very serious operation. It is not planned that he will undergo another operation for the moment."[375] Although most Cubans acknowledge that they are aware Castro is seriously ill, most also seem worried about a future without Castro.[376]
On January 16, 2007, the Spanish newspaper, El País, citing two unnamed sources from the Gregorio Marañón hospital —who employs Dr. García Sabrido— in Madrid, reported Castro was in "very grave" condition, having trouble wound healing, after three failed operations and complications from an intestinal infection caused by a severe case of diverticulitis. However, Dr. García Sabrido told CNN that he was not the source of the report and that "any statement that doesn't come directly from [Castro's] medical team is without foundation."[377] Also, a Cuban diplomat in Madrid said the reports were lies and declined to comment, while White House press secretary Tony Snow said the report appeared to be "just sort of a roundup of previous health reports. We've got nothing new."[378][379][380] On January 30, 2007, Cuban television and the paper Juventud Rebelde showed fresh video and photos from a meeting between Castro and Hugo Chávez said to have taken place the previous day.[381][382]
In mid-February 2007, it was reported by the Associated Press that Acting President Raúl Castro had said that Fidel Castro's health was improving and he was taking part in all important issues facing the government. "He's consulted on the most important questions", Raúl Castro said of Fidel. "He doesn't interfere, but he knows about everything."[383] On February 27, 2007, Reuters reported that Fidel Castro had called into Aló Presidente, a live radio talk show hosted by Hugo Chávez, and chatted with him for thirty minutes during which time he sounded "much healthier and more lucid" than he had on any of the audio and video tapes released since his surgery in July. Castro reportedly told Chávez, "I am gaining ground. I feel I have more energy, more strength, more time to study", adding with a chuckle, "I have become a student again." Later in the conversation, he made reference to the fall of the world stock markets that had occurred earlier in the day and remarked that it was proof of his contention that the world capitalist system is in crisis.[384][385]
Reports of improvements in his condition continued to circulate throughout March and early April. On April 13, 2007, Chávez was quoted by the Associated Press as saying that Castro has "almost totally recovered" from his illness. That same day, Cuban Foreign Minister Felipe Roque confirmed during a press conference in Vietnam that Castro had improved steadily and had resumed some of his leadership responsibilities.[386] On April 21, 2007, the official newspaper Granma reported that Castro had met for over an hour with Wu Guanzheng, a member of the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party who was visiting Havana. Photographs of their meeting showed the Cuban president looking healthier than he had in any previously released since his surgery.[387]
As a comment on Castro's recovery, U.S. President George W. Bush said: "One day the good Lord will take Fidel Castro away", Hearing about this, Castro, who is thought to be atheist, ironically replied: "Now I understand why I survived Bush's plans and the plans of other presidents who ordered my assassination: the good Lord protected me."[388]
In January 2009 Castro asked Cubans not to worry about his lack of recent news columns, his failing health, and not to be disturbed by his future death.[389] At the same time pictures were released of Castro's meeting with the Argentine president Cristina Fernández on January 21, 2009.[390]
Later years and retirement: 2008-present[link]
"I'm really happy to reach 80. I never expected it, not least having a neighbor – the greatest power in the world – trying to kill me every day."— Fidel Castro, July 21, 2006[391]
In a letter dated February 18, 2008, Castro announced that he would not accept the positions of president and commander in chief at the February 24, 2008 National Assembly meetings, saying "I will not aspire to nor accept—I repeat I will not aspire to or accept—the post of President of the Council of State and Commander in Chief,"[392] effectively announcing his retirement from official public life.[393][394][395] The letter was published online by the official Communist Party newspaper Granma. In it, Castro stated that his health was a primary reason for his decision, stating that "It would betray my conscience to take up a responsibility that requires mobility and total devotion, that I am not in a physical condition to offer".[396]
On February 24, 2008, the National Assembly of People's Power unanimously chose his brother, Raúl Castro, as Fidel's successor as President of Cuba.[397] In his first speech as Fidel's successor, he proposed to the National Assembly of People's Power that Fidel continue to be consulted on matters of great importance, such as defense, foreign policy and "the socioeconomic development of the country". The proposal was immediately and unanimously approved by the 597 members of the National Assembly. Raúl described his brother as "not substitutable".[398] Castro had already given up the post of First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba on July 31, 2006.[399][400]
Since his retirement, Castro has written a regular column in Granma called "Reflections", in which he writes on world affairs, and has occasionally made pre-taped appearances on television greeting visitors such as Hugo Chávez in his room. In July 2010, he made his first public appearance greeting workers at a science center and gave his most prominent television interview since falling ill, on the Cuban program Mesa Redonda speaking for an extended period about tensions between the United States, Iran and North Korea.[401]
On August 7, 2010, Castro gave his first speech to the Cuban National Assembly in four years. He addressed the body for ten minutes on international affairs and then remained to listen and respond to questions for a further 70 minutes. In his comments he urged the United States not to go to war with Iran or North Korea and warning about the dangers of a nuclear holocaust. When asked whether Castro may be re-entering government, Culture minister Abel Prieto told the BBC, "I think that he has always been in Cuba's political life but he is not in the government...He has been very careful about that. His big battle is international affairs."[402][403][404][405]
On April 19, 2011, Castro resigned from the Communist Party central committee,[406] thus stepping down as leader of the party. Raúl Castro was selected as his successor.[407]
Politics[link]
Main article: Politics of Fidel Castro
Castro has proclaimed himself to be "a Socialist, a Marxist, and a Leninist".[408] As a socialist, Castro believes strongly in converting Cuba, and the wider world, from a capitalist system in which business and industry is owned by private individuals and organizations, into a socialist system in which all business and industry are owned by the state on behalf of the populace. In the former, there is a class divide between the wealthy classes who control the means of production (i.e. the factories, farms, media etc) and the poorer working classes who labor on them, whilst in the latter, socialists argue, this class divide would be obliterated as society becomes more egalitarian.
Marxism is the sociopolitical theory developed by German sociologists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the mid-19th century. It holds as its foundation the idea of class struggle; that society mainly changes and progresses as one socioeconomic class takes power from another. Thus Marxists believe that capitalism replaced feudalism in the Early Modern period as the wealthy industrial class, or bourgeoisie, took political and economic power from the traditional land-owning class, the aristocracy and monarchy. In the same process, Marxists predict that socialism will replace capitalism as the industrial working class, or proletariat, seize power from the bourgeoisie through revolutionary action. In this way, Marxism is believed by its supporters to provide a scientific explanation for why socialism should, and will, replace capitalism in human society.
"What talent and abilities! What thought, what resolve, what moral strength! He formulated a doctrine, he propounded a philosophy of independence and an exceptional humanistic philosophy."
—Fidel Castro on Martí, 2009.[409]
Leninism refers to the theories put forward by Russian revolutionary, political theorist and politician Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik Party who was a leading figure in the October Revolution that overthrew the Russian capitalist government and replaced it with a socialist alternative in 1917. Taking Marxism as its basis, Leninism revolves around putting forward ideas for how to convert a capitalist state into a socialist one. Castro used Leninist thought as a model upon which to convert the Cuban state and society into a socialist form.
Castro has described two historical figures as being particular influences on his political viewpoints; the Cuban anti-imperialist revolutionary José Martí (1853–1895) and the German sociologist and theorist Karl Marx (1818–1883).[410] Castro has taken a relatively socially conservative stance on many issues, opposing alcohol, drugs, gambling and prostitution, which he viewed as moral evils. Instead he has advocated hard work, family values, integrity and self-discipline.[411]
Personal and public life[link]
In his biography of the Cuban leader, entitled The Real Fidel Castro (2003), the Briton Leycester Coltman described the Cuban as being "fiercely hard-working, dedicated[,] loyal... generous and magnanimous" but also noted that he could be "vindictive and unforgiving" at times. He went on to note that Castro "always had a keen sense of humor and could laugh at himself" but could equally be "a bad loser" who would act with "ferocious rage if he thought that he was being humiliated."[412] Similarly, another of Castro's biographers, Peter Bourne, noted that Castro "suffers fools poorly" and that in his younger years he was "intolerant" of those who did not share his views for Cuba's future.[413] In her book, Red Heat: Conspiracy, Murder and the Cold War in the Caribbean (2011), the British historian Alex Von Tunzelmann commented that "though ruthless, [Castro] was a patriot, a man with a profound sense that it was his mission to save the Cuban people", contrasting him strongly to his Haitian contemporary François Duvalier.[414]
Castro was known for his busy working hours, often only going to bed at 3 am or 4 am in the morning.[415] He described Ernest Hemingway as his favorite writer,[416] and enjoyed reading but was uninterested in music, and also spent much of his time trying to keep fit, undertaking regular exercise.[340] He took a great interest in gastronomy, as well as wine and whisky, and as Cuban leader was known to wander into his kitchen to discuss ingredients and cookery with his chefs.[340]
Fidel Castro's religious beliefs have been a matter of some debate. Castro was baptized and raised a Roman Catholic as a child but did not practice as one. He has publicly stated that "I have never been a believer", and has total conviction that there is only one life.[417] Pope John XXIII excommunicated Castro in 1962 after Castro suppressed Catholic institutions in Cuba.[418] Castro has publicly criticized what he sees as elements of the Bible that have been used to justify the oppression of both women and people of African descent throughout history.[419] In his 2009 spoken autobiography, Castro said that Christianity exhibited "a group of very humane precepts" which gave the world "ethical values" and a "sense of social justice", before relating that "If people call me Christian, not from the standpoint of religion but from the standpoint of social vision, I declare that I am a Christian."[420]
Family and friends[link]
By his first wife Mirta Díaz-Balart, whom he married on October 11, 1948, Castro has a son named Fidel Ángel "Fidelito" Castro Díaz-Balart, born on September 1, 1949. Díaz-Balart and Castro were divorced in 1955, and she remarried Emilio Núñez Blanco. After a spell in Madrid, Díaz-Balart reportedly returned to Havana to live with Fidelito and his family.[421] Fidelito grew up in Cuba; for a time, he ran Cuba's atomic-energy commission before being removed from the post by his father.[422] Díaz-Balart's nephews are Republican U.S. Congressmen Lincoln Diaz-Balart and Mario Diaz-Balart, vocal critics of the Castro government.[citation needed]
Fidel has five other sons by his second wife, Dalia Soto del Valle: Antonio, Alejandro, Alexis, Alexander "Alex" and Ángel Castro Soto del Valle.[422] While Fidel was married to Mirta, he had an affair with Natalia "Naty" Revuelta Clews, born in Havana in 1925 and married to Orlando Fernández, resulting in a daughter named Alina Fernández-Revuelta.[422] Alina left Cuba in 1993, disguised as a Spanish tourist,[423] and sought asylum in the United States. She has been a vocal critic of her father's policies.[citation needed] Alina was assisted by Elena Diaz-Vernon Amos, wife of AFLAC founder John Amos. Alina lived with Elena in Columbus, Georgia, for several years. By an unnamed woman he had another son, Jorge Ángel Castro. Fidel has another daughter, Francisca Pupo (born 1953) the result of a one night affair. Pupo and her husband now live in Miami.[424][425]
His sister Juanita Castro has been living in the United States since the early 1960s. When she went into exile, she said "I cannot longer remain indifferent to what is happening in my country. My brothers Fidel and Raúl have made it an enormous prison surrounded by water. The people are nailed to a cross of torment imposed by international Communism."[426]
While in power, Castro's two closest male friends were the former Mayor of Havana Pepin Naranjo and his own personal physician, René Vallejo. [427] From 1980 until his death in 1995, Naranjo headed Castro's team of advisors[428] He also had a deep friendship with fellow revolutionary Celia Sanchez, who accompanied him almost everywhere during the 1960s, and controlled almost all access to the leader.[429]
Public image[link]
By wearing military-style uniforms and leading mass demonstrations, Castro projected an image of a perpetual revolutionary. He was mostly seen in military attire, but his personal tailor, Merel Van 't Wout, convinced him to occasionally change to a business suit.[430] Within Cuba, Castro is often nicknamed "El Caballo", meaning "The Horse", a label that was first attributed to Cuban entertainer Benny Moré, who on hearing Castro passing in the Havana night with his entourage, shouted out "Here comes the horse!" The name itself is an allusion to Castro's well known womanizing during the 1950s and early 1960s.[415][431] During this period, Castro himself was widely recognized as a sex symbol within Cuba, and a minor sensation was caused when footage was publicly broadcast showing that he had skinny legs.[427]
Large throngs of people gathered to cheer at Castro's fiery speeches, which typically lasted for hours. Many details of Castro's private life, particularly involving his family members, are scarce as the media is forbidden to mention them.[432] Castro's image appears frequently in Cuban stores, classrooms, taxicabs, and national television.[433] Despite this, Castro has stated that he does not promote a cult of personality.[434]
In the United States, Castro achieved a very different public image from that in Cuba. After his leftward turn, the U.S. media began considering Castro to be "a dangerous eccentric" who posed a threat to the U.S. with his "radical, subversive thinking."[435]
Recognition and legacy[link]
"What will be his legacy? ... The answers to those questions are mixed. Castro first and foremost is and always has been a committed egalitarian. He despises any system in which one class or group of people lives much better than another. He wanted a system that provided the basic needs to all—enough to eat, health care, adequate housing and education. The authoritarian nature of the Cuban Revolution stems largely from his commitment to that goal. Castro was convinced that he was right, and that his system was for the good of the people. Thus, anyone who stood against the revolution stood also against the Cuban people and that, in Castro’s eyes, was simply unacceptable. There is, then, very little in the way of individual freedoms – especially freedom of expression and assembly. And there are political prisoners ... (However) before 1959, Cuba was considered as something of a banana republic. It played virtually no role in the international arena. But under Castro, it has played a prominent role, indeed at times a role that often resembled that of a world power. Wherever Castro has gone in the hemisphere over the past few years, he has been received with warm applause. Why? Because he stood up to the United States, has defied Washington and gone his own way. That is something virtually all Latin Americans respect and admire."
Various leftist governments across the world have granted Castro awards for his work in promoting socialism and providing international humanitarian aid. The Juche government of North Korea for instance awarded him "the Golden Medal (Hammer and Sickle) and the First Class Order of the National Flag",[437] whilst Muammar Gaddafi's Arab socialist government of Libya bestowed upon him a "Libyan human rights award".[438] On a visit to South Africa in 1998 he was warmly received by President Nelson Mandela.[439] President Mandela gave Castro South Africa's highest civilian award for foreigners, the Order of Good Hope.[440]
In Harlem, Castro is seen as an icon because of his historic visit with Malcolm X in 1960 at the Hotel Theresa.[441]
After the fall of apartheid and the independence of Namibia, the country's capital, the city of Windhoek, renamed many streets, including one that now bears the name of Fidel Castro Street.[442][443]
Honors and awards[link]
- Hero of the Soviet Union[444]
- Order of Lenin, three times; (Soviet Union) 1963, "for their successful struggle for freedom and independence of heroic Cuban people, who has made a worthy contribution to the great cause of peace and socialism and his great role in strengthening and development of the fraternal Soviet-Cuban";[445] 1972;[446] 1986 "for his contribution to the promotion of fraternal relations between the USSR and Cuba".[447]
- Lenin Peace Prize for Strengthening International Peace Among Peoples (Soviet Union, 1961)
- Jubilee Medal "Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945" (Soviet Union, 1975)[448]
- Order of the October Revolution (Soviet Union, 1976)[449]
- Star of the Republic of Indonesia, Fourth Class
- Guerrilla Star (Indonesia, 1960)
- Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic, First Class (1972; "for special merits in the revolutionary struggle for national liberation and social development of Cuba, for the defense of national independence and sovereignty of the motherland socialism against imperialism, for the special contribution made to the expansion of multilateral relations of cooperation, international friendship and solidarity between the Communist Party of Cuba and the Romanian Communist Party, between the Republic of Cuba and the Socialist Republic of Romania, between Cuba and the Romanian people".[450]
- Order of the White Lion, First Class (Czechoslovakia, 1972)[451]
- Order of Georgi Dimitrov (Bulgaria, 1972)[452]
- Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta (1973)[453]
- Order of Courage (Libya) (1977)
- Somali Order, First Class (1977)[454]
- Order of Jamaica (1977)[455]
- Order of Merit of Jamaica[456]
- Great Order of the Star Honor of Socialist Ethiopia (1978), for Cuban aid to victory in the Ogaden War[457]
- Jorge Dimitrov Prize for Peace (Bulgaria, 1980)[458]
- Order of the Gold Star (Vietnam, 1982)
- Hero of the People's Republic of Korea[459]
- Order of National Flag, First Class (North Korea, 1986)[459]
- Order of Karl Marx (German Democratic Republic)[460]
- Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle (Mexico, 1987)
- Gold Medal of the Senate of Spain (1988)
- Order of Klement Gottwald (Czechoslovakia, 1989) "for outstanding personal merits for the expansion of fraternal and friendly partnership and cooperation between Cuban and Czechoslovak Communist parties, the two countries and their peoples".[461]
- Order Agostinho Neto (Angola, 1992)[462]
- Order of Merit of Duarte, Sanchez and Mella, Grand Cross Gold Plate (Dominican Republic, 1998)[463]
- Order of Good Hope, First Degree (South Africa, 1998)[464]
- Grand Cross of the Order Mali National (July 1998)[465]
- Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (Ukraine, 2000), for medical assistance to victims of the Chernobyl disaster[466]
- Independence Medal of Qatar (15 September 2000)[467]
- Order of the Republic of Yemen (2000)[468]
- Grand Collar of the Order of the Liberator (Venezuela, October 2000)[469]
- Grand Collar of the Order Agostura Congress (Venezuela, 2001)[470]
- Honorary Medal of the Algerian Liberation Army (May 6, 2001)[471]
- Order of the Crown of the Realm (Malaysia, 11/05/2001)[472]
- Medal of the City of Buenos Aires (2003)[473]
- Hero of Working (North Korea, 2006)[474]
- Order of National Flag First Class (North Korea, 2006) to "promote the reunification of the Korean peninsula and build socialism"[474]
- Amilcar Cabral Medal (Guinea Bissau, 2007) for "having contributed to the establishment and strengthening of Guinea Bissau"[475]
- Sports Merit Medal (Ministry of Sports of Ecuador, 2007)[476]
- Order of the Ancient Welwitschia Mirabilis (Namibia, March 2008) "for his support of African liberation struggles"[477]
- Ubuntu Award (National Heritage Council of South Africa, 2008) "a life dedicated to solidarity and ethics, highlighting the importance of human values and dedication to humanity"[478]
- Medal of Honor of Dominica (November 2008) for "the support provided by Cuba and its leader since independence in Dominica"[479]
- Great Extraordinary Cross of Order of Omar Torrijos Herrera (Panama, January 2009)[480]
- Grand Collar of the Order of the Quetzal (February 2009) "in appreciation for the more than 17 million consultations and more than 40,000 operations of the Operation Miracle Eye, made by Cuban doctors for the benefit of the Guatemalan people"[481]
- Order of Oliver Reginald Tambo, Fellow in Grade Gold South Africa "for his contribution to the eradication of racism, colonialism, apartheid and inequality in human society"[482]
- Order of Honour and Glory (Russian Orthodox Church, October 19, 2008) - for his contribution to strengthening inter-religious cooperation in connection with the consecration of the church of Our Lady of Kazan in Havana
- Order of the Eagle of Zambia, First Degree (Zambia, September 2009) "for having inspired many to fight for dignity and equality"[483]
- Order of Merit, first grade (Ukraine, March 2010) "for his important contribution to restoring the health of the children of Chernobyl, after an accident in 1986 in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic"[484]
- General Eloy Alfaro Award (Ecuador, May 2010) for its "exceptional merit and dignity"[485]
- East Timor Order, Great Collar (November 2010) "for Cuban support in health and education"[486]
Controversy and criticism[link]
Main articles: Human rights in Cuba and Censorship in Cuba
Description as a dictator[link]
Many observers refer to Castro as a "dictator",[487][488][489][490][491][492] and his rule was the longest to-date in modern Latin American history.[489][490][491][492]
Castro publicly refuted allegations that he was a dictator and repeatedly told foreign journalists that under his government, Cuba was more democratic than the liberal democracies in the West, with greater consultation of the populace. He repeatedly emphasized that constitutionally, he held less political power than most heads of state, including that of the U.S. president, although critics nonetheless argued that he held an enormous amount of unofficial influence over the country.[493]
Allegations of human rights abuses[link]
The Human Rights Watch organization has suggested that Castro constructed a "repressive machinery" which "continues to deprive Cubans of their basic rights".[494]
Castro has publicly defended his government from such accusations, using the "standard Marxist answers" to such criticisms; that the state must limit the freedoms of individuals in order to protect the rights of the collective populace, such as the right to employment, education and health care.[495]
Allegations of corruption[link]
In their book, Corruption in Cuba, Sergio Diaz-Briquets and Jorge F. Pérez-López Servando state that Castro "institutionalized" corruption and that "Castro's state-run monopolies, cronyism, and lack of accountability have made Cuba one of the world's most corrupt states".[496] Servando Gonzalez, in The Secret Fidel Castro, calls Castro a "corrupt tyrant".[497]
In 1959, according to Gonzalez, Castro established "Fidel's checking account", from which he could draw funds as he pleased. The "Comandante's reserves" were created in 1970, from which Castro allegedly "provided gifts to many of his cronies, both home and abroad". Gonzalez asserts that Comandante's reserves have been linked to counterfeiting business empires and money laundering.[497]
As early as 1968, a once-close friend of Castro's wrote that Castro had huge accounts in Swiss banks. Castro's secretary was allegedly seen using Zürich banks. Gonzalez wrote that Cuba's paucity of trade with Switzerland contrasts oddly with the National Office of Cuba's relatively large office in Zurich.[497] Castro has denied having a bank account abroad with even a dollar in it.[498]
Allegations of wealth[link]
A KGB officer, Alexei Novikov, stated that Castro's personal life, like the lives of the rest of the Communist elite, is "shrouded under an impenetrable veil of secrecy". Among other things, he asserted that Castro has a personal guard of more than 9,700 men and three luxurious yachts.[497]
In 2005, American business and financial magazine Forbes listed Castro among the world's richest people, with an estimated net worth of US$550 million. The estimates, which the magazine admitted were "more art than science",[499] claimed that the Cuban leader's personal wealth was nearly double that of Britain's Queen Elizabeth II, despite anecdotal evidence from diplomats and businessmen that the Cuban leader's personal life was notably austere.[498] This assessment was drawn by making economic estimates of the net worth of Cuba's state-owned companies, and used the assumption that Castro had personal economic control.[500] Forbes later increased the estimates to US$900 million, adding rumors of large cash stashes in Switzerland.[498] The magazine offered no proof of this information,[499] and according to CBS News, Castro's entry on the rich list was notably brief compared to the amount of information provided on other figures.[499] Castro, who had considered suing the magazine, responded that the claims were "lies and slander", and that they were part of a US campaign to discredit him.[498] He declared: "If they can prove that I have a bank account abroad, with US$900m, with US$1m, US$500,000, US$100,000 or US$1 in it, I will resign."[498] President of Cuba's Central Bank, Francisco Soberón, called the claims a "grotesque slander", asserting that money made from various state owned companies is pumped back into the island's economy, "in sectors including health, education, science, internal security, national defense and solidarity projects with other countries."[500]
Authored works[link]
Fully or partially by Fidel Castro
- Capitalism in Crisis: Globalization and World Politics Today, Ocean Press, 2000, ISBN 1-876175-18-4
- Che: A Memoir, Ocean Press, 2005, ISBN 1-920888-25-X
- Cuba at the Crossroads, Ocean Press, 1997, ISBN 1-875284-94-X
- Fidel Castro: My Life: A Spoken Autobiography, Scribner, 2008, ISBN 1-4165-5328-2
- Fidel Castro Reader, Ocean Press, 2007, ISBN 1-920888-88-8
- Fidel My Early Years, Ocean Press, 2004, ISBN 1-920888-09-8
- Fidel & Religion: Conversations with Frei Betto on Marxism & Liberation Theology, Ocean Press, 2006, ISBN 1-920888-45-4
- How Far We Slaves Have Come! South Africa and Cuba in Today's World, by Nelson Mandela & Fidel Castro, Pathfinder Press, 1991, ISBN 0-87348-729-X
- Playa Giron: Bay of Pigs: Washington's First Military Defeat in the Americas, Pathfinder Press, 2001, ISBN 0-87348-925-X
- Political Portraits: Fidel Castro reflects on famous figures in history, Ocean Press, 2008, ISBN 1-920888-94-2
- The Declarations of Havana, Verso, 2008, ISBN 1-84467-156-9
- The Prison Letters of Fidel Castro, Nation Books, 2007, ISBN 1-56025-983-3
- The Strategic Victory: The War Against Batista in the Sierra Maestra [La contraofensiva estratégica: De la Sierra Maestra a Santiago de Cuba], Ocean Press, 2012 [2011], ISBN 0-9870779-0-2
- Time Warrior [Guerrillero del Tiempo], by Fidel Castro Ruz and Katiuska Blanco, Abril, 2012
- War, Racism and Economic Justice: The Global Ravages of Capitalism, Ocean Press, 2002, ISBN 1-876175-47-8
See also[link]
References[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ Bardach, Ann Louise. "LOVE, FIDEL Letters From Prison: Castro Revealed." The Washington Post. February 23, 2007. Retrieved on October 15, 2011.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 08.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 01–02.
- ^ a b Bourne 1986. pp. 14–15.
- ^ a b Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 24–29.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b c Coltman 2003. p. 03.
- ^ a b Bourne 1986. p. 16.
- ^ "Ancestry of Fidel Castro". wargs.com. http://www.wargs.com/other/castro.html. Retrieved December 25, 2010.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 16–17.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 31–32.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 14.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 23–24.
- ^ a b Raffy, Serge. 2004 Castro el Desleal. Santillana Ediciones Generales, S.L. Madrid. ISBN 84-03-09508-2
- ^ a b Fuentes, Norberto 2005 La Autobiografia de Fidel Castro. Destino Ediciones. ISBN 970-749-001-2
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 04–05.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 42–43.
- ^ a b Coltman 2003. pp. 05–06.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 45–48, 52–57.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 59–60.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 29–30.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 06–07.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 64–67.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 08–09.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 09.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 68.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 16.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 91–92.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 31.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 16–17.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 9–10.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 91–93.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 18.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 34–35.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 18–19.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 32–33.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 20.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 21–24.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 34–37, 63.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 23–27.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 39–40.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 83–85.
- ^ Benjamin 1992. p. 131.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 27–28.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 95–97.
- ^ a b Von Tunzelmann 2011. p. 39.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 23–24, 37–38, 46.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 35–36, 54.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 30.
- ^ Von Tunzelmann 2011. pp. 30–33.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 31.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 40–41.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 32–34.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 41–42.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 98.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 34–35.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 42.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 36–37.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 36.
- ^ Von Tunzelmann 2011. p. 40.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 98–99.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 40–45.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 46–52.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 46–49.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 54, 56.
- ^ Von Tunzelmann 2011. p. 41.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 47–48.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 55.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 46.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 54–55.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 49.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 100.
- ^ a b Coltman 2003. p. 50.
- ^ a b Bourne 1986. p. 57.
- ^ a b c Coltman 2003. p. 51.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 39.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 89.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 51–52.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 57–58.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 52–53.
- ^ a b Coltman 2003. p. 53.
- ^ a b c Von Tunzelmann 2011. p. 44.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 85–87.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 46, 53–55.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 58–59.
- ^ a b Coltman 2003. pp. 55–56.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 56–57, 62–63.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 57.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 57–62.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 64–65.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 64.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 63.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 79.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 65.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 68–69.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 66.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 69.
- ^ a b Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 107.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 66–67.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 73.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 72.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 71–72.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 104–106.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 69–70, 73.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 74.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 71, 74.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 76.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 75–76.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 78.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 80–81.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 80–84.
- ^ a b Coltman 2003. p. 82.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 83.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 83.
- ^ Castro and Ramonet 2009. pp. 133–134.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 84.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 87–88.
- ^ Tabío, Pedro Álvarez (1975). "History Will Absolve Me". Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, La Habana, Cuba. http://www.marxists.org/history/cuba/archive/castro/1953/10/16.htm. Retrieved May 11, 2006.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 86.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 86.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 87.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 91.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 88.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 91–92.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 88–89.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 90.
- ^ a b Bourne 1986. p. 93.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 91–92.
- ^ Castro, quoted in Von Tunzelmann 2011 pp. 12–13.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 97.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 93.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 94–95.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 93–94.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 95–96.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 94–95.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 98–100.
- ^ Coltman 2003. pp. 95–96.
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 97–98.
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- ^ Boadle, Anthony (August 8, 2006). "Cuba's first family not immune to political rift". Reuters. http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=2ef037b4-5f82-4283-b1fb-2cc9e2442977. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
- ^ Roberto Duarte VIDA SECRETA DEL TIRANO CASTRO. CANF.org. October 29, 2003
- ^ Cuba confidential: Love and Vengeance in Miami and Havana By Ann Louise Bardach; Random House, Inc., 2002; ISBN 978-0-375-50489-1
- ^ "The Bitter Family (page 1 of 2)". Time. July 10, 1964. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,871241-1,00.html. Retrieved February 19, 2008.
- ^ a b Bourne 1986. p. 201.
- ^ {cite news| url=http://www.spokesman.com/stories/1995/dec/26/castro-adviser-66-dies-of-heart-attack/%7C title=Castro Adviser, 66, Dies Of Heart Attack| work=The Spokesman Review| date=December 26, 1995| accessdate=May 31, 2012}}
- ^ Bourne 1986. pp. 200–201.
- ^ 1995/01_5_m.html "In brief". Arizona Daily Wildcat. February 10, 1995. http://secure-wildcat.arizona.edu//papers/old-wildcats/spring95/February/February10, 1995/01_5_m.html. Retrieved August 12, 2006. [dead link]
- ^ Richard Gott, Cuba : A new history. p. 175. Yale press.
- ^ Admservice (October 8, 2000). "Fidel Castro's Family". Latinamericanstudies.org. http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/fidel/castro-family.htm. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
- ^ "Americas | Ailing Castro still dominates Cuba". BBC News. August 11, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4779529.stm. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
- ^ "Fidel Castro" PBS Online Newshour February 12, 1985.
- ^ Bourne 1986. p. 210.
- ^ Castro's Legacy by Wayne S. Smith, US Interests Section in Havana Chief from 1979 to 1982, February 02, 2007
- ^ "Democratic Korea decorates President Fidel Castro". Granma. http://granmai.co.cu/ingles/2006/diciembre/mar12/51conde.html.
- ^ "Libyan human rights prize awarded to Fidel Castro of Cuba". BBC News. August 11, 1998. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/149414.stm. Retrieved June 13, 2006.
- ^ "Castro's state visit to South Africa". BBC News. September 4 1998. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/164687.stm. Retrieved May 21, 2000.
- ^ "Castro ends state-visit to South Africa". BBC News. September 6 1998. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/165566.stm. Retrieved May 21, 2006.
- ^ "Malcolm X Chronology". Columbia University. Archived from the original on September 16, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070716112121/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/mxp/ministermalcolm.html.
- ^ Windhoek Streets Renamed
- ^ Fidel Castro Street travel guide
- ^ Кастро Рус Фидель Алехандро, Герой Советского Союза
- ^ Concediendo a Fidel Castro Ruz el título de Héroe de la Unión Soviética, La Prensa.
- ^ Fidel Castro
- ^ Un día como hoy: 11 de noviembre
- ^ CASTRO, PCC OFFICIALS RECEIVE SOVIET DECORATION
- ^ Биография Фиделя Кастро
- ^ Castro Speech Data Base
- ^ Castro to keep his state and university distinctions
- ^ Dimitrov Order Presentation to Fidel Castro
- ^ Visita de la delegación del gobierno polaco a Cuba el 25 de abril de 1973.
- ^ The International Who's Who, 2004, Europa Publications
- ^ Discurso pronunciado por Fidel Castro Ruz en el acto en que le fue impuesta la "Orden de Jamaica", la más alta distinción nacional que se confiere a gobernantes de otros países, en Kingston, Jamaica, October 16, 1977.
- ^ Order of Merit (OM)
- ^ «Fidel's visit to Ethiopia», September 24 edition, 1978, p. 2, Granma.
- ^ Breve biografía de Fidel Castro
- ^ a b Confiere la República Popular Democrática de Corea a Fidel, Orden Héroe del Trabajo
- ^ Kuba: Das Ende der Ära Castro. Fidels Finale: Jetzt gibt Castro, schwer krank, die Macht ab
- ^ 1989 Speech Czechoslovak - Jakes Presents Award To Castro
- ^ Discurso pronunciado por el Comandante en Jefe Fidel Castro Ruz en el acto de imposición de la Orden "Agostinho Neto", efectuado en el Palacio de la Revolución, el 9 de julio de 1992.
- ^ Discurso pronunciado por Fidel Castro Ruz al recibir la Orden del Mérito de Duarte, Sánchez y Mella en el grado Gran Cruz Placa de Oro e imponer al Presidente de la República Dominicana, Dr. Leonel Fernández, la Orden José Martí. Santo Domingo, August 22, 1998.
- ^ Discurso pronunciado por el Comandante en Jefe Fidel Castro Ruz, Primer Secretario del Comité Central del Partido Comunista de Cuba y Presidente de los Consejos de Estado y de Ministros, en el acto de imposición de la Orden de Buena Esperanza, efectuado en Ciudad del Cabo, Sudáfrica, el día 4 de septiembre de 1998.
- ^ Breves de Cuba
- ^ Asistencia a los niños en Cuba
- ^ The Amir visit Cuba
- ^ CUBA IN THE MIDDLE EAST: 2000-2002
- ^ La Guerra Sucia Sobra
- ^ Discurso pronunciado al recibir la Orden Congreso de Angostura, en la Plaza Bolívar, Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela, el 11 de agosto del 2001.
- ^ Reciben condecoraciones Presidentes de Cuba y Argelia
- ^ Rey malasio condecoró a Fidel
- ^ Fidel Castro percibe clima de "optimismo" en Argentina
- ^ a b Fidel Castro recibe condecoraciones de Corea del Norte
- ^ Otorgan medalla "Amílcar Cabral" a Fidel Castro
- ^ Ecuador otorga a Fidel Castro la Medalla al Mérito Deportivo
- ^ Conceden en Namibia condecoración a Fidel Castro
- ^ Otorgado a líder cubano Fidel Castro Premio Ubuntu, de Sudáfrica
- ^ Fidel Castro recibe Medalla de Honor de Dominica
- ^ Torrijos condecora a Fidel Castro y recibe medalla cubana
- ^ Conceden a Fidel Castro la Orden del Quetzal de Guatemala
- ^ Sudáfrica impondrá a Fidel Castro su condecoración de mayor grado
- ^ Distinguen a Fidel Castro con Orden Águila de Zambia
- ^ Yanukóvich condecora a Fidel y Raúl Castro por ayuda consecuencias Chernóbil
- ^ Legislativo ecuatoriano reconoce méritos e impronta de Fidel
- ^ Fidel Castro recibe la mayor distinción de Timor Oriental
- ^ Paul C. Sondrol (1991). "Totalitarian and Authoritarian Dictators: A Comparison of Fidel Castro and Alfredo Stroessner". Journal of Latin American Studies 23 (03): 599–620. DOI:10.1017/S0022216X00015868. JSTOR 157386.
- ^ Jay Mallin. Covering Castro: rise and decline of Cuba's communist dictator. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56000-156-0.
- ^ a b D. H. Figueredo. The complete idiot's guide to Latino history and culture. ISBN 0-02-864360-7.
- ^ a b "Farewell Fidel: The man who nearly started World War III". Daily Mail (London). February 20, 2008. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-516539/Farewell-Fidel-The-man-nearly-started-World-War-III.html.
- ^ a b Catan, Thomas (February 20, 2008). "Fidel Castro bows to illness and age as he quits centre stage after 50 years – Times Online". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article3399819.ece. Retrieved April 22, 2009.
- ^ a b "Fidel's fade-out". http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/feb/24/fidels-fade-out/.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 292.
- ^ "Cuba: Fidel Castro's Abusive Machinery Remains Intact". Human Rights Watch. February 18, 2008. http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/02/18/cuba-fidel-castro-s-abusive-machinery-remains-intact. Retrieved October 7, 2009.
- ^ Coltman 2003. p. 247.
- ^ Sergio Diaz-Briquets, Jorge F. Pérez-López. Corruption in Cuba.
- ^ a b c d Servando Gonzalez. The Secret Fidel Castro. ISBN 0-9711391-0-5.
- ^ a b c d e Castro denies huge fortune claim. BBC News.
- ^ a b c Castro: I am not rich. CBS News. Assessed April 24, 2007.
- ^ a b Castro blasts Forbes over wealth report., Associated Press. Retrieved December 13. 2006.
Bibliography[link]
- Benjamin, Jules R. (1992). The United States and the Origins of the Cuban Revolution: An Empire of Liberty in an Age of National Liberation.
- Bohning, Don (2005). The Castro Obsession: U.S. Covert Operations Against Cuba, 1959–1965. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, Inc.
- Bourne, Peter G. (1986). Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.
- Castro, Fidel; Elliot, Jeffrey M. and Dymally, Mervyn M. (interviewers) (1986). Nothing Can Stop the Course of History. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 0-87348-661-7.
- Castro, Fidel; Ramonet, Ignacio (interviewer) (2009). My Life: A Spoken Autobiography. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-1-4165-6233-7.
- Coltman, Leycester (2003). The Real Fidel Castro. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10760-9.
- Von Tunzelmann, Alex (2011). Red Heat: Conspiracy, Murder, and the Cold War in the Caribbean. New York: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0-8050-9067-3.
Further reading[link]
- Castro, Fidel; Deborah Shnookal, Pedro Alvarez Tabío (2005). Fidel: my early years. Ocean Press. ISBN 1-920888-09-8. http://books.google.ca/books?id=8RVaBPGRcUcC&lpg=PP1&dq=Fidel%20Castro&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- Castro, Fidel; Ignacio Ramonet (2008). Fidel Castro: my life: a spoken autobiography. Scribner Book Company. ISBN 1-4165-5328-2. http://books.google.ca/books?id=Z4H45OczqPYC&lpg=PP1.
- Fuentes, Norberto; Anna Kushner (2010). The Autobiography of Fidel Castro. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-06899-3. http://books.google.ca/books?id=Fazd9dOLUmUC&lpg=PP1.
- Geyer, Georgie Anne (2001). Guerrilla Prince: The Untold Story of Fidel Castro. Andrews McMeel. ISBN 0-7407-2064-3. http://books.google.ca/books?id=dRhJGLnJjugC&lpg=PP1.
- Halperin, Maurice (1972). The rise and decline of Fidel Castro: an essay in contemporary history. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02182-7. http://books.google.ca/books?id=_B9LOCZuDnQC&lpg=PP1.
- Leonard, Thomas M (2004). Fidel Castro: a biography. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-32301-1. http://books.google.ca/books?id=63sFubdrEVcC&lpg=PP1&dq=Fidel%20Castro&pg=PP1.
- Marsico, Katie (2009). Fidel Castro: Cuban President & Revolutionary. ABDO Pub. Co. ISBN 978-1-60453-522-8. http://books.google.ca/books?id=XgP9n-E7oTwC&lpg=PP1.
- Skierka, Volker (2006). Fidel Castro: a biography. Polity. ISBN 0-7456-3006-5. http://books.google.ca/books?id=x9-U3FWiW_UC&lpg=PP1.
External links[link]
| Find more about Fidel Castro on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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Images and media from Commons |
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News stories from Wikinews |
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Quotations from Wikiquote |
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Source texts from Wikisource |
- By Fidel Castro
- Archive of Fidel Castro's speeches in 6 languages
- Fidel Castro History Archive at Marxists Internet Archive.
- Collection of Castro's speeches
- "We Don't Hope for Favors from the Worst of Empires"
- "Where Have All the Bees Gone?"
- "In Spite of Everything: Reflections on the Pan-American Games"
- "Time for an Alliance of Civlizations Against Empire"
- Fidel Castro in His Own Words
- Images
- Castro: Early Years (1953–1961) – slideshow by Life magazine
- Fidel Castro: A Revolutionary Life – slideshow by Life magazine
- Fidel Castro: A Life in Pictures – slideshow by BBC News
- Fidel Castro's Five Decades in Power – slideshow by The Washington Post
- Fidel Castro Resigns as President – slideshow by New York Times
- About Fidel Castro
- Fidel Castro: From Rebel to El Presidente – timeline by NPR
- Arthur Miller: A Visit With Castro by The Nation, December 24, 2003
- BBC Video: Fidel Castro Visits Boyhood Home of Che Guevara
- New York Times –- Interactive Feature: Three Days With Fidel
- PBS American Experience Interactive site on Fidel Castro with a teacher's guide
- Guide to the Cuban Revolution Collection, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library
- Deena Stryker Photographs of Cuba, 1963–1964, Duke University Libraries Digital Collections
- NPR Audio: Cuba's Castro an Inspiration, Not a Role Model by Tom Gjelten, September 15, 2006
- The Guardian: "The Fidel I Think I Know" by Gabriel García Márquez, August 12, 2006
- Washington Post: Fidel Castro Will Always Lead Cuba, Locals Say February 22, 2008
- Castro's Legacy by Wayne S. Smith, US Interests Section in Havana Chief from 1979 to 1982
| Party political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| New office | First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba Incapacitated in 2006 1961–2011 |
Succeeded by Raúl Castro |
| Political offices | ||
| Preceded by José Miró Cardona |
Prime Minister of Cuba 1959–1976 |
Position abolished |
| Preceded by Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado as President of Cuba |
President of the Council of State of Cuba Incapacitated in 2006 1976–2008 |
Succeeded by Raúl Castro |
| Preceded by Himself as Prime Minister |
President of the Council of Ministers of Cuba Incapacitated in 2006 1976–2008 |
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| Military offices | ||
| New office | Commander-in-Chief of the Revolutionary Armed Forces Incapacitated in 2006 1959–2008 |
Succeeded by Raúl Castro |
| Diplomatic posts | ||
| Preceded by Junius Richard Jayewardene |
Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement 1979–1983 |
Succeeded by Abdullah Ahmad Badawi |
| Preceded by Neelam Sanjiva Reddy |
Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement Incapacitated in 2006 2005–2008 |
Succeeded by Raúl Castro |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Castro, Fidel |
| Alternative names | Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz |
| Short description | President of Cuba |
| Date of birth | August 13, 1926 |
| Place of birth | Birán, Holguín Province, Cuba |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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"Barack" and "Obama" redirect here. For other uses, see Barak (disambiguation) and Obama (disambiguation). For President Obama's father, the Kenyan economist, see Barack Obama, Sr.
| Barack Obama | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| 44th President of the United States | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office January 20, 2009 |
|
| Vice President | Joe Biden |
| Preceded by | George W. Bush |
| United States Senator from Illinois |
|
| In office January 3, 2005 – November 16, 2008 |
|
| Preceded by | Peter Fitzgerald |
| Succeeded by | Roland Burris |
| Member of the Illinois Senate from the 13th District |
|
| In office January 8, 1997 – November 4, 2004 |
|
| Preceded by | Alice Palmer |
| Succeeded by | Kwame Raoul |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Barack Hussein Obama II (1961-08-04) August 4, 1961 (age 50)[1] Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.[2] |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse(s) | Michelle Robinson (1992–present) |
| Children | Malia (born 1998) Sasha (born 2001) |
| Residence | White House (Official) Chicago, Illinois (Private) |
| Alma mater | Occidental College Columbia University (B.A.) Harvard Law School (J.D.) |
| Profession | Community organizer Lawyer Constitutional law professor Author |
| Religion | Christianity[3] |
| Awards | Nobel Peace Prize |
| Signature |  |
| Website | barackobama.com |
 |
This article is part of a series on Barack Obama |
|---|---|
Barack Hussein Obama II (
i/bəˈrɑːk huːˈseɪn oʊˈbɑːmə/; born August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. In January 2005, Obama was sworn in as a U.S. Senator in the state of Illinois. He would hold this office until November 2008, when he resigned following his victory in the 2008 presidential election.
Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004. He served three terms representing the 13th District in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004.
Following an unsuccessful bid against the Democratic incumbent for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 2000, Obama ran for the United States Senate in 2004. Several events brought him to national attention during the campaign, including his victory in the March 2004 Illinois Democratic primary for the Senate election and his keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July 2004. He won election to the U.S. Senate in Illinois in November 2004. His presidential campaign began in February 2007, and after a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Rodham Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 presidential election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain, and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. In April 2011, he announced that he would be running for re-election in 2012.
As president, Obama signed economic stimulus legislation in the form of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010. Other domestic policy initiatives include the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, and the Budget Control Act of 2011. In May 2012, he became the first sitting U.S. president to openly support legalizing same-sex marriage. In foreign policy, he ended the war in Iraq, increased troop levels in Afghanistan, signed the New START arms control treaty with Russia, ordered U.S. involvement in the 2011 Libya military intervention, and ordered the military operation that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden.
Contents |
Early life and career[link]
Main article: Early life and career of Barack Obama
Obama was born on August 4, 1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital (now Kapiʻolani Medical Center for Women and Children) in Honolulu, Hawaii,[2][4][5] and is the first President to have been born in Hawaii.[6] His mother, Stanley Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, and was of mostly English ancestry,[7] along with Scottish, Irish, German, and Swiss.[8][9][10][11][12] His father, Barack Obama, Sr., was a Luo from Nyang’oma Kogelo, Nyanza Province, Kenya. Obama's parents met in 1960 in a Russian class at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, where his father was a foreign student on scholarship.[13][14] The couple married on February 2, 1961,[15] separated when Obama Sr. went to Harvard University on scholarship, and divorced in 1964.[13] Obama Sr. remarried and returned to Kenya, visiting Barack in Hawaii only once, in 1971. He died in an automobile accident in 1982.[16]
After her divorce, Dunham married Indonesian Lolo Soetoro, who was attending college in Hawaii. When Suharto, a military leader in Soetoro's home country, came to power in 1967, all Indonesian students studying abroad were recalled, and the family moved to the Menteng neighborhood of Jakarta.[4][17] From ages six to ten, Obama attended local schools in Jakarta, including Besuki Public School and St. Francis of Assisi School.[18]
File:Ann Dunham with father and children.jpg
Barack Obama with his half-sister Maya Soetoro-Ng, mother Ann Dunham and grandfather Stanley Dunham, in Hawaii
In 1971, Obama returned to Honolulu to live with his maternal grandparents, Madelyn and Stanley Armour Dunham, and with the aid of a scholarship attended Punahou School, a private college preparatory school, from fifth grade until his graduation from high school in 1979.[19] Obama's mother returned to Hawaii in 1972, remaining there until 1977 when she went back to Indonesia to work as an anthropological field worker. She finally returned to Hawaii in 1994 and lived there for one year before dying of ovarian cancer.[15][20]
Of his early childhood, Obama recalled, "That my father looked nothing like the people around me—that he was black as pitch, my mother white as milk—barely registered in my mind."[14] He described his struggles as a young adult to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage.[21] Reflecting later on his years in Honolulu, Obama wrote: "The opportunity that Hawaii offered—to experience a variety of cultures in a climate of mutual respect—became an integral part of my world view, and a basis for the values that I hold most dear."[22] Obama has also written and talked about using alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine during his teenage years to "push questions of who I was out of my mind."[23] At the 2008 Civil Forum on the Presidency, Obama described his high-school drug use as a great moral failure.[24]
Following high school, Obama moved to Los Angeles in 1979 to attend Occidental College. In February 1981, he made his first public speech, calling for Occidental to divest from South Africa in response to its policy of apartheid.[25] In mid-1981, Obama traveled to Indonesia to visit his mother and sister Maya, and visited the families of college friends in Pakistan and India for three weeks.[25] Later in 1981, he transferred to Columbia University in New York City, where he majored in political science with a specialty in international relations[26] and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1983. He worked for a year at the Business International Corporation,[27] then at the New York Public Interest Research Group.[28][29]
Chicago community organizer and Harvard Law School[link]
Two years after graduating, Obama was hired in Chicago as director of the Developing Communities Project (DCP), a church-based community organization originally comprising eight Catholic parishes in Roseland, West Pullman, and Riverdale on Chicago's South Side. He worked there as a community organizer from June 1985 to May 1988.[29][30] He helped set up a job training program, a college preparatory tutoring program, and a tenants' rights organization in Altgeld Gardens.[31] Obama also worked as a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, a community organizing institute.[32] In mid-1988, he traveled for the first time in Europe for three weeks and then for five weeks in Kenya, where he met many of his paternal relatives for the first time.[33] He returned to Kenya in August 2006 for a visit to his father's birthplace, a village near Kisumu in rural western Kenya.[34]
In late 1988, Obama entered Harvard Law School. He was selected as an editor of the Harvard Law Review at the end of his first year,[35] and president of the journal in his second year.[31][36] During his summers, he returned to Chicago, where he worked as an associate at the law firms of Sidley Austin in 1989 and Hopkins & Sutter in 1990.[37] After graduating with a J.D. magna cum laude[38] from Harvard in 1991, he returned to Chicago.[35] Obama's election as the first black president of the Harvard Law Review gained national media attention[31][36] and led to a publishing contract and advance for a book about race relations,[39] which evolved into a personal memoir. The manuscript was published in mid-1995 as Dreams from My Father.[39]
University of Chicago Law School and civil rights attorney[link]
In 1991, Obama accepted a two-year position as Visiting Law and Government Fellow at the University of Chicago Law School to work on his first book.[39][40] He then taught at the University of Chicago Law School for twelve years—as a Lecturer from 1992 to 1996, and as a Senior Lecturer from 1996 to 2004—teaching constitutional law.[41]
From April to October 1992, Obama directed Illinois's Project Vote, a voter registration campaign with ten staffers and seven hundred volunteer registrars; it achieved its goal of registering 150,000 of 400,000 unregistered African Americans in the state, leading Crain's Chicago Business to name Obama to its 1993 list of "40 under Forty" powers to be.[42] In 1993, he joined Davis, Miner, Barnhill & Galland, a 13-attorney law firm specializing in civil rights litigation and neighborhood economic development, where he was an associate for three years from 1993 to 1996, then of counsel from 1996 to 2004. His law license became inactive in 2002.[43]
From 1994 to 2002, Obama served on the boards of directors of the Woods Fund of Chicago, which in 1985 had been the first foundation to fund the Developing Communities Project; and of the Joyce Foundation.[29] He served on the board of directors of the Chicago Annenberg Challenge from 1995 to 2002, as founding president and chairman of the board of directors from 1995 to 1999.[29]
Legislative career: 1997–2008[link]
State Senator: 1997–2004[link]
Main article: Illinois Senate career of Barack Obama
Obama was elected to the Illinois Senate in 1996, succeeding State Senator Alice Palmer as Senator from Illinois's 13th District, which at that time spanned Chicago South Side neighborhoods from Hyde Park – Kenwood south to South Shore and west to Chicago Lawn.[44] Once elected, Obama gained bipartisan support for legislation that reformed ethics and health care laws.[45] He sponsored a law that increased tax credits for low-income workers, negotiated welfare reform, and promoted increased subsidies for childcare.[46] In 2001, as co-chairman of the bipartisan Joint Committee on Administrative Rules, Obama supported Republican Governor Ryan's payday loan regulations and predatory mortgage lending regulations aimed at averting home foreclosures.[47]
Obama was reelected to the Illinois Senate in 1998, defeating Republican Yesse Yehudah in the general election, and was reelected again in 2002.[48] In 2000, he lost a Democratic primary run for the U.S. House of Representatives to four-term incumbent Bobby Rush by a margin of two to one.[49]
In January 2003, Obama became chairman of the Illinois Senate's Health and Human Services Committee when Democrats, after a decade in the minority, regained a majority.[50] He sponsored and led unanimous, bipartisan passage of legislation to monitor racial profiling by requiring police to record the race of drivers they detained, and legislation making Illinois the first state to mandate videotaping of homicide interrogations.[46][51] During his 2004 general election campaign for U.S. Senate, police representatives credited Obama for his active engagement with police organizations in enacting death penalty reforms.[52] Obama resigned from the Illinois Senate in November 2004 following his election to the U.S. Senate.[53]
U.S. Senate campaign[link]
In May 2002, Obama commissioned a poll to assess his prospects in a 2004 U.S. Senate race; he created a campaign committee, began raising funds, and lined up political media consultant David Axelrod by August 2002. Obama formally announced his candidacy in January 2003.[54]
Obama was an early opponent of the George W. Bush administration's 2003 invasion of Iraq.[55] On October 2, 2002, the day President Bush and Congress agreed on the joint resolution authorizing the Iraq War,[56] Obama addressed the first high-profile Chicago anti-Iraq War rally,[57] and spoke out against the war.[58] He addressed another anti-war rally in March 2003 and told the crowd that "it's not too late" to stop the war.[59]
Decisions by Republican incumbent Peter Fitzgerald and his Democratic predecessor Carol Moseley Braun to not participate in the election resulted in wide-open Democratic and Republican primary contests involving fifteen candidates.[60] In the March 2004 primary election, Obama won in an unexpected landslide—which overnight made him a rising star within the national Democratic Party, started speculation about a presidential future, and led to the reissue of his memoir, Dreams from My Father.[61] In July 2004, Obama delivered the keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention,[62] seen by 9.1 million viewers. His speech was well received and elevated his status within the Democratic Party.[63]
Obama's expected opponent in the general election, Republican primary winner Jack Ryan, withdrew from the race in June 2004.[64] Six weeks later, Alan Keyes accepted the Republican nomination to replace Ryan.[65] In the November 2004 general election, Obama won with 70 percent of the vote.[66]
U.S. Senator: 2005–2008[link]
Main article: United States Senate career of Barack Obama
Obama was sworn in as a senator on January 3, 2005,[67] becoming the only Senate member of the Congressional Black Caucus.[68] CQ Weekly characterized him as a "loyal Democrat" based on analysis of all Senate votes in 2005–2007. Obama announced on November 13, 2008, that he would resign his Senate seat on November 16, 2008, before the start of the lame-duck session, to focus on his transition period for the presidency.[69]
Legislation[link]
Obama cosponsored the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act.[70] He introduced two initiatives that bore his name: Lugar–Obama, which expanded the Nunn–Lugar cooperative threat reduction concept to conventional weapons;[71] and the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006, which authorized the establishment of USAspending.gov, a web search engine on federal spending.[72] On June 3, 2008, Senator Obama—along with Senators Tom Carper, Tom Coburn, and John McCain—introduced follow-up legislation: Strengthening Transparency and Accountability in Federal Spending Act of 2008.[73]
Obama sponsored legislation that would have required nuclear plant owners to notify state and local authorities of radioactive leaks, but the bill failed to pass in the full Senate after being heavily modified in committee.[74] Regarding tort reform, Obama voted for the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 and the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, which grants immunity from civil liability to telecommunications companies complicit with NSA warrantless wiretapping operations.[75]
In December 2006, President Bush signed into law the Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief, Security, and Democracy Promotion Act, marking the first federal legislation to be enacted with Obama as its primary sponsor.[77] In January 2007, Obama and Senator Feingold introduced a corporate jet provision to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, which was signed into law in September 2007.[78] Obama also introduced Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act, a bill to criminalize deceptive practices in federal elections,[79] and the Iraq War De-Escalation Act of 2007,[80] neither of which was signed into law.
Later in 2007, Obama sponsored an amendment to the Defense Authorization Act to add safeguards for personality-disorder military discharges.[81] This amendment passed the full Senate in the spring of 2008.[82] He sponsored the Iran Sanctions Enabling Act supporting divestment of state pension funds from Iran's oil and gas industry, which has not passed committee; and co-sponsored legislation to reduce risks of nuclear terrorism.[83] Obama also sponsored a Senate amendment to the State Children's Health Insurance Program, providing one year of job protection for family members caring for soldiers with combat-related injuries.[84]
Committees[link]
Obama held assignments on the Senate Committees for Foreign Relations, Environment and Public Works, and Veterans' Affairs through December 2006.[85] In January 2007, he left the Environment and Public Works committee and took additional assignments with Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions and Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs.[86] He also became Chairman of the Senate's subcommittee on European Affairs.[87] As a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Obama made official trips to Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and Africa. He met with Mahmoud Abbas before Abbas became President of the Palestinian National Authority, and gave a speech at the University of Nairobi in which he condemned corruption within the Kenyan government.[88]
Presidential campaigns[link]
2008 presidential campaign[link]
Main articles: United States presidential election, 2008, Barack Obama presidential primary campaign, 2008, and Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2008
On February 10, 2007, Obama announced his candidacy for President of the United States in front of the Old State Capitol building in Springfield, Illinois.[89][90] The choice of the announcement site was viewed as symbolic because it was also where Abraham Lincoln delivered his historic "House Divided" speech in 1858.[89][91] Obama emphasized issues of rapidly ending the Iraq War, increasing energy independence, and providing universal health care,[92] in a campaign that projected themes of "hope" and "change".[93]
A large number of candidates entered the Democratic Party presidential primaries. The field narrowed to a duel between Obama and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton after early contests, with the race remaining close throughout the primary process but with Obama gaining a steady lead in pledged delegates due to better long-range planning, superior fundraising, dominant organizing in caucus states, and better exploitation of delegate allocation rules.[94] On June 7, 2008, Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed Obama.[95]
On August 23, Obama announced his selection of Delaware Senator Joe Biden as his vice presidential running mate.[96] Biden was selected from a field speculated to include former Indiana Governor and Senator Evan Bayh and Virginia Governor Tim Kaine.[97] At the Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado, Hillary Clinton called for her supporters to endorse Obama, and she and Bill Clinton gave convention speeches in his support.[98] Obama delivered his acceptance speech, not at the center where the Democratic National Convention was held, but at Invesco Field at Mile High to a crowd of over 75,000; the speech was viewed by over 38 million people worldwide.[99][100]
During both the primary process and the general election, Obama's campaign set numerous fundraising records, particularly in the quantity of small donations.[101] On June 19, 2008, Obama became the first major-party presidential candidate to turn down public financing in the general election since the system was created in 1976.[102]
McCain was nominated as the Republican candidate and the two engaged in three presidential debates in September and October 2008.[103] On November 4, Obama won the presidency with 365 electoral votes to 173 received by McCain.[104] Obama won 52.9 percent of the popular vote to McCain's 45.7 percent.[105] He became the first African American to be elected president.[106] Obama delivered his victory speech before hundreds of thousands of supporters in Chicago's Grant Park.[107]
2012 presidential campaign[link]
Main articles: United States presidential election, 2012 and Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2012
On April 4, 2011, Obama announced his re-election campaign for 2012 in a video titled "It Begins with Us" that he posted on his website and filed election papers with the Federal Election Commission.[108][109][110] As the incumbent president he ran almost unopposed in the Democratic Party presidential primaries,[111] and on April 3, 2012, Obama had secured the 2778 convention delegates needed to win the Democratic nomination.[112]
Presidency[link]
Main article: Presidency of Barack Obama
See also: Confirmations of Barack Obama's Cabinet and List of presidential trips made by Barack Obama
First days[link]
The inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th President, and Joe Biden as Vice President, took place on January 20, 2009. In his first few days in office, Obama issued executive orders and presidential memoranda directing the U.S. military to develop plans to withdraw troops from Iraq.[113] He ordered the closing of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp,[114] but Congress prevented the closure by refusing to appropriate the required funds.[115][116][117] Obama reduced the secrecy given to presidential records,[118] and changed procedures to promote disclosure under the Freedom of Information Act.[119] He also reversed George W. Bush's ban on federal funding to foreign establishments that allow abortions.[120]
Domestic policy[link]
The first bill signed into law by Obama was the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, relaxing the statute of limitations for equal-pay lawsuits.[121] Five days later, he signed the reauthorization of the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) to cover an additional 4 million uninsured children.[122] In March 2009, Obama reversed a Bush-era policy which had limited funding of embryonic stem cell research and pledged to develop "strict guidelines" on the research.[123]
Obama appointed two women to serve on the Supreme Court in the first two years of his Presidency. Sonia Sotomayor, nominated by Obama on May 26, 2009, to replace retiring Associate Justice David Souter, was confirmed on August 6, 2009,[124] becoming the first Hispanic to be a Supreme Court Justice.[125] Elena Kagan, nominated by Obama on May 10, 2010, to replace retiring Associate Justice John Paul Stevens, was confirmed on August 5, 2010, bringing the number of women sitting simultaneously on the Court to three, for the first time in American history.[126]
On September 30, 2009, the Obama administration proposed new regulations on power plants, factories and oil refineries in an attempt to limit greenhouse gas emissions and to curb global warming.[127][128]
On October 8, 2009, Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, a measure that expands the 1969 United States federal hate-crime law to include crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability.[129][130]
On March 30, 2010, Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, a reconciliation bill which ends the process of the federal government giving subsidies to private banks to give out federally insured loans, increases the Pell Grant scholarship award, and makes changes to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.[131][132]
In a major space policy speech in April 2010, Obama announced a planned change in direction at NASA, the U.S. space agency. He ended plans for a return of human spaceflight to the moon and development of the Ares I rocket, Ares V rocket and Constellation program, in favor of funding Earth science projects, a new rocket type, and research and development for an eventual manned mission to Mars, and ongoing missions to the International Space Station.[133]
On December 22, 2010, Obama signed the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, fulfilling a key promise made in the 2008 presidential campaign[134][135] to end the Don't ask, don't tell policy of 1993 that had prevented gay and lesbian people from serving openly in the United States Armed Forces.[136]
President Obama's 2011 State of the Union Address focused on themes of education and innovation, stressing the importance of innovation economics to make the United States more competitive globally. He spoke of a five-year freeze in domestic spending, eliminating tax breaks for oil companies and reversing tax cuts for wealthy Americans, banning congressional earmarks, and reducing healthcare costs. He promised that the United States would have one million electric vehicles on the road by 2015 and would be 80% reliant on "clean" electricity.[137][138]
As a candidate for the Illinois state senate Obama had said in 1996 that he favored legalizing same-sex marriage;[139] but by the time of his run for the U.S. senate in 2004, he said that while he supported civil unions and domestic partnerships for same-sex partners, for strategic reasons he opposed same-sex marriages.[140] On May 9, 2012, shortly after the official launch of his campaign for re-election as president, Obama said his views had evolved, and he publicly affirmed his personal support for the legalization of same-sex marriage, becoming the first sitting U.S. president to do so.[141][142]
Economic policy[link]
Main article: Economic policy of Barack Obama
On February 17, 2009, Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, a $787 billion economic stimulus package aimed at helping the economy recover from the deepening worldwide recession.[143] The act includes increased federal spending for health care, infrastructure, education, various tax breaks and incentives, and direct assistance to individuals,[144] which is being distributed over the course of several years.
In March, Obama's Treasury Secretary, Timothy Geithner, took further steps to manage the financial crisis, including introducing the Public-Private Investment Program for Legacy Assets, which contains provisions for buying up to $2 trillion in depreciated real estate assets.[145] Obama intervened in the troubled automotive industry[146] in March 2009, renewing loans for General Motors and Chrysler to continue operations while reorganizing. Over the following months the White House set terms for both firms' bankruptcies, including the sale of Chrysler to Italian automaker Fiat[147] and a reorganization of GM giving the U.S. government a temporary 60 percent equity stake in the company, with the Canadian government shouldering a 12 percent stake.[148] In June 2009, dissatisfied with the pace of economic stimulus, Obama called on his cabinet to accelerate the investment.[149] He signed into law the Car Allowance Rebate System, known colloquially as "Cash for Clunkers", that temporarily boosted the economy.[150][151][152]
Although spending and loan guarantees from the Federal Reserve and the Treasury Department authorized by the Bush and Obama administrations totaled about $11.5 trillion, only $3 trillion had been spent by the end of November 2009.[153] However, Obama and the Congressional Budget Office predicted that the 2010 budget deficit will be $1.5 trillion or 10.6 percent of the nation's gross domestic product (GDP) compared to the 2009 deficit of $1.4 trillion or 9.9 percent of GDP.[154][155] For 2011, the administration predicted the deficit will slightly shrink to $1.34 trillion, while the 10-year deficit will increase to $8.53 trillion or 90 percent of GDP.[156] The most recent increase in the U.S. debt ceiling to $16.4 trillion was signed into law on January 26, 2012.[157] On August 2, 2011, after a lengthy congressional debate over whether to raise the nation's debt limit, Obama signed the bipartisan Budget Control Act of 2011. The legislation enforces limits on discretionary spending until 2021, establishes a procedure to increase the debt limit, creates a Congressional Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction to propose further deficit reduction with a stated goal of achieving at least $1.5 trillion in budgetary savings over 10 years, and establishes automatic procedures for reducing spending by as much as $1.2 trillion if legislation originating with the new joint select committee does not achieve such savings.[158] By passing the legislation, Congress was able to prevent an unprecedented U.S. government default on its obligations.[159]
The unemployment rate rose in 2009, reaching a peak in October at 10.1 percent and averaging 10.0 percent in the fourth quarter. Following a decrease to 9.7 percent in the first quarter of 2010, the unemployment rate fell to 9.6 percent in the second quarter, where it remained for the rest of the year.[162] Between February and December 2010, employment rose by 0.8 percent, which was less than the average of 1.9 percent experienced during comparable periods in the past four employment recoveries.[163] GDP growth returned in the third quarter of 2009, expanding at a rate of 1.6 percent, followed by a 5.0 percent increase in the fourth quarter.[164] Growth continued in 2010, posting an increase of 3.7 percent in the first quarter, with lesser gains throughout the rest of the year.[164] In July 2010, the Federal Reserve expressed that although economic activity continued to increase, its pace had slowed, and Chairman Ben Bernanke stated that the economic outlook was "unusually uncertain."[165] Overall, the economy expanded at a rate of 2.9 percent in 2010.[166]
The Congressional Budget Office and a broad range of economists credit Obama's stimulus plan for economic growth.[167][168] The CBO released a report stating that the stimulus bill increased employment by 1–2.1 million,[168][169][170][171] while conceding that "It is impossible to determine how many of the reported jobs would have existed in the absence of the stimulus package."[167] Although an April 2010 survey of members of the National Association for Business Economics showed an increase in job creation (over a similar January survey) for the first time in two years, 73 percent of 68 respondents believed that the stimulus bill has had no impact on employment.[172]
Within a month of the 2010 midterm elections, Obama announced a compromise deal with the Congressional Republican leadership that included a temporary, two-year extension of the 2001 and 2003 income tax rates, a one-year payroll tax reduction, continuation of unemployment benefits, and a new rate and exemption amount for estate taxes.[173] The compromise overcame opposition from some in both parties, and the resulting $858 billion Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 passed with bipartisan majorities in both houses of Congress before Obama signed it on December 17, 2010.[174]
Health care reform[link]
Main article: Health care reform in the United States
Obama called for Congress to pass legislation reforming health care in the United States, a key campaign promise and a top legislative goal.[175] He proposed an expansion of health insurance coverage to cover the uninsured, to cap premium increases, and to allow people to retain their coverage when they leave or change jobs. His proposal was to spend $900 billion over 10 years and include a government insurance plan, also known as the public option, to compete with the corporate insurance sector as a main component to lowering costs and improving quality of health care. It would also make it illegal for insurers to drop sick people or deny them coverage for pre-existing conditions, and require every American carry health coverage. The plan also includes medical spending cuts and taxes on insurance companies that offer expensive plans.[176][177]
On July 14, 2009, House Democratic leaders introduced a 1,017-page plan for overhauling the U.S. health care system, which Obama wanted Congress to approve by the end of 2009.[175] After much public debate during the Congressional summer recess of 2009, Obama delivered a speech to a joint session of Congress on September 9 where he addressed concerns over the proposals.[178] In March 2009, Obama lifted a ban on stem cell research.[179]
File:PPACA Premium Chart.jpg
Maximum Out-of-Pocket Premium as Percentage of Family Income and federal poverty level, under Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, starting in 2014. (Source: CRS)
On November 7, 2009, a health care bill featuring the public option was passed in the House.[180][181] On December 24, 2009, the Senate passed its own bill—without a public option—on a party-line vote of 60–39.[182] On March 21, 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act passed by the Senate in December was passed in the House by a vote of 219 to 212.[183] Obama signed the bill into law on March 23, 2010.[184]
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act includes health-related provisions to take effect over four years, including expanding Medicaid eligibility for people making up to 133 percent of the federal poverty level (FPL) starting in 2014,[185] subsidizing insurance premiums for people making up to 400 percent of the FPL ($88,000 for family of four in 2010) so their maximum "out-of-pocket" payment for annual premiums will be from 2 to 9.5 percent of income,[186][187] providing incentives for businesses to provide health care benefits, prohibiting denial of coverage and denial of claims based on pre-existing conditions, establishing health insurance exchanges, prohibiting annual coverage caps, and support for medical research. According to White House and Congressional Budget Office figures, the maximum share of income that enrollees would have to pay would vary depending on their income relative to the federal poverty level.[186][188]
The costs of these provisions are offset by taxes, fees, and cost-saving measures, such as new Medicare taxes for those in high-income brackets, taxes on indoor tanning, cuts to the Medicare Advantage program in favor of traditional Medicare, and fees on medical devices and pharmaceutical companies;[189] there is also a tax penalty for those who do not obtain health insurance, unless they are exempt due to low income or other reasons.[190] In March, 2010, the Congressional Budget Office estimated that the net effect of both laws will be a reduction in the federal deficit by $143 billion over the first decade.[191]
In March 2012, the Supreme Court heard arguments by a coalition of 26 states maintaining that it is unconstitutional to force individuals to buy health insurance.[192]
Gulf of Mexico oil spill[link]
On April 20, 2010, an explosion destroyed an offshore drilling rig at the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico, causing a major sustained oil leak. The well's operator, BP, initiated a containment and cleanup plan, and began drilling two relief wells intended to stop the flow. Obama visited the Gulf on May 2 among visits by members of his cabinet, and again on May 28 and June 4. On May 22, he announced a federal investigation and formed a bipartisan commission to recommend new safety standards, after a review by Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar and concurrent Congressional hearings. On May 27, he announced a 6-month moratorium on new deepwater drilling permits and leases, pending regulatory review.[193] As multiple efforts by BP failed, some in the media and public expressed confusion and criticism over various aspects of the incident, and stated a desire for more involvement by Obama and the federal government.[194]
Foreign policy[link]
Main articles: Foreign policy of the Barack Obama administration and Barack Obama foreign policy
In February and March, Vice President Joe Biden and Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton made separate overseas trips to announce a "new era" in U.S. foreign relations with Russia and Europe, using the terms "break" and "reset" to signal major changes from the policies of the preceding administration.[195] Obama attempted to reach out to Arab leaders by granting his first interview to an Arab cable TV network, Al Arabiya.[196]
On March 19, Obama continued his outreach to the Muslim world, releasing a New Year's video message to the people and government of Iran.[197] This attempt at outreach was rebuffed by the Iranian leadership.[198] In April, Obama gave a speech in Ankara, Turkey, which was well received by many Arab governments.[199] On June 4, 2009, Obama delivered a speech at Cairo University in Egypt calling for "a new beginning" in relations between the Islamic world and the United States and promoting Middle East peace.[200]
On June 26, 2009, in response to the Iranian government's actions towards protesters following Iran's 2009 presidential election, Obama said: "The violence perpetrated against them is outrageous. We see it and we condemn it."[201] On July 7, while in Moscow, he responded to a Vice President Biden comment on a possible Israeli military strike on Iran by saying: "We have said directly to the Israelis that it is important to try and resolve this in an international setting in a way that does not create major conflict in the Middle East."[202]
On September 24, 2009, Obama became the first sitting U.S. president to preside over a meeting of the United Nations Security Council.[203]
In March 2010, Obama took a public stance against plans by the government of Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to continue building Jewish housing projects in predominantly Arab neighborhoods of East Jerusalem.[204][205] During the same month, an agreement was reached with the administration of Russian President Dmitry Medvedev to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty with a new pact reducing the number of long-range nuclear weapons in the arsenals of both countries by about one-third.[206] The New START treaty was signed by Obama and Medvedev in April 2010, and was ratified by the U.S. Senate in December 2010.[207]
On December 6, 2011, he instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries.[208]
Iraq War[link]
On February 27, 2009, Obama declared that combat operations in Iraq would end within 18 months. His remarks were made to a group of Marines preparing for deployment to Afghanistan. Obama said, "Let me say this as plainly as I can: By August 31, 2010, our combat mission in Iraq will end."[209] The Obama administration scheduled the withdrawal of combat troops to be completed by August 2010, decreasing troops levels from 142,000 while leaving a transitional force of 35,000 to 50,000 in Iraq until the end of 2011. On August 19, 2010, the last United States combat brigade exited Iraq. The plan is to transition the mission of the remaining troops from combat operations to counter-terrorism and the training, equipping, and advising of Iraqi security forces.[210][211] On August 31, 2010, Obama announced that the United States combat mission in Iraq was over.[212] On October 21, 2011 President Obama announced that all U.S. troops would leave Iraq in time to be, "home for the holidays".[213]
War in Afghanistan[link]
Main article: War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
Early in his presidency, Obama moved to bolster U.S. troop strength in Afghanistan.[214] He announced an increase to U.S. troop levels of 17,000 in February 2009 to "stabilize a deteriorating situation in Afghanistan", an area he said had not received the "strategic attention, direction and resources it urgently requires".[215] He replaced the military commander in Afghanistan, General David D. McKiernan, with former Special Forces commander Lt. Gen. Stanley A. McChrystal in May 2009, indicating that McChrystal's Special Forces experience would facilitate the use of counterinsurgency tactics in the war.[216] On December 1, 2009, Obama announced the deployment of an additional 30,000 military personnel to Afghanistan.[217] He also proposed to begin troop withdrawals 18 months from that date.[218][219] McChrystal was replaced by David Petraeus in June 2010, after McChrystal's staff criticized White House personnel in a magazine article.[220]
Israel[link]
During the initial years of the Obama administration, the U.S. increased military cooperation with Israel, including a record number of U.S. troops participating in military exercises in the country, increased military aid, the re-establishment of the U.S.-Israeli Joint Political Military Group and the Defense Policy Advisory Group, and an increase in visits among high-level military officials of both countries, including Ehud Barak and Admiral Mike Mullen.[221]
In 2011, the United States vetoed a Security Council resolution condemning Israeli settlements, with the United States being the only nation to do so.[222] Obama supports the two-state solution to the Arab–Israeli conflict based on the 1967 borders with land swaps.[223]
War in Libya[link]
Main article: 2011 military intervention in Libya
In March 2011, as forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi advanced on rebels across Libya, calls for a no-fly zone came from around the world, including Europe, the Arab League, and a resolution[224] passed unanimously by the U.S. Senate.[225] In response to the unanimous passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 on March 17, Gaddafi who had previously vowed to "show no mercy" to the citizens of Benghazi[226]—announced an immediate cessation of military activities,[227] yet reports came in that his forces continued shelling Misrata. The next day, on Obama's orders, the U.S. military took a lead role in air strikes to destroy the Libyan government's air defense capabilities in order to protect civilians and enforce a no-fly-zone,[228] including the use of Tomahawk missiles, B-2 Spirits, and fighter jets.[229][230][231] Six days later, on March 25, by unanimous vote of all of its 28 members, NATO took over leadership of the effort, dubbed Operation Unified Protector.[232] Some Representatives[233] questioned whether Obama had the constitutional authority to order military action in addition to questioning its cost, structure and aftermath.[234][235]
Osama bin Laden[link]
Main article: Death of Osama bin Laden
See also: The Situation Room (photograph)
Starting with information received in July 2010, intelligence developed by the CIA over the next several months determined what they believed to be the location of Osama bin Laden in a large compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, a suburban area 35 miles from Islamabad.[236] CIA head Leon Panetta reported this intelligence to President Obama in March 2011.[236] Meeting with his national security advisers over the course of the next six weeks, Obama rejected a plan to bomb the compound, and authorized a "surgical raid" to be conducted by United States Navy SEALs.[236] The operation took place on May 1, 2011, resulting in the death of bin Laden and the seizure of papers and computer drives and disks from the compound.[237][238] Bin Laden's body was identified through DNA testing,[239] and buried at sea several hours later.[240] Within minutes of the President's announcement from Washington, DC, late in the evening on May 1, there were spontaneous celebrations around the country as crowds gathered outside the White House, and at New York City's Ground Zero and Times Square.[237][241] Reaction to the announcement was positive across party lines, including from former Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush,[242] and from many countries around the world.[243]
2010 midterm election[link]
Obama called the November 2, 2010 election, where the Democratic Party lost 63 seats in, and control of, the House of Representatives,[244] "humbling" and a "shellacking".[245] He said that the results came because not enough Americans had felt the effects of the economic recovery.[246]
Cultural and political image[link]
Main article: Public image of Barack Obama
Obama's family history, upbringing, and Ivy League education differ markedly from those of African American politicians who launched their careers in the 1960s through participation in the civil rights movement.[248] Obama is also not a descendant of American slaves.[249] Expressing puzzlement over questions about whether he is "black enough", Obama told an August 2007 meeting of the National Association of Black Journalists that "we're still locked in this notion that if you appeal to white folks then there must be something wrong".[250] Obama acknowledged his youthful image in an October 2007 campaign speech, saying: "I wouldn't be here if, time and again, the torch had not been passed to a new generation."[251]
Obama is frequently referred to as an exceptional orator.[252] During his pre-inauguration transition period and continuing into his presidency, Obama has delivered a series of weekly Internet video addresses.[253]
According to the Gallup Organization, Obama began his presidency with a 68 percent approval rating[254] before gradually declining for the rest of the year, and eventually bottoming out at 41 percent in August 2010,[255] a trend similar to Ronald Reagan's and Bill Clinton's first years in office.[256] He experienced a small poll bounce shortly after the death of Osama bin Laden, which lasted until around June 2011, when his approval numbers dropped back to where they were prior to the operation.[257][258][259] Polls show strong support for Obama in other countries,[260] and before being elected President he has met with prominent foreign figures including then-British Prime Minister Tony Blair,[261] Italy's Democratic Party leader and then Mayor of Rome Walter Veltroni,[262] and French President Nicolas Sarkozy.[263]
In a February 2009 poll conducted by Harris Interactive for France 24 and the International Herald Tribune, Obama was rated as the most respected world leader, as well as the most powerful.[264] In a similar poll conducted by Harris in May 2009, Obama was rated as the most popular world leader, as well as the one figure most people would pin their hopes on for pulling the world out of the economic downturn.[265][266]
Obama won Best Spoken Word Album Grammy Awards for abridged audiobook versions of Dreams from My Father in February 2006 and for The Audacity of Hope in February 2008.[267] His concession speech after the New Hampshire primary was set to music by independent artists as the music video "Yes We Can", which was viewed 10 million times on YouTube in its first month[268] and received a Daytime Emmy Award.[269] In December 2008, Time magazine named Obama as its Person of the Year for his historic candidacy and election, which it described as "the steady march of seemingly impossible accomplishments".[270]
On October 9, 2009, the Norwegian Nobel Committee announced that Obama had won the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize "for his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples".[271] Obama accepted this award in Oslo, Norway on December 10, 2009, with "deep gratitude and great humility."[272] The award drew a mixture of praise and criticism from world leaders and media figures.[273][274] Obama is the fourth U.S. president to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize and the third to become a Nobel laureate while in office.
Family and personal life[link]
Main article: Family of Barack Obama
In a 2006 interview, Obama highlighted the diversity of his extended family: "It's like a little mini-United Nations", he said. "I've got relatives who look like Bernie Mac, and I've got relatives who look like Margaret Thatcher."[275] Obama has a half-sister with whom he was raised, Maya Soetoro-Ng, the daughter of his mother and her Indonesian second husband and seven half-siblings from his Kenyan father's family – six of them living.[276] Obama's mother was survived by her Kansas-born mother, Madelyn Dunham,[277] until her death on November 2, 2008,[278] two days before his election to the Presidency. Obama also has roots in Ireland; he met with his Irish cousins in Moneygall in May 2011.[279] In Dreams from My Father, Obama ties his mother's family history to possible Native American ancestors and distant relatives of Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War.[280]
Obama was known as "Barry" in his youth, but asked to be addressed with his given name during his college years.[281] Besides his native English, Obama speaks Indonesian at the conversational level, having learned the language during his four childhood years in Jakarta.[282] He plays basketball, a sport he participated in as a member of his high school's varsity team.[283]
Obama is a well known supporter of the Chicago White Sox, and threw out the first pitch at the 2005 ALCS when he was still a senator.[284] In 2009, he threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the all star game while wearing a White Sox jacket.[285] He is also primarily a Chicago Bears fan in the NFL, but in his childhood and adolescence was a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers, and recently rooted for them ahead of their victory in Super Bowl XLIII 12 days after Obama took office as President.[286] In 2011, Obama invited the 1985 Bears to the White House; in 1986, the team did not attend due to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.[287]
In June 1989, Obama met Michelle Robinson when he was employed as a summer associate at the Chicago law firm of Sidley Austin.[288] Assigned for three months as Obama's adviser at the firm, Robinson joined him at group social functions, but declined his initial requests to date.[289] They began dating later that summer, became engaged in 1991, and were married on October 3, 1992.[290] The couple's first daughter, Malia Ann, was born on July 4, 1998,[291] followed by a second daughter, Natasha ("Sasha"), on June 10, 2001.[292] The Obama daughters attended the private University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. When they moved to Washington, D.C., in January 2009, the girls started at the private Sidwell Friends School.[293] The Obamas have a Portuguese Water Dog named Bo, a gift from Senator Ted Kennedy.[294]
Applying the proceeds of a book deal, the family moved in 2005 from a Hyde Park, Chicago condominium to a $1.6 million house in neighboring Kenwood, Chicago.[295] The purchase of an adjacent lot—and sale of part of it to Obama by the wife of developer, campaign donor and friend Tony Rezko—attracted media attention because of Rezko's subsequent indictment and conviction on political corruption charges that were unrelated to Obama.[296]
In December 2007, Money magazine estimated the Obama family's net worth at $1.3 million.[297] Their 2009 tax return showed a household income of $5.5 million—up from about $4.2 million in 2007 and $1.6 million in 2005—mostly from sales of his books.[298][299] On his 2010 income of $1.7 million, he gave 14 percent to non-profit organizations, including $131,000 to Fisher House Foundation, a charity assisting wounded veterans' families, allowing them to reside near where the veteran is receiving medical treatments.[300][301]
As per the latest financial disclosure, Obama may be worth as much as $10 million.[302]
Obama tried to quit smoking several times, sometimes using nicotine replacement therapy, and, in early 2010, Michelle Obama said that he had successfully quit smoking.[303][304]
Religious views[link]
Obama is a Christian whose religious views developed in his adult life. He wrote in The Audacity of Hope that he "was not raised in a religious household". He described his mother, raised by non-religious parents (whom Obama has specified elsewhere as "non-practicing Methodists and Baptists"), to be detached from religion, yet "in many ways the most spiritually awakened person that I have ever known". He described his father as "raised a Muslim", but a "confirmed atheist" by the time his parents met, and his stepfather as "a man who saw religion as not particularly useful". Obama explained how, through working with black churches as a community organizer while in his twenties, he came to understand "the power of the African-American religious tradition to spur social change".[305]
In an interview with the evangelical periodical Christianity Today, Obama stated: "I am a Christian, and I am a devout Christian. I believe in the redemptive death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. I believe that that faith gives me a path to be cleansed of sin and have eternal life."[306]
On September 27, 2010, Obama released a statement commenting on his religious views saying "I'm a Christian by choice. My family didn't—frankly, they weren't folks who went to church every week. And my mother was one of the most spiritual people I knew, but she didn't raise me in the church. So I came to my Christian faith later in life, and it was because the precepts of Jesus Christ spoke to me in terms of the kind of life that I would want to lead—being my brothers' and sisters' keeper, treating others as they would treat me."[307][308]
Obama was baptized at the Trinity United Church of Christ, a black liberation church, in 1988, and was an active member there for two decades.[309] Obama resigned from Trinity during the Presidential campaign after controversial statements made by Rev. Jeremiah Wright became public.[310] After a prolonged effort to find a church to attend regularly in Washington, Obama announced in June 2009 that his primary place of worship would be the Evergreen Chapel at Camp David.[311]
Notes[link]
- ^ "President Barack Obama". Washington, D.C.: The White House. 2008. http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/president-obama. Retrieved December 12, 2008.
- ^ a b "Certificate of Live Birth: Barack Hussein Obama II, August 4, 1961, 7:24 pm, Honolulu". Department of Health, State of Hawaii. The White House. April 27, 2011. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/birth-certificate-long-form.pdf. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
- ^ "American President: Barack Obama". Charlottesville, VA: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. 2009. http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/obama. Retrieved January 23, 2009. "Religion: Christian"
- "The Truth about Barack's Faith". Obama for America. http://www.fightthesmears.com/file_download/2/baracksfaith.pdf. Retrieved April 8, 2011.
- Miller, Lisa (July 18, 2008). "Finding his faith". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/id/145971. Retrieved February 4, 2010. "He is now a Christian, having been baptized in the early 1990s at Trinity United Church of Christ in Chicago."
- Barakat, Matthew (November 17, 2008). "Obama's church choice likely to be scrutinized; D.C. churches have started extending invitations to Obama and his family". Associated Press. MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27775757. Retrieved January 20, 2009. "The United Church of Christ, the denomination from which Obama resigned when he left Wright's church, issued a written invitation to join a UCC denomination in Washington and resume his connections to the church." .
- "Barack Obama, long time UCC member, inaugurated forty-fourth U.S. President". News. United Church of Christ. January 20, 2009. http://www.ucc.org/news/obama-inauguration.html. Retrieved January 21, 2009. "Barack Obama, who spent more than 20 years as a UCC member, is the forty-fourth President of the United States."
- Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009). "The Obama's find a church home—away from home". Time. http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1907610,00.html. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "instead of joining a congregation in Washington, D.C., he will follow in George W. Bush's footsteps and make his primary place of worship Evergreen Chapel, the nondenominational church at Camp David." .
- Kornblut, Anne E. (February 4, 2010). "Obama's spirituality is largely private, but it's influential, advisers say". The Washington Post: p. A6. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/03/AR2010020303619.html. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "Obama prays privately ... And when he takes his family to Camp David on the weekends, a Navy chaplain ministers to them, with the daughters attending a form of Sunday school there."
- ^ a b Maraniss, David (August 24, 2008). "Though Obama had to leave to find himself, it is Hawaii that made his rise possible". The Washington Post: p. A22. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/23/AR2008082301620.html. Retrieved October 28, 2008.
- ^ Nakaso, Dan (December 22, 2008). "Twin sisters, Obama on parallel paths for years". The Honolulu Advertiser: p. B1. http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2008/Dec/22/ln/hawaii812220320.html. Retrieved January 22, 2011.
- ^ Rudin, Ken (December 23, 2009). "Today's Junkie segment On TOTN: a political review Of 2009". Talk of the Nation (Political Junkie blog). NPR. http://www.npr.org/blogs/politicaljunkie/2009/12/todays_junkie_segment_on_totn_5.html. Retrieved April 18, 2010. "We began with the historic inauguration on January 20—yes, the first president ever born in Hawaii"
- ^ for Stanley Ann's first name, see Obama (1995, 2004), p. 19.
- ^ Ewen MacAskill in Washington and Nicholas Watt (May 20, 2011). "Obama looks forward to rediscovering his Irish roots on European tour". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/may/20/obama-irish-roots-european-tour. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
- ^ Mason, Jeff (May 23, 2011). "Obama visits family roots in Ireland". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/23/us-obama-ireland-idUSTRE74M09F20110523. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
- ^ "Obama urged to create own tartan". BBC News. January 20, 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7838208.stm. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
- ^ "Researchers: Obama has German roots". USA Today. June 4, 2009. http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2009-06-04-obama-roots_N.htm. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
- ^ "Honorary citizenship papers sent to Obama". Swissinfo.ch. July 14, 2010. http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss_news/Honorary_citizenship_papers_sent_to_Obama.html?cid=17963746. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
- ^ a b Jones, Tim (March 27, 2007). "Barack Obama: Mother not just a girl from Kansas; Stanley Ann Dunham shaped a future senator". Chicago Tribune: p. 1 (Tempo). Archived from the original on February 21, 2009. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/politics/obama/chi-0703270151mar27-archive,0,5853572,full.story. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- ^ a b Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 9–10.
- ^ a b Ripley, Amanda (April 9, 2008). "The story of Barack Obama's mother". Time. http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1729524,00.html. Retrieved April 9, 2007.
- ^ Ochieng, Philip (November 1, 2004). "From home squared to the US Senate: how Barack Obama was lost and found". The EastAfrican. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070927223905/http://www.nationmedia.com/EastAfrican/01112004/Features/PA2-11.html. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- Merida, Kevin (December 14, 2007). "The ghost of a father". The Washington Post: p. A12. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2007/12/13/ST2007121301893.html. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- ^ Karana, Kinanti Pinta (December 9, 2009). "Statue of a young Obama to watch over Indonesian capital". Jakarta Globe. http://thejakartaglobe.com/home/statue-of-us-president-barack-obama-to-be-unveiled-in-jakarta-park/346178. Retrieved December 8, 2009.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 44–45.
- ^ Pickler, Nedra (January 24, 2007). "Obama debunks claim about Islamic school". The Washington Post. Associated Press. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/24/AR2007012400371_pf.html. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
- "Statue of boy Obama erected in Jakarta". Xinhua News Agency. December 10, 2009. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-12/10/content_12624443.htm. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
- ^ Serafin, Peter (March 21, 2004). "Punahou grad stirs up Illinois politics". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. http://archives.starbulletin.com/2004/03/21/news/story4.html. Retrieved March 20, 2008.
- Scott, Janny (March 14, 2008). "A free-spirited wanderer who set Obama's path". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/14/us/politics/14obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
- Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 3 and 4.
- ^ Suryakusuma, Julia (November 29, 2006). "Obama for President... of Indonesia". The Jakarta Post. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2006/11/29/obama-president-indonesia.html. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- ^ Serrano, Richard A. (March 11, 2007). "Obama's peers didn't see his angst". Los Angeles Times: p. A20. http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-na-obamahawaii11-2007mar11,0,199085,full.story. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
- Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 4 and 5.
- ^ Reyes, B.J. (February 8, 2007). "Punahou left lasting impression on Obama". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. http://archives.starbulletin.com/2007/02/08/news/story02.html. Retrieved February 10, 2007. "As a teenager, Obama went to parties and sometimes sought out gatherings on military bases or at the University of Hawaii that were mostly attended by blacks."
- ^ Elliott, Philip (November 21, 2007). "Obama gets blunt with N.H. students". The Boston Globe. Associated Press: p. 8A. http://articles.boston.com/2007-11-21/news/29233371_1_barack-obama-education-plan-campaign-trail. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 93–94.
- for analysis of the political impact of the quote and Obama's more recent admission that he smoked marijuana as a teenager ("When I was a kid, I inhaled"), see:
- Seelye, Katharine Q. (October 24, 2006). "Obama offers more variations from the norm". The New York Times: p. A21. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D07E2DB173FF937A15753C1A9609C8B63. Retrieved October 29, 2006.
- Romano, Lois (January 3, 2007). "Effect of Obama's candor remains to be seen". The Washington Post: p. A1. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/02/AR2007010201359.html. Retrieved January 14, 2007.
- ^ Hornick, Ed (August 17, 2008). "Obama, McCain talk issues at pastor's forum". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/08/16/warren.forum/. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- ^ a b Gordon, Larry (January 29, 2007). "Occidental recalls 'Barry' Obama". Los Angeles Times: p. B1. http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jan/29/local/me-oxy29. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Possley, Maurice (March 30, 2007). "Activism blossomed in college". Chicago Tribune: p. 20. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0703291042mar30-archive,0,1533921.story. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Kovaleski, Serge F. (February 9, 2008). "Old friends say drugs played bit part in Obama's young life". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/09/us/politics/09obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Rohter, Larry (April 10, 2008). "Obama says real-life experience trumps rivals' foreign policy credits". The New York Times: p. A18. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/10/us/politics/10obama.html. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Goldman, Adam; Tanner, Robert (May 15, 2008). "Old friends recall Obama's years in LA, NYC". USA Today. Associated Press. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/2008-05-15-3144401415_x.htm. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Helman, Scott (August 25, 2008). "Small college awakened future senator to service". The Boston Globe: p. 1A. http://www.boston.com/news/politics/2008/articles/2008/08/25/small_college_awakened_future_senator_to_service/?page=full. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Jackson, Brooks (June 5, 2009). "More 'birther' nonsense: Obama's 1981 Pakistan trip". FactCheck.org. http://www.factcheck.org/2009/06/more-birther-nonsense-obamas-1981-pakistan-trip. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- Remnick, David (2010). The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 98–112. ISBN 978-1-4000-4360-6.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 92–112.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 55–62.
- ^ Boss-Bicak, Shira (January 2005). "Barack Obama '83". Columbia College Today. ISSN 0572-7820. http://www.college.columbia.edu/cct_archive/jan05/cover.php. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
- ^ Obama, Barack (1998). "Curriculum vitae". The University of Chicago Law School. Archived from the original on May 9, 2001. http://web.archive.org/web/20010509024017/http://www.law.uchicago.edu/faculty/obama/cv.html. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
- Issenberg, Sasha (August 6, 2008). "Obama shows hints of his year in global finance; Tied markets to social aid". The Boston Globe: p. 1A. http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/08/06/obama_shows_hints_of_his_year_in_global_finance/?page=1. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
- ^ Scott, Janny (July 30, 2007). "Obama's account of New York often differs from what others say". The New York Times: p. B1. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/30/us/politics/30obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved July 31, 2007.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 133–140.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 62–63.
- ^ a b c d Chassie, Karen, ed. (2007). Who's Who in America, 2008. New Providence, NJ: Marquis Who's Who. p. 3468. ISBN 978-0-8379-7011-0.
- ^ Lizza, Ryan (March 19, 2007). "The agitator: Barack Obama's unlikely political education". The New Republic 236 (12): 22–26, 28–29. ISSN 0028-6583. http://www.tnr.com/article/the-agitator-barack-obamas-unlikely-political-education. Retrieved August 21, 2007.
- Secter, Bob; McCormick, John (March 30, 2007). "Portrait of a pragmatist". Chicago Tribune: p. 1. Archived from the original on December 14, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20091214172131/http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0703300121mar30-archive,0,2491692,full.story. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 140–295.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 63–83.
- ^ a b c Matchan, Linda (February 15, 1990). "A Law Review breakthrough". The Boston Globe: p. 29. http://www.boston.com/news/politics/2008/articles/1990/02/15/a_law_review_breakthrough. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
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- ^ Obama, Barack (August–September 1988). "Why organize? Problems and promise in the inner city". Illinois Issues 14 (8–9): 40–42. ISSN 0738-9663. reprinted in:
Knoepfle, Peg, ed. (1990). After Alinsky: community organizing in Illinois. Springfield, IL: Sangamon State University. pp. 35–40. ISBN 0-9620873-3-5. "He has also been a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, an organizing institute working throughout the Midwest." - ^ Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 299–437.
- ^ Gnecchi, Nico (February 27, 2006). "Obama receives hero's welcome at his family's ancestral village in Kenya". Voice of America. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080321161040/http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2006-08/2006-08-27-voa17.cfm. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- ^ a b Levenson, Michael; Saltzman, Jonathan (January 28, 2007). "At Harvard Law, a unifying voice". The Boston Globe: p. 1A. http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/01/28/at_harvard_law_a_unifying_voice/?page=full. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Kantor, Jodi (January 28, 2007). "In law school, Obama found political voice". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/28/us/politics/28obama.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Mundy, Liza (August 12, 2007). "A series of fortunate events". The Washington Post: p. W10. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/08/AR2007080802038_pf.html. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Mendell (2007), pp. 80–92.
- ^ a b Butterfield, Fox (February 6, 1990). "First black elected to head Harvard's Law Review". The New York Times: p. A20. http://www.nytimes.com/1990/02/06/us/first-black-elected-to-head-harvard-s-law-review.html. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Ybarra, Michael J (February 7, 1990). "Activist in Chicago now heads Harvard Law Review". Chicago Tribune: p. 3. http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1990-02-07/news/9001110408_1_ann-dunham-chicago-housing-authority-barack-obama. Retrieved October 29, 2011.
- Drummond, Tammerlin (March 12, 1990). "Barack Obama's law; Harvard Law Review's first black president plans a life of public service" (paid archive). Los Angeles Times: p. E1. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/60017156.html?dids=60017156:60017156&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Evans, Gaynelle (March 15, 1990). "Opening another door: The saga of Harvard's Barack H. Obama". Black Issues in Higher Education 7 (1): 5. ISSN 0742-0277. http://diverseeducation.com/article/11791/. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
- Pugh, Allison J. (April 18, 1990). "Law Review's first black president aims to help poor". The Miami Herald. Associated Press: p. C01. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_multi=MH%7C&p_product=MH&p_theme=realcities2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_site=miami&s_trackval=MH&s_search_type=keyword&s_dispstring=Law%20Review%27s%20first%20black%20president%20aims%20to%20help%20poor%20AND%20date%28all%29&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=%28Law%20Review%27s%20first%20black%20president%20aims%20to%20help%20poor%29&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- ^ Aguilar, Louis (July 11, 1990). "Survey: Law firms slow to add minority partners". Chicago Tribune: p. 1 (Business). http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/28774085.html?dids=28774085:28774085&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- ^ Adams, Richard (May 9, 2007). "Barack Obama". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/may/09/barackobama.uselections20081. Retrieved October 26, 2008.
- ^ a b c Scott, Janny (May 18, 2008). "The story of Obama, written by Obama". The New York Times: p. A1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/18/us/politics/18memoirs.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. xiii–xvii.
- ^ Merriner, James L. (June 2008). "The friends of O". Chicago 57 (6): 74–79, 97–99. ISSN 0362-4595. http://www.chicagomag.com/Chicago-Magazine/June-2008/Obamas-Chicago-Posse/The-Friends-of-O/index.php?cp=2&si=1. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
- Zengerle, Jason (July 30, 2008). "Con law; What the University of Chicago right thinks of Obama". The New Republic 239 (1): 7–8. ISSN 0028-6583. http://www.tnr.com/article/con-law?id=86dd0277-c6ee-4e3c-83e9-0bb468c5c40d&p=1. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
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- Gray, Steven (September 10, 2008). "Taking professor Obama's class". Time. http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1835238-2,00.html. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
- Starr, Alexandra (September 21, 2008). "Case study". The New York Times Magazine: p. 76. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/21/magazine/21obama-t.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
- Hundley, Tom (March 22, 2009). "Ivory tower of power". Chicago Tribune Magazine: p. 6. http://www.chicagotribune.com/features/chi-mxa0322magazineobamapg6mar22,0,4802888,full.story. Retrieved January 30, 2010.
- ^ "Statement regarding Barack Obama". University of Chicago Law School. March 27, 2008. http://www.law.uchicago.edu/media/index.html. Retrieved June 5, 2008.
- Miller, Joe (March 28, 2008). "Was Barack Obama really a constitutional law professor?". FactCheck.org. http://factcheck.org/2008/03/obama-a-constitutional-law-professor/. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
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- ^ White, Jesse, ed. (2000). Illinois Blue Book, 2000, Millennium ed.. Springfield, IL: Illinois Secretary of State. p. 83. OCLC 43923973. Archived from the original on April 16, 2004. http://web.archive.org/web/20040416120057/www.sos.state.il.us/bb/sec4_71_132.pdf. Retrieved June 6, 2008.
- Jarrett, Vernon (August 11, 1992). "'Project Vote' brings power to the people" (paid archive). Chicago Sun-Times: p. 23. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=(Vernon%20Jarrett)%20AND%20date(8/11/1992%20to%208/11/1992)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=8/11/1992%20to%208/11/1992)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(Vernon%20Jarrett)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 6, 2008.
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- Anderson, Veronica (September 27 – October 3 1993). "40 under Forty: Barack Obama, Director, Illinois Project Vote". Crain's Chicago Business 16 (39): 43. ISSN 0149-6956.
- ^ Robinson, Mike (February 20, 2007). "Obama got start in civil rights practice". The Boston Globe. Associated Press. http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2007/02/20/obama_got_start_in_civil_rights_practice. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Pallasch, Abdon M. (December 17, 2007). "As lawyer, Obama was strong, silent type; He was 'smart, innovative, relentless,' and he mostly let other lawyers do the talking" (paid archive). Chicago Sun-Times: p. 4. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=(Pallasch)_AND_date(12/17/2007_to_12/17/2007)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=December_17,_2007_to_12/17/2007)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(Pallasch)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Morain, Dan (April 6, 2008). "Obama's law days effective but brief". Los Angeles Times: p. A14. http://articles.latimes.com/2008/apr/06/nation/na-obamalegal6. Retrieved February 14, 2010.
- "People" (paid archive). Chicago Tribune: p. 9 (Business). June 27, 1993. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/24302659.html?dids=24302659:24302659&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- "Business appointments" (paid archive). Chicago-Sun-Times: p. 40. July 5, 1993. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CSTB&p_theme=cstb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=(Business%20appointments)%20AND%20date(7/5/1993%20to%207/5/1993)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=7/5/1993%20to%207/5/1993)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(Business%20appointments)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Ripley, Amanda (November 3, 2004). "Obama's ascent". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,750742,00.html. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
- "About us". Miner, Barnhill & Galland – Chicago, Illinois. 2008. http://www.lawmbg.com/index.cfm/PageID/2711. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
- Reardon, Patrick T. (June 25, 2008). "Obama's Chicago". Chicago Tribune: p. 1 (Tempo). http://www.chicagotribune.com/travel/chi-obama-chicago-htmlstory,0,506256.htmlstory. Retrieved February 13, 2010.
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See also:Goldfarb, Zachary A (March 24, 2007). "Measuring Wealth of the '08 Candidates". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/24/AR2007032400305.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008. - ^ Zeleny, Jeff (April 17, 2008). "Book Sales Lifted Obamas' Income in 2007 to a Total of $4.2 Million". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/17/us/politics/17obama.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
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- ^ Obama (2006), pp. 202–208. Portions excerpted in:Obama, Barack (October 16, 2006). "My Spiritual Journey". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1546579,00.html. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
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- ^ Christianity Today: "Q&A: Barack Obama" Interview by Sarah Pulliam and Ted Olsen, January 23, 2008
- ^ Obama 'Christian By Choice': President Responds To Questioner by Charles Babington and Darlene Superville, Associated Press, September 28, 2010
- ^ Video – President Obama: "I am a Christian By Choice" by ABC News, September 29, 2010.
- ^ Kantor, Jodi (April 30, 2007). "Barack Obama's search for faith". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/30/world/americas/30iht-30obama.5501905.html. Retrieved April 30, 2007.
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- ^ Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009.) "The Obamas Find a Church Home—Away from Home". Time. Retrieved December 14, 2009.
References[link]
- Mendell, David (2007). Obama: From Promise to Power. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-085820-6.
- Obama, Barack (1995, 2004). Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 1-4000-8277-3.
- Obama, Barack (2006). The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream. New York: Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 0-307-23769-9.
Further reading[link]
- Graff, Garrett. "The Legend of Barack Obama", Washingtonian, November 1, 2006. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
- Koltun, Dave (2005) "The 2004 Illinois Senate Race: Obama Wins Open Seat and Becomes National Political "Star"" in "The Road to Congress 2004" Editors: Sunil Ahuja (Youngstown State University) and Robert Dewhirst (Truman State University), Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, New York, 2005, ISBN 1-59454-360-7
- Lizza, Ryan. "Above the Fray", GQ, September 2007. Retrieved October 27, 2010.
- MacFarquhar, Larissa. "The Conciliator: Where is Barack Obama Coming From?", New Yorker, May 7, 2007. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
- McClelland, Edward, Young Mr. Obama: Chicago and the Making of a Black President, Bloomsbury Press, 2010.
- Zutter, Hank De. "What Makes Obama Run?", Chicago Reader, December 8, 1995. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
External links[link]
This audio file was created from a revision of the "Barack Obama" article dated 2012-04-24, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Obama, Barack |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | American politician, 44th President of the United States |
| Date of birth | August 4, 1961 |
| Place of birth | Honolulu, Hawaii, United States |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Barack_Obama
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Louis Farrakhan Muhammad, Sr. | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Head of the Nation of Islam | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 1978/1981 |
|
| Preceded by | Warith Deen Mohammed |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Louis Eugene Wolcott (1933-05-11) May 11, 1933 (age 79) The Bronx, New York City New York, United States |
| Nationality | American |
| Spouse(s) | Khadijah Farrakhan |
| Relations | Akbar Muhammad, Jabir Herbert Muhammad |
| Alma mater | English High School of Boston |
| Religion | Nation of Islam |
Louis Farrakhan Muhammad, Sr. (born Louis Eugene Wolcott; May 11, 1933, and formerly known as Louis X) is the leader of the syncretic and mainly African-American religious movement the Nation of Islam (NOI). He served as the minister of major mosques in Boston and Harlem, and was appointed by the longtime NOI leader, Elijah Muhammad, before his death in 1975, as the National Representative of the Nation of Islam. After Warith Deen Muhammad disbanded the NOI and started the orthodox Islamic group American Society of Muslims, Farrakhan started rebuilding the NOI. In 1981 he revived the name Nation of Islam for his organization, previously known as Final Call, regaining many of the Nation of Islam's National properties including the NOI National Headquarters Mosque Maryam, reopening over 130 NOI mosques in America and the world. The Southern Poverty Law Center describes Farrakhan as an antisemite.[1]
Farrakhan is a black religious and social leader and a critic of the United States government on many issues. Farrakhan has been both praised and widely criticized for his often controversial political views and outspoken rhetorical style. In October 1995, he organized and led the Million Man March in Washington, D.C., calling on black men to renew their commitments to their families and communities. Due to health issues, in 2007, Farrakhan reduced his responsibilities with the NOI.[2]
Contents |
Early life and education[link]
| Part of a series on the |
| Nation of Islam |
|---|
 |
| Leaders |
| Wallace Fard Muhammad Elijah Muhammad · Malcolm X Warith Deen Mohammed Louis Farrakhan Tynetta Muhammad Mustapha Farrakhan Ishmael Muhammad Ava Muhammad |
| History and beliefs |
| Saviours' Day Nation of Islam and antisemitism Tribe of Shabazz · Yakub Million Man March |
| Publications |
| A Torchlight for America The Final Call How to Eat to Live Muhammad Speaks |
| Subsidiaries and offshoots |
| American Society of Muslims Fruit of Islam The Nation of Gods and Earths New Black Panther Party United Nation of Islam Your Black Muslim Bakery |
Farrakhan was born Louis Eugene Wolcott (also mistakenly spelled Walcott)[3] in The Bronx, New York, the younger of two sons of Sarah Mae Manning (16 January 1900 – 18 November 1988) and Percival Clark, immigrants from the Caribbean islands. His mother was born in Saint Kitts and Nevis. His father was a Jamaican native and worked as a taxicab driver. After Louis' father died in 1936, the Wolcott family moved to Boston, Massachusetts, where they settled in the West Indian neighborhood of the Roxbury area.[citation needed]
Starting at the age of six, Wolcott received rigorous training in the violin.[3] He received his first violin at the age of six, and by time he was 13 years old, he had played with the Boston College Orchestra, and the Boston Civic Symphony.[citation needed] A year later, he went on to win national competitions. In 1946, he was one of the first black performers to appear on the Ted Mack Original Amateur Hour,[3] where he also won an award. He and his family were active members of the Episcopal St. Cyprian's Church in Roxbury, Massachusetts.[citation needed]
Wolcott attended the prestigious Boston Latin School, and later the English High School, from which he graduated.[4] He completed three years of college at Winston-Salem Teachers College, where he had a track scholarship.[5]
Marriage and family[link]
Wolcott was married to Betsy Ross while he was in college. (She later took the name Khadijah Farrakhan). She still lived in Boston, Massachusetts, and was pregnant with their child. Due to complications from the pregnancy, Wolcott dropped out after completing his junior year of college to devote time to her and their child.
Career[link]
In the 1950s, Wolcott started his professional music career by recording several calypso albums as a singer under the name "The Charmer". He also performed on tour. In February 1955, using part of his middle name, Eugene, "Calypso Gene" was headlining a show in Chicago, Illinois, entitled "Calypso Follies." One of his songs was on the top 100 Billboard Chart for five years in a row. There he first came in contact with the teachings of the Nation of Islam (NOI) through Rodney Smith, a friend and saxophonist from Boston, Massachusetts. Wolcott and his wife Betsy were invited to the Nation of Islam's annual Saviours' Day address by Elijah Muhammad. Prior to going to Saviours' Day, due to then-Minister Malcolm X's popularity in the media, Wolcott had never heard of Elijah Muhammad, and like many outside of the Nation of Islam, Wolcott thought that Malcolm X was the leader of the Nation of Islam.[citation needed]
In 1955, Wolcott fulfilled the requirements to be a registered Muslim/registered believer/registered laborer. He memorized and recited verbatim the 10 questions and answers of the NOI's Student Enrollment. He then wrote a Saviour's Letter that must be sent to the NOI's headquarters in Chicago. The Saviour's Letter must be copied verbatim, and have the identical handwriting of the Nation of Islam's founder, Wallace Fard Muhammad. After having the Saviour's Letter reviewed, and approved by the NOI's headquarters in Chicago in July 1955, Wolcott received a letter of approval from the Nation of Islam acknowledging his official membership as a registered Muslim/registered believer/registered laborer in the NOI. As a result, he received his "X." The "X" was considered an algebraic placeholder, used to indicate that Nation of Islam's members original African family names had been lost. They acknowledged European surnames were slave names, often assigned by the slaveowners to mark their ownership. Members of the NOI used the "X" while waiting for their Islamic names, which some NOI members received later in their conversion.[6] Hence, Louis Wolcott became Louis X. Elijah Muhammad then replaced his "X" with the "holy name" Farrakhan, an Arabic name meaning "charmer".
The summer after Louis' conversion, Elijah Muhammad stated that all musicians in the NOI had to choose between music and the Nation of Islam.[3] Louis X did so only after performing one final event at the Nevel Country Club.[citation needed]
Louis X quickly rose through the ranks. After only nine months of being a registered Muslim in the NOI and a member of Muhammad's Temple of Islam in Boston, where Malcolm X was the minister, the former calypso-singer turned Muslim became his assistant minister. Eventually he became the official minister after Elijah Muhammad transferred Malcolm X to Muhammad's Temple of Islam No. 7 on West 116th St. in Harlem, New York City. Today the mosque is a Sunni Muslim masjid (mosque) named in honor of Malcolm X, Masjid Malcolm Shabazz. Louis X continued to be mentored by Malcolm X, until his assassination in 1965. After Malcolm X's dismissal from the NOI, and hajj, an Arabic word meaning pilgrimage, to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, several "revolving ministers," meaning ministers who took turns preaching until an official minister was secured at a particular temple, were used at Muhammad's Temple of Islam No. 7 in Harlem. This occurred before and after Malcolm's death. The day that Malcolm X died in Harlem, Farrakhan happened to be in Newark, New Jersey on rotation, 45 minutes away from where Malcolm X was assassinated. After Malcolm X's death in 1965, Elijah Muhammad appointed Farrakhan to the two prominent positions that his predecessor, Malcolm X held before being dismissed from the NOI. Farrakhan became the national spokesman/national representative of the NOI until Elijah Muhammad's death in 1975 (a position Farrakhan still calls himself today). He was also appointed in 1965 minister of the influential Harlem Mosque (Temple), where he served from 1965 to 1975.[citation needed]
Considered by many to be a former (and by some, a present) competitor to Malcolm X, Farrakhan made numerous incendiary statements about him, contributing to what was called a "climate of vilification."[7] This may have contributed to what ultimately led to the assassination of Malcolm X at a time when he was beginning to distance himself from the NOI after his hajj to Mecca.[7] Three men from a Newark, New Jersey, NOI mosque were convicted of the killing and served prison sentences.[citation needed] Farrakhan was the keynote speaker at the Newark temple the same day that Malcolm X was assassinated.
Leadership[link]
Warith Deen Mohammed, the seventh son of Elijah and Clara Muhammad, was declared the new leader of the Nation of Islam at the annual Saviour's Day Convention in February 1975, a day after his father died. He made substantial changes to the organization in the late 1970s, taking most members into a closer relationship with traditional (orthodox) Sunni Islam, and renaming the group, Bilalian, and eventually the American Society of Muslims, to indicate the apparent change. He rejected the deification of the founder Wallace D. Fard as Allah in person, the mahdi of the Holy Qur'an and messiah of the Bible, welcomed white worshippers who were once considered devils and enemies in the NOI as equal brothers and friends. In the beginning of these changes, Chief Min. Warith Deen Mohammed gave some Caucasians X's, and extended efforts at inter-religious cooperation and outreach to Christians and Jews.[citation needed] Changing his position and title from Chief Minister Wallace Muhammad to Imam Warith huddin Mohammad, and finally Imam Warith Al-Deen Mohammed, he was responsible for the most massive conversion of over 2,000,000 members of the Nation of Islam to traditional Islam without bloodshed in the United States of America.
Farrakhan joined Imam Warith Al-Deen Mohammed who he followed, and eventually became a Sunni Imam under him for 3 1/2 years from 1975-1978. Imam Mohammed gave Imam Farrakhan two attributes of Allah as his middle names, Abdul-Haleem. In 1978, Imam Farrakhan distanced himself from Mohammed's movement. In a 1990 interview with Emerge magazine, Farrakhan said that he had become disillusioned and decided to "quietly walk away" rather than cause a schism among the members.[citation needed] In 1978, Farrakhan and a small number of supporters decided to rebuild what they considered the original Nation of Islam upon the foundations established by Wallace Fard Muhammad, and Elijah Muhammad. This was done without publicly stating the intent.[citation needed]
In 1979, Farrakhan's group founded a weekly newspaper entitled The Final Call, Inc. intended to be similar to the original Muhammad Speaks Newspaper that Malcolm X claims to have started.[8] It is a mouthpiece for Farrakhan's statements. In 1981, Farrakhan and his supporters held their first Saviour's Day convention in Chicago, Illinois, and took back the name of the Nation of Islam. The event was similar to the earlier Nation's celebrations, last held in Chicago on February 26, 1975. At the convention's keynote address, Farrakhan announced his attempt to restore the Nation of Islam under Elijah Muhammad's teachings.[9]
In October 1989, at a press conference in Washington, DC, Farrakhan described a 1985 vision which he had in the country of Mexico. He was carried up to "a Wheel, or what you call an unidentified flying object", as in the Bible's Book of Ezekiel. During this vision, he heard the voice of Elijah Muhammad, the long-time leader of the Nation of Islam (1934–1975).[10]
On January 12, 1995, Malcolm X's daughter Qubilah Shabazz was arrested for conspiracy to assassinate Farrakhan. According to Stanford University historian Clayborne Carson, "[her family] resented Farrakhan and had good reason to because he was one of those in the Nation responsible for the climate of vilification that resulted in Malcolm X's assassination".[7] Some critics later alleged that the FBI had used paid informant Michael Fitzpatrick to frame Shabazz, who was four years old when her father was killed.[11] Nearly four months later, on the first of May, federal prosecutors dropped their case against Shabazz.[citation needed]
That year in October, Farrakhan convened a broad coalition of one-million men in Washington, D.C., for the Million Man March. Farrakhan and other speakers called for black men to renew their commitments to their families and communities. The event was organized by a wide variety of civil rights and religious organizations and drew men and their sons from across the United States of America. While Farrakhan was the keynote speaker, many other distinguished African American intellectuals addressed the throng including: Maya Angelou; Rosa Parks; Martin Luther King III, Cornel West, Jesse Jackson and Benjamin Chavis. The count however fell far below the hoped-for numbers. The National Parks Service estimated that approximately 440,000 were in attendance [3]. In 2005, together with other prominent African Americans such as the New Black Panther Party leader Malik Zulu Shabazz, the activist Al Sharpton, Addis Daniel and others, Farrakhan marked the 10th anniversary of the Million Man March by holding a second gathering, the Millions More Movement, October 14–17 in Washington D.C.[citation needed]
Recent activity[link]
- 2005, a Black Entertainment Television (BET) poll voted Farrakhan the 'Person of the Year'.[12]
- 2006, an AP-AOL "Black Voices" poll voted Farrakhan the fifth-most important black leader, with 4 percent of the vote.[13]
Hurricane Katrina[link]
In comments in 2005, Farrakhan stated that there was a 25-foot (7.6 m) hole under one of the key levees that failed in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina. He implied that the levee's destruction was a deliberate attempt to wipe out the population of the largely black sections within the city. Farrakhan later said that New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin told him of the crater during a meeting in Dallas, Texas.[14] Farrakhan further claimed that the fact the levee broke the day after Hurricane Katrina is proof that the destruction of the levee was not a natural occurrence. Farrakhan has raised additional questions and has called for federal investigations into the source of the levee break.[15][16] He also asserted that the hurricane was "God's way of punishing America for its warmongering and racism".[17]
Experts including the Independent Levee Investigation Team (ILIT) from the University of California, Berkeley have countered his accusations. The report from the ILIT said "The findings of this panel are that the overtopping of the levees by flood waters, the often sub-standard materials used to shore up the levees, and the age of the levees contributed to these "scour holes" found at many of the sites of levee breaks after the hurricane."[18]
Former support for Barack Obama[link]
In 2008, Farrakhan publicly supported then-Senator Barack Obama who was campaigning at the time to become the president of the United States of America, at the same time criticizing the United States' problems.[19][20][21]
The Obama campaign quickly responded to convey his distance from the minister. "Senator Obama has been clear in his objections to Farrakhan's past pronouncements and has not solicited the minister's support," said Obama spokesman Bill Burton.[19] Obama "rejected and denounced" Farrakhan's support during an NBC presidential candidate debate.
Conservative internet sites such as World Net Daily reported that during his February 24, 2008, "Saviours Day" speech Farrakhan had called Obama "the Messiah".[22] Quoting in context, Farrakhan had said, "Sen. Obama is not the Messiah for sure, but anytime, he gives you a sign of uniting races, ethnic groups, ideologies, religions and makes people feel a sense of oneness, that’s not necessarily Satan’s work, that is I believe the work of God."[23]
Following the 2008 presidential election, Farrakhan explained, during a BET television interview, that he was "careful" to never endorse Obama during his campaign. "I talked about him — but, in very beautiful and glowing terms, stopping short of endorsing him. And unfortunately, or fortunately, however we look at it, the media said I 'endorsed' him, so he renounced my so-called endorsement and support. But that didn’t stop me from supporting him."[24]
As of 2012, Farrakhan no longer supports Obama, whom he has since called the "first Jewish president", due to Obama's support for the 2011 military intervention in Libya, which Farrakhan strongly opposes due to his own support for Muammar al-Gaddafi.[25] At a 31 March 2011 press conference held at the Mosque Maryam, Farrakhan warned that the United States could be "facing a major earthquake as part of God’s divine judgment against the country for her evil".[26]
Health problems[link]
Farrakhan announced that he was seriously ill in a September 11, 2006, letter to his staff, Nation of Islam members and supporters. The letter, published in The Final Call newspaper, said that doctors in Cuba had discovered a peptic ulcer. According to the letter subsequent infections caused Farrakhan to lose 35 pounds, and he urged the Nation of Islam leadership to carry on while he recovered.[27]
Farrakhan was released from his five-week hospital stay on January 28, 2007, after major abdominal surgery. The operation was performed to correct damage caused by side effects of a radioactive "seed" implantation procedure that he received years earlier to successfully treat prostate cancer.[28]
Following his hospital stay, Farrakhan released a "Message of Appreciation" to supporters and well wishers[29] and weeks later delivered the keynote address at the Nation of Islam's annual convention in Detroit.[30]
Criticism and controversy[link]
Farrakhan has been the center of much controversy with critics saying that his views and comments are antisemitic, racist or homophobic.[31] Farrakhan has categorically denied these charges[32] and stated that much of America's perception of him has been shaped by media.[33][34] This defense is echoed by religion scholar and pro-Palestinian activist Mattias Gardell[34] who argues that, when considered in the context of Farrakhan's typically lengthy lectures, many of Farrakhan's controversial comments take on a more nuanced meaning that cannot be conveyed in a sound bite.
Malcolm X's death[link]
Many, including Malcolm X's family, have accused Louis Farrakhan of being involved in the plot to assassinate Malcolm X.[35][36][37][38] For many years, Betty Shabazz, the wife of Malcolm X, harbored resentment toward the Nation of Islam—and Farrakhan in particular—for what she felt was their role in the assassination of her husband.[39] In a heated 1993 speech, Farrakhan seemed to boast of the assassination:
We don't give a damn about no white man law if you attack what we love. And frankly, it ain't none of your business. What do you got to say about it? Did you teach Malcolm? Did you make Malcolm? Did you clean up Malcolm? Did you put Malcolm out before the world? Was Malcolm your traitor or ours? And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor, what the hell business is it of yours? You just shut your mouth, and stay out of it. Because in the future, we gonna become a nation. And a nation gotta be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats. The white man deals with his. The Jews deal with theirs.[40][41][42]
During a 1994 interview, Gabe Pressman asked Shabazz whether Farrakhan "had anything to do" with Malcolm X's death. She replied: "Of course, yes. Nobody kept it a secret. It was a badge of honor. Everybody talked about it, yes."[43] In January 1995, Qubilah Shabazz, the daughter of Malcolm X and Betty Shabazz, was charged with trying to hire an assassin to kill Farrakhan in retaliation for the murder of her father, whom she long believed was responsible for it.[44]
In a 60 Minutes interview that aired during May 2000, Farrakhan stated that some of the things he said may have led to the assassination of Malcolm X. "I may have been complicit in words that I spoke", he said. "I acknowledge that and regret that any word that I have said caused the loss of life of a human being."[45] A few days later Farrakhan denied that he "ordered the assassination" of Malcolm X, although he again acknowledged that he "created the atmosphere that ultimately led to Malcolm X's assassination."[46]
Antisemitism[link]
Many of Farrakhan's comments have been deemed antisemitic by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith.[47][48]
Speaking at the Mosque Maryam in Chicago, Farrakhan stated: "Do you know some of these satanic Jews have taken over BET? They got BET. They got our hair product people. They got Motown. Everything that we built, THEY got it. But the mind of Satan now is running the record industry. Running the movie industry. Running television."[49]
Jewish distributors[link]
Farrakhan has alleged that Jewish distributors blocked a major urban economic renewal initiative in 1985 he had championed which was dubbed "P.O.W.E.R." for People Organized Working for Economic Rebirth. The initiative called for a joint enterprise of businesses and organizations, owned or run by Black people, to produce and distribute a line of cosmetics and toiletries sold under the Clean & Fresh (now defunct) label. Major haircare companies, including Johnson Products Co., backed out of the initiative fearing it could lead to accusations of anti-Semitism.[50] Johnson Products owner George E. Johnson, Sr. maintained that his company's distributors told him that any dealings with Farrakhan's P.O.W.E.R. project would lead to having his own products boycotted. "We knew we could not offend our distribution channels," a Johnson spokesman Dorothy McConner said. "When I saw that," Farrakhan said, "I recognized that the Blackman will never be free until we address the relationship between Blacks and Jews."[51]
"Gutter religion" Accusations[link]
In 1984, after returning from a visit to Libya Farrakhan delivered a sermon that was recorded by a Chicago Sun Times reporter. A transcript from part of the sermon was published in the New York Times:
Toward the end of that portion of his speech that was recorded, Mr. Farrakhan said: "Now that nation called Israel never has had any peace in 40 years and she will never have any peace because there can be no peace structured on injustice, thievery, lying and deceit and using the name of God to shield your dirty religion under His holy and righteous name."[52]
Farrakhan has repeatedly denied referring to Judaism as a "gutter religion" explaining that he was instead referring to the Israeli Government's use of Judaism as a political tool. In a June 18, 1997, letter to a former Wall Street Journal editor Jude Wanniski he stated:
Countless times over the years I have explained that I never referred to Judaism as a gutter religion, but, clearly referred to the machinations of those who hide behind the shield of Judaism while using unjust political means to achieve their objectives. This was distilled in the New York tabloids and other media saying, 'Farrakhan calls Judaism a gutter religion.'As a Muslim, I revere Abraham, Moses, and all the Prophets whom Allah (God) sent to the children of Israel. I believe in the scriptures brought by these Prophets and the Laws of Allah (God) as expressed in the Torah. I would never refer to the Revealed Word of Allah (God) — the basis of Jewish Faith — as 'dirty' or 'gutter.' You know, Jude, as well as I, that the Revealed Word of Allah (God) comes as a Message from Allah (God) to purify us from our evil that has divided us and caused us to fall into the gutter.
Over the centuries, the evils of Christians, Jews and Muslims have dirtied their respective religions. True Faith in the laws and Teaching of Abraham, Jesus and Muhammad is not dirty, but, practices in the name of these religions can be unclean and can cause people to look upon the misrepresented religion as being unclean.[53]
"Black Hitler" characterization[link]
In response to Farrakhan's speech, Nathan Pearlmutter, then Chair of the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) of B'nai B'rith, referred to Farrakhan as the new "Black Hitler" and Village Voice journalist Nat Hentoff also characterized the NOI leader as a "Black Hitler" while a guest on a New York radio talk-show.
In response, Farrakhan announced during a March 11, 1984, speech broadcast on a Chicago radio station:
So I said to the members of the press, 'Why won't you go and look into what we are saying about the threats on Reverend Jackson's life?' Here the Jews don't like Farrakhan and so they call me 'Hitler'. Well that's a good name. Hitler was a very great man. He wasn't great for me as a Black man but he was a great German and he rose Germany up from the ashes of her defeat by the united force of all of Europe and America after the First World War. Yet Hitler took Germany from the ashes and rose her up and made her the greatest fighting machine of the twentieth century, brothers and sisters, and even though Europe and America had deciphered the code that Hitler was using to speak to his chiefs of staff, they still had trouble defeating Hitler even after knowing his plans in advance. Now I'm not proud of Hitler's evil toward Jewish people, but that's a matter of record. He rose Germany up from nothing. Well, in a sense you could say there is a similarity in that we are rising our people up from nothing, but don't compare me with your wicked killers.[54][55]
Gulf war prophecy[link]
He prophesied that the First Gulf War would be the "War of Armageddon which is the final war."[56]
H1N1 Vaccine Conspiracy Theory[link]
On October 21, 2009, Farrakhan told an audience in Memphis that he believes the H1N1 flu vaccine was developed to depopulate the earth. During a gathering to observe the Nation of Islam's Holy Day of Atonement, which also marked the 14th anniversary of the Million Man March in Washington, the Memphis Commercial Appeal reported Farrakhan as saying:
The Earth can't take 6.5 billion people. The popular belief of some is "We just can't feed that many. So what are you going to do? Kill as many as you can. We have to develop a science that kills them and makes it look as though they died from some disease.[57]
Praise of President Robert Mugabe[link]
In 2002, Louis Farrakhan went to Zimbabwe in support of President Robert Mugabe's intentions to enforce proposed redistribution of white-owned land and property. Farrakhan said he was in "full support" of Mugabe's policies "as it was aimed at correcting a historical injustice".[58]
Accepted support from Moammar Gadhafi[link]
According to the Associated Press, Farrakhan called the former Libyan leader Moammar Gadhafi a friend and Muslim brother who's lent the Nation of Islam movement $8 million over the years.[59] Farrakhan explained, "I love Moammar Gadhafi, and I love our president. It grieves me to see my brother president set a policy that would remove this man not only from power, but from the earth."[60] According to the Associated Press, Farrakhan portrayed Gadhafi as a fellow revolutionary and longtime friend to the Nation of Islam, which reportedly used $3 million it borrowed from Libya in the 1970s to acquire the building and land which formerly housed the St. Constantine & Helen Greek Orthodox Church on Chicago's South Side.[60] Years later, a $5 million loan was used to pay back taxes and costs for the home of the movement's former leader Elijah Muhammad.[60] Despite Gadhafi's connection to the Lockerbie Bombing, Farrakhan said, "I don't care what Gadhafi has done wrong, he is not the 'mad dog of the Middle East.'"[60]
Belief in UFOs[link]
Main article: Nation of Islam#The Mother Plane and Ezekiel's Wheel
In an interview Farrakhan claimed the existence of a ship he calls The Wheel which houses weapons capable of defeating all weapons on earth. He claims that many call UFOs The Wheel, or what Elijah Muhammad called "The Mother Plane." Farrakhan also alleges government conspiracy in covering up reports on these sightings.[61] In an interview with Jamie Maussan on April 11, 2011, he claimed that The Wheel would make itself clear to the population of earth in a matter of "days".[62]
Farrakhan and classical music[link]
When Farrakhan first joined the NOI he was asked by Elijah Muhammad to put aside his musical career as a violinist. After 42 years, Farrakhan decided to take up the violin once more primarily due to the urging of prominent classical musician Sylvia Olden Lee.[citation needed]
On April 17, 1993, Farrakhan made his return concert debut with performances of the Violin Concerto in E Minor by Felix Mendelssohn. Farrakhan intimated that his performance of a concerto by a Jewish composer was, in part, an effort to heal a rift between him and the Jewish community.[63] The New York Times music critic Bernard Holland reported that Farrakhan's performance was somewhat flawed due to years of neglect "nonetheless Mr. Farrakhan's sound is that of the authentic player. It is wide, deep and full of the energy that makes the violin gleam."[63] Farrakhan has gone on to perform the Violin Concerto of Ludwig van Beethoven and has announced plans to perform those of Tchaikovsky and Brahms.[citation needed]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ Louis Farrakhan, Southern Poverty Law Center
- ^ New York Times
- ^ a b c d Bernard Holland, "Sending a Message, Louis Farrakhan Plays Mendelssohn", New York Times, 19 April 1993, accessed 3 December 2010
- ^ John B. Judis, "Maximum Leader", The New York Times, August 18, 1996, Accessed on May 19, 2006.
- ^ New York Times
- ^ Lincoln, C. Eric (1994). The Black Muslims in America. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.. ISBN 978-0-8028-0703-8.
- ^ a b c "Farrakhan helped build climate for Malcolm X's death", Stanford University News Service, 17 January 1995, accessed 3 December 2010
- ^ Malcolm X (1964). The Autobiography of Malcolm X. The Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-345-37671-8.
- ^ "Farrakhan continues Hon. Elijah Muhammad's mission", Final Call
- ^ Press Conference Transcript: October 24, 1989
- ^ John Dee, "The Shabazz Sanction: FBI-Manufactured Plot to Kill Farrakhan", reprinted from Lumpen Times, vol. 3 no. 27 (March 1995)
- ^ "A more conciliatory Farrakhan: 'I've evolved'". CNN. March 26, 2008. http://articles.cnn.com/2007-03-09/us/btsc.lemon_1_louis-farrakhan-nation-of-islam-leader-million-man-march?_s=PM:US. Retrieved 07-08-2011.
- ^ "Poll: Jesse Jackson, Rice Top Blacks". CBS News. February 15, 2006. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/02/15/national/main1321719.shtml.
- ^ Katrina survivors speak out
- ^ http://www.blackamericaweb.com/site.aspx/sayitloud/kane929
- ^ :: BlackElectorate.com ::
- ^ Michael Eric Dyson, Come Hell or High Water: Hurricane Katrina and the Color of Disaster (2006), pp. 178-202. ISBN 0-465-01761-4.
- ^ Independent Levee Investigation Team at UC Berkeley (2006-07-31). "Independent Levee Investigation Team Final Report – Chapter 7: The New Orleans East Protected Area" (PDF). University of California, Berkeley. pp. 1–30. http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~new_orleans/report/CH_7.pdf. Retrieved 2006-12-12.
- ^ a b Margaret Ramirez and Mike Dorning, "Farrakhan sings Obama’s praises Senator has criticized him, says support not sought", Chicago Tribune, February 25, 2008 ]
- ^ finalcall.com
- ^ www.youtube.com
- ^ "Farrakhan on Obama", Posted October 9, 2008
- ^ Farrakhan addresses world at Saviours' Day 2008, March 5, 2008
- ^ BET Interview with Minister Louis Farrakhan, Posted date: February 6, 2009
- ^ http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/129317/20110331/libya-usa.htm
- ^ Louis Farrakhan Press Conference, Mosque Maryam, 31 March 2011
- ^ Letter from the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan
- ^ FCN, January 30, 2007
- ^ NOI Statements, 2007
- ^ Farrakhan 2007 NOI Convention Webcast, February 25, 2007
- ^ Bierbauer, Charles (17 October 1995). Million Man March: Its goal more widely accepted than its leader. CNN. http://cnn.com/US/9510/megamarch/10-17/notebook
- ^ Nation of Islam condemns politically-motivated charges of racism [1], Nation of Islam Statements], October 7, 2000
- ^ Who is Farrakhan? [2], Interview with The Arizona Republic, March 25, 1996
- ^ a b Gardell, Mattias (1996). In the Name of Elijah Mohammed: Louis Farrakhan and The Nation of Islam. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1845-3.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 437, 492–495.
- ^ Evanzz, pp. 298–299.
- ^ Kondo, pp. 182–183, 193–194.
- ^ Marable, p. 305.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 436–439, 492–495.
- ^ Rickford, p. 492.
- ^ Wartofsky, Alona (February 17, 1995). "'Brother Minister: The Martyrdom of Malcolm X'". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/brotherministerthemartyrdomofmalcolmx_c0098f.htm. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ "Farrakhan on Malcolm X's Assassination, 1993". YouTube.com. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIdRFZ2uQkU.
- ^ "Widow of Malcolm X Suspects Farrakhan Had Role in Killing". The New York Times (The New York Times Company). March 13, 1994. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/13/nyregion/widow-of-malcolm-x-suspects-farrakhan-had-role-in-killing.html. Retrieved June 11, 2010.
- ^ "Malcolm X's Daughter Indicted in Alleged Plot to Kill Louis Farrakhan". Jet (Johnson Publishing Company): 6–10. January 30, 1995. http://books.google.com/books?id=Oj0DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA6&lpg=PA6. Retrieved June 11, 2010.
- ^ "Farrakhan Admission on Malcolm X". 60 Minutes (CBS News). May 14, 2000. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/05/10/60minutes/main194051.shtml. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "Farrakhan Responds to Media Attacks". The Final Call. May 15, 2000. http://www.finalcall.com/columns/mlf/2000/mlf-60minutes05-15-2000.html. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "Farrakhan In His Own Words". The Anti-Defamation League. http://www.adl.org/special_reports/farrakhan_own_words2/farrakhan_own_words.asp. Retrieved 2007-08-19.
- ^ "Farrakhan on Jews". Adl.org. http://www.adl.org/special_reports/farrakhan_own_words2/on_jews.asp. Retrieved 2010-05-19.
- ^ "Farrakhan In His Own Words". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4K75EPrtBz4. Retrieved 2010-05-19.
- ^ "Johnson Products Drops Plan". New York Times (New York Times). October 24, 1985. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9907E7DC1638F937A15753C1A963948260&n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/People/F/Farrakhan,%20Louis.
- ^ Sylvester, Monroe (February 28, 1984). "They Suck the Life From You". Time (magazine). http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,980215-3,00.html. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
- ^ Shipp, E. R. (June 29, 1984). "Tape Contradicts Disavowal of 'Gutter Religion' Attack". The New York Times: pp. A12
- ^ Memo, 12-22-97; Letter From Farrakhan.
- ^ Minister Farrakhan rebuts fraudulent "Judaism is a Gutter Religion" canard.
- ^ Letter from Louis Farrakhan.
- ^ Richard Abanes, End-Time Visions. Four Walls Eight Windows, New York, 1998. Page 307.
- ^ "Farrakhan suspicious of H1N1 vaccine". UPI.com. October 19, 2009. http://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2009/10/19/Farrakhan-suspicious-of-H1N1-vaccine/UPI-63931256011008. Retrieved 2010-09-24.
- ^ "Farrakhan backs Zimbabwe land grab". BBC News. July 13, 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/2126648.stm. Retrieved 2008-06-07.
- ^ "Farrakhan: Libya has lent Nation of Islam millions," Associated Press, March 31, 2011. http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20110401/ap_on_re_us/us_nation_of_islam_farrakhan
- ^ a b c d Id.
- ^ "Farrakhan's Nation of Islam to Argue UFOs Are Real," Associated Press, February 25, 2011. http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2011/02/25/nation-islam-convention-include-talk-ufos/
- ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s-dp4DGNhvI
- ^ a b Holland, Bernard (April 19, 1993). "Sending a Message, Louis Farrakhan Plays Mendelssohn". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1993/04/19/arts/sending-a-message-louis-farrakhan-plays-mendelssohn.html?pagewanted=all. "Mr. Farrakhan acknowledged the symbolism in his playing of music by a European Jew...Speaking in a quiet but insistent voice, he said he would "try to do with music what cannot be done with words and try to undo with music what words have done.""
Further reading[link]
- Muhammad, Jabril (2006). Closing The Gap: Inner Views of the Heart, Mind & Soul of the Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan. FCN Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-929594-99-3.
- Gardell, Mattias (1996). In the Name of Elijah Mohammed: Louis Farrakhan and The Nation of Islam. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-1845-3.
- Farrakhan, Louis (1993). A Torchlight for America. FCN Publishing Co. ISBN 0-9637642-4-1.
External links[link]
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Louis Farrakhan |
- Nation of Islam's Official Louis Farrakhan Bio Sketch
- Final Call Newspaper, founded by Louis Farrakhan
- Louis Farrakhan's weekly news column
- Farrakhan Speaks Podcast
- Malcolm X Reloaded Podcast
- Nation of Islam's Women Committed to the Truth -Not a pro Louis Farrakhan site. They are critical of his leadership of the NOI
- Minister Farrakhan's Letter to President George W. Bush
- Tim Russert interview
- Islam or Farrakhanism: What Does the Nation of Islam Believe?
- "Teachings of the Honorable Elijah Muhammad" for the WGBH series, Say Brother
- Farrakhan in His Own Words A selection of quotes from Farrakhan's speeches prepared by the Anti-Defamation League
- 2006 Friends of Mankind Award
- My walk with Farrakhan testimony
- 1999 Village Voice article outlining NOI leadership
- Louis Farrakhan at the Internet Movie Database
Farrakhan videos[link]
- Video collection on Farrakhan, the Nation of Islam (NOI), and the conflict between Blacks and Jews
- March 2006 Havana, Cuba Press Conference
- May, 2004 Washington, D.C. Press Conference on U.S. Government's War on Terrorism
- April, 2002 Press Conference on Arab, Muslim/Israeli Conflict
- Let Us Make Man Part I – africanconnections.com – Technical Note: playback requires Flash 10 Player
- Let Us Make Man Part II – africanconnections.com – Technical Note: playback requires Flash 10 Player
- BBC Video
- FOX News Interview on Millions More Movement
- Farrakhan Webcast: The Murder of Malcolm X
- Mike Wallace interview on CBS with Farrakhan and Atallah Shabazz
- Birth of a nation
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Farrakhan, Louis |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | May 11, 1933 |
| Place of birth | The Bronx, New York City New York, U.S. |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Louis_Farrakhan
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Farrakhan
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| The Most Excellent The Countess of Murillo GE, DBE |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| 3rd President of Madrid | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 17 October 2003 |
|
| Monarch | Juan Carlos I |
| Preceded by | Alberto Ruiz-Gallardón |
| President of the Spanish Senate | |
| In office 9 February 1999 – 16 October 2002 |
|
| Preceded by | Juan Ignacio Barrero |
| Succeeded by | Juan José Lucas |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Esperanza Aguirre y Gil de Biedma (1952-01-03) 3 January 1952 (age 60) Madrid, Spain |
| Nationality | Spanish |
| Political party | People's Party |
| Other political affiliations |
Liberal Party People's Alliance |
| Spouse(s) | Fernando Ramírez de Haro, 15th Count of Murillo |
| Children | Fernando Ramírez de Haro, 10th Marquis of Villanueva del Duero Álvaro, 16th Count of Villariezo |
| Alma mater | Complutense University |
| Profession | Civil Servant |
| Website | www.esperanzaaguirre.org |
This name uses Spanish naming customs; the first or paternal family name is Aguirre and the second or maternal family name is Gil de Biedma.
Esperanza Aguirre y Gil de Biedma, Countess of Murillo, Grandee of Spain, DBE (born 3 January 1952) is a Spanish politician and the current President of Madrid. She is President of Madrid's People's Party and the first female politician to have held the office of President of the Senate and Minister of Education and Culture in Spanish democratic history.
Aguirre is a former member of Unión Liberal, Partido Liberal and Popular Alliance, which changed its name to Partido Popular (People's Party) in 1989. Since her early years she has been a member of the Club Liberal of Madrid, which was presided over by an economics professor at the Complutense University, Pedro Schwartz.[citation needed] Schwartz reportedly played an important role in the beginnings of Aguirre's political career: in 1983, he was the one to convince her, by then a civil servant, to stand in the Madrid local elections of that year for Schwartz's Liberal Union and become a councilwoman.[1]
Contents
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Early years (1952-1974)[link]
Aguirre was born in Madrid into a family Spanish nobility, being the eldest daughter of José Luis Aguirre Borrell, a lawyer, and Piedad Gil de Biedma y Vega de Seoane, daughter of José Gil de Biedma, 3rd Count of Sepúlveda. She is a niece of the late Catalan poet, Jaime Gil de Biedma. She studied in the "La Asunción" School and in the British Council School of Madrid and earned a degree in Law in Complutense University (Madrid) in 1974. She is fluent in English and French.
Administrative career (1974-1982)[link]
Aguirre joined the Technical Division of the Ministry of Information and Tourism as a civil servant in 1976. She was head of the Department of Publicity and Tourism, where she remained until 1979. Subsequently, she had many different jobs in the Ministry of Culture, serving several Ministers during the Democratic Centre Union governments; especially designated by the Prime Minister himself. In 1979, she was chief of staff of the General Director of Literature and Cinematography. She was appointed Deputy General Director of Studies of the Technical General Secretariat of the Ministry of Culture in 1980. In 1981, she was appointed Deputy General Director in the Advisory Staff of the Secretary of State of Culture. Her last position with the Administration was as Deputy General Director of Cultural Associations.
Councillor of Madrid (1983-1996)[link]
Esperanza Aguirre first became a councillor with the defunct Coalición Popular, in which she was a member of the smaller Unión Liberal. Between 1983 and 1986 she held a seat on Madrid City Council as a member of Coalición Popular. While in opposition, she was a member of the Standing Committee of the City Council, a CP spokeswoman on the areas of Culture, Education, Youth and Sports Affairs, and the Moncloa district. When Unión Liberal merged with Partido Liberal, in December 1984, she held different positions in the National Executive and the Political Council of José Antonio Segurado's Partido Liberal.
In 1987 she left the Partido Liberal and joined Popular Alliance, which later became the People's Party. She was subsequently re-elected to the city council and continued in opposition until 1989, when a successful vote of no confidence ousted the socialist mayor Juan Barranco, which allowed the People's Party and Democratic and Social Centre to govern Madrid for the first time since the restoration of democracy in 1977. In the new local executive, she was designated head of the Department of the Environment.
In 1991, under José María Álvarez del Manzano, the People's Party won a council majority and Aguirre was again appointed to the Environment Department. Two years later, she was designated as Head of the Culture Department and controlled the areas of Sports, Education and Hygiene. In 1995 she became the spokeswoman of People's Party in Madrid City Council and was appointed by the City Council to the Caja Madrid Board of Governors.
Minister of Education, Culture and Sports (1996-1999)[link]
In the general election of 1996 she was the candidate for the Senate for Madrid of the People's Party, after her designation as a member of the National Executive Committee of the Party; and she became a senator. The then new President, José María Aznar, appointed her to be Minister of Education, Culture and Sports. She was succeeded in those posts in 1999 by Mariano Rajoy. During this period she became very famous because of sense of humour.
President of the Senate (1999-2002)[link]
Aguirre, a Senator since 1996, was elected President of the Senate in February 1999, the first woman to do so. In March 2000, she was re-elected Senator for Madrid, becoming the top-voted candidate in Spain with 1.55 million votes and 50.7% of the popular vote, a percentage record still unbroken.[2] She resigned in 2002 to run for the Presidency of the Autonomous Community of Madrid in the regional Assembly elections of 2003. She was substituted as President of the Senate by Juan José Lucas.
President of the Community of Madrid (2003-)[link]
First regional elections of 2003 and the dissenting deputies of PSOE[link]
Main article: President of Madrid#The 6th term scandal
When the regional elections took place in May 2003, the People's Party won a plurality of seats. The People's Party won 55 seats in the Madrid Assembly, being the only party of the right in the Assembly. On the left, PSOE won 47 seats and United Left won 9 seats, thus making it possible for a coalition of PSOE and IU to rule.
However, the election of a leftist coalition was not possible due to two dissenting deputies of the PSOE, Eduardo Tamayo and María Teresa Sáez, who refused to obey the party whip in the first two votes, the election of the speaker and the election of the president.[citation needed] Most leftist politicians and several media organs accused Tamayo and Sáez of being bribed into breaking party discipline by prominent members of the PP, following accusations that the hotel rooms they were hiding in had been paid for by businessmen from the construction industry with links to the PP.[citation needed] This theory was dismissed after a parliamentary investigation and was never proven.[citation needed]
.jpg)
Second regional elections of 2003[link]
In October 2003, following the scandal of the dissenting deputies, the regional elections were rerun. The People's Party won a majority of seats, which enabled Aguirre to became President of Madrid.[citation needed]
Aguirre's most important achievements in those years[when?] were the reduction of surgery waiting times, the building of eight new hospitals and 87 new state schools (most of them bilingual), an increase in the investment for several scholarships of education, and the expansion of the Underground to suburban areas such as Pozuelo de Alarcón.[citation needed]
Damehood[link]
In February 2004, Aguirre was appointed Honorary Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire. She is the first Spanish woman to date to have been awarded this honour.
Mumbai[link]
Aguirre was one of the many civilians trapped in the terrorist attacks in Mumbai on 26 November 2008, but she managed to escape unharmed.
Family[link]
Aguirre married in Madrid, on 1 January 1974, Fernando Ramírez de Haro, 15th Count of Murillo, Grandee of Spain, elder son of Ignacio Ramírez de Haro, 15th Count of Bornos, Grandee of Spain, and his wife Beatriz Valdés, 4th Marquise of Casa Valdés. They have two sons:
- Fernando Ramírez de Haro, 10th Marquis of Villanueva del Duero, Grandee of Spain, (b. 23 August 1976).
- Álvaro Ramírez de Haro, 16th Count of Villariezo, (b. 4 April 1980).
Ancestry[link]
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References[link]
- ^ Extract of Aguirre bio by Virginia Drake, Esperanza Aguirre: la presidenta
- ^ In the 2008 election, her party colleague Juan José Lucas gathered 1.68 million votes, but this only amounted to ~48.5% of the valid vote
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Esperanza Aguirre |
|
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Esperanza Aguirre |
- Latest news over Esperanza Aguirre (English)
- Official biography of Esperanza Aguirre (Spanish)
- Helicopter accident on YouTube (Spanish)
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Jerónimo Saavedra as Minister of Education and Carmen Alborch as Minister of Culture |
Minister of Education, Culture and Sports 1996 - 1999 |
Succeeded by Mariano Rajoy |
| Preceded by Alberto Ruiz-Gallardón |
President of Madrid 2003 - present |
Incumbent |
| Spanish Senate | ||
| Preceded by Juan Ignacio Barrera |
President of the Senate 1999 - 2002 |
Succeeded by Juan José Lucas |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by Pío García-Escudero |
President of the PP in Madrid 2004 – present |
Incumbent |
|
|||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Aguirre, Esperanza |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 3 January 1952 |
| Place of birth | Madrid, Spain |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Esperanza_Aguirre
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanza_Aguirre
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For the English cricketer, see Oli Stone.
| Oliver Stone | |
|---|---|
 Stone at the 66th Venice International Film Festival, 2009 |
|
| Born | William Oliver Stone (1946-09-15) September 15, 1946 (age 65) New York City, USA |
| Occupation | Film director, producer, and screenwriter |
| Years active | 1971–present |
| Religion | Buddhist |
| Spouse | Najwa Sarkis (1971–1977) Elizabeth Burkit Cox (1981–1993) Sun-jung Jung (1996 – present) |
William Oliver Stone (born September 15, 1946) is an American film director, producer and screenwriter. Stone became well known in the late 1980s and the early 1990s for directing a series of films about the Vietnam War, in which he had previously participated as an infantry soldier. He won further attention - and controversy - with films JFK (1991) and Natural Born Killers (1994). Stone's movies frequently focus on contemporary political and cultural issues. He has received three Academy Awards: Best Adapted Screenplay for Midnight Express (1978), and Best Director for Platoon (1986) and Born on the Fourth of July (1989). British newspaper The Guardian described Stone as "one of the few committed men of the left working in mainstream American cinema."[1] Stone's films often combine different cameras and film formats within a single scene (including VHS and 8 mm film) as evidenced in JFK and Natural Born Killers.[2]
Contents |
Early life[link]
Stone was born in New York City, the son of Jacqueline (née Goddet) and Louis Stone, a stockbroker.[3] He grew up affluently and lived in townhouses in Manhattan and Stamford, Connecticut. His father was Jewish and his mother was French-born and Roman Catholic.[4] As a religious compromise, Stone was raised in the Episcopal Church,[5][6] but has since converted to Buddhism.[7] Stone attended Trinity School before his parents sent him away to attend The Hill School, a college-preparatory school in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. His mother was often absent and his father made a big impact on his life; father-son relationships were to feature heavily in Stone's films.[8] His parents divorced when he was 15, due to his father's extramarital affairs with the wives of several family friends.[9] Stone's father was also influential in obtaining jobs for his son, including work on a financial exchange in France, where Stone often spent his summer vacation with his maternal grandparents - a job that proved inspirational to Stone for his movie Wall Street. Stone graduated from The Hill School in 1964.
Stone was then admitted into Yale University, but left after a year.[10] Stone had become inspired by Joseph Conrad's novel Lord Jim as well as by Zorba the Greek and George Harrison's music to teach English at the Free Pacific Institute in South Vietnam. Stone taught in Vietnam for six months after which he worked as a wiper on a United States Merchant Marine ship, travelling to Oregon and Mexico, before returning to Yale, where he dropped out a second time (in part due to working on his 1,400 page autobiographical novel A Child's Night Dream).[9] In September 1967, Stone enlisted in the United States Army, requesting combat duty in Vietnam. He fought with the 25th Infantry Division, then with the First Cavalry Division, earning a Bronze Star and a Purple Heart with an Oak Leaf Cluster before his discharge in 1968 after 15 months.[9]
Early film career[link]
Stone graduated from film school at New York University in 1971, where he was mentored by director Martin Scorsese (the same year, he had a small acting role in comedy The Battle of Love's Return.[11]). Stone first began making his mark in film as a scriptwriter in the late 70s, in the period between his first two films as a director: horror films Seizure (1974), and The Hand (1981), which stars Michael Caine. In 1978 he won his first Academy Award, after adapting true-life jail tale Midnight Express into a hit film for British director Alan Parker (the two would later collaborate on a 1996 movie of stage musical Evita).
Stone wrote further features before his directing career took off in 1986, including cult Al Pacino drug lord tale Scarface. The majority of those that made it to the screen were crime stories or thrillers, with the exception of Conan the Barbarian (1982). Stone has written or taken part in the writing of every film he has directed, except for crime movie U Turn (1997).
In 1986 Stone directed two films back to back: the critically acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful Salvador, shot largely in Mexico, and his long in development Vietnam project Platoon, shot in the Phillippines.
Mainstream success[link]
Platoon bought Stone's name to a much wider audience. It also finally kickstarted a busy directing career, which saw him making nine films over the next decade. Alongside some negative reaction, Platoon won many rave reviews (Roger Ebert later called it the ninth best film of the 1980s), large audiences, and Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Director. In 2007, a film industry vote ranked it at number 83 in an American Film Institute "AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies" poll of the previous century's best American movies. British TV channel Channel 4 voted Platoon as the sixth greatest war film ever made.[12]
Platoon was the first of three films Stone has made about Vietnam: the others were Born on the Fourth of July (1989, for which he won his second Oscar for directing) and Heaven & Earth (1993). He has called these films a trilogy; each deals with different aspects of the war. Platoon is a semi-autobiographical film about Stone's experience in combat; Born on the Fourth of July is based on the autobiography of US marine turned peace campaigner Ron Kovic; Heaven & Earth is based on memoir When Heaven and Earth Changed Places, in which Le Ly Hayslip, recalls her life as a Vietnamese girl drastically affected by the war.
During this same period, Stone directed one of his most ambitious, controversial and successful films to date, JFK (1991). His take on the assassination of President John F. Kennedy won him a Golden Globe for directing. Stone also directed the acclaimed Wall Street (1987), which won Michael Douglas an Academy Award for Best Actor as a ruthless Wall Street corporate raider; Talk Radio (1988), based on Eric Bogosian's Pulitzer-nominated play, and The Doors (1991), starring Val Kilmer as singer Jim Morrison.
I make my films like you're going to die if you miss the next minute. You better not go get popcorn.
–Oliver Stone[13]
1994–present[link]
In 1994 saw the release of Stone's frenzied, controversial satire of the modern media, Natural Born Killers. This tale of two serial killers was later ranked as Entertainment Weekly's eight 'Most Controversial' movies to date.[citation needed] Stone went on to direct Nixon (1995), which was nominated for Oscars for script and Anthony Hopkins' portrait of President Richard Nixon.
Stone followed Nixon with two more intentionally populist works, road movie U Turn (1997), and Any Given Sunday (1999), a film about power struggles within and without an American football team. In 2010, he returned to Wall Street for sequel Money Never Sleeps.[14] Stone also directed the critically savaged Alexander (2004). He later re-edited his biopic of Alexander the Great in two different cuts for DVD. After Alexander, Stone went on to direct World Trade Center, based on the true story of two Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) policemen who were trapped in rubble after the September 11, 2001 attacks.
Stone hoped to direct a fourth Vietnam War film Pinkville, about an investigation into the My Lai Massacre of Vietnamese civilians. The film was to have been made for the newly reformed United Artists.[15], but the company halted the December 2007 production start thanks to the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. After the strike, Stone went on to write, produce and direct the George W. Bush biopic, titled W. (2008). The film portrays the controversial President's childhood, relationship with his father, struggles with alcoholism, rediscovery of his Christian faith, and continues up until the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Josh Brolin plays the title role.
Controversy[link]
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This article's Criticism or Controversy section may compromise the article's neutral point of view of the subject. Please integrate the section's contents into the article as a whole, or rewrite the material. (August 2010) |
In 1991, Stone showed his film JFK to Congress on Capitol Hill, which helped lead to passage of the Assassination Materials Disclosure Act[16] of 1992. The Assassination Records Review Board (created by Congress to end the secrecy surrounding Kennedy's assassination) discussed the film, including Stone's observation at the end of the film, about the dangers inherent in government secrecy.[17] Stone published an annotated version of the screenplay, in which he cites references for his claims, shortly after the film's release.
Stone's screenplay Midnight Express was criticized by some[who?] for its portrayal of Turkish people. The original author, Billy Hayes, around whom the film is set, has spoken out against the film, protesting that he had many Turkish friends while in jail.[18]
Stone's film Natural Born Killers (originally based on a screenplay by Quentin Tarantino), released in 1994, received controversial recognition for its portrayal of violence, along with the intended satire on the media. Before it was released, the MPAA gave the film a NC-17 rating; this caused Stone to cut four minutes of film footage in order to obtain an R rating (he eventually released the unrated version on VHS and DVD in 2001). Entertainment Weekly ranked Natural Born Killers at number 8 on their list of the 25 Most Controversial Movies Ever.[citation needed]
Stone's other film The Doors, released in 1991, received criticism from former Doors member Ray Manzarek (keyboardist–bass player) during a question and answer session at Indiana University East (in Richmond, Indiana), in 1997. During the discussion, Manzarek stated that he sat down with Stone about The Doors and Jim Morrison for over 12 hours. Patricia Kennealy Morrison - a well known rock critic and author - was a consultant on the movie, in which she also has a cameo appearance, but she writes in her memoir Strange Days: My Life With and Without Jim Morrison (Dutton, 1992) that Stone ignored everything she told him and proceeded with his own version of events. From the moment the movie was released, she blasted it as untruthful and inaccurate.[19] The other surviving former members of the band, John Densmore and Robby Krieger, also cooperated with the filming of Doors, but distanced themselves from the work before the film's release.
Also in 1997, Stone was one of 34 celebrities to sign an open letter to then-German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, published as a newspaper advertisement in the International Herald Tribune, which protested against the treatment of Scientologists in Germany and compared it to the Nazis' oppression of Jews in the 1930s.[20] Other signatories included Dustin Hoffman and Goldie Hawn.[20]
In 2010, Stone defended his decision not to interview Hugo Chavez's opponents during the filming of his documentary South of the Border. Stone indicated that people hear enough of those complaints already and that the movie is not intended to be a detailed examination of Chavez's record. He praised Chavez as a leader of a movement for "social transformation" in Latin America and expressed his deep admiration for him.[21]
Drug use[link]
Stone loosely based Scarface on his own addiction to cocaine which he had to kick while writing the screenplay.[22] On the DVD of Natural Born Killers: The Director's Cut, one of the producers, Jane Hamsher, recounts stories of taking psilocybin mushrooms with Stone and some of the cast and crew and almost getting pulled over by a police officer—a situation which Stone later wrote into the film.[citation needed] In 1999, Stone was arrested and pleaded guilty to alcohol and drug charges. He was ordered into a rehabilitation program. He was arrested again on the night of May 27, 2005 in Los Angeles for possession of an undisclosed illegal drug.[23]
Attempted meeting with FARC[link]
See also: Operation Emmanuel
In a January 2008 interview with The Observer, Stone expressed disgust for what he claims to be the ongoing U.S.-supported paramilitary violence in Colombia's "war on drugs." He accompanied Hugo Chávez, Venezuela's president and third party negotiator with the Colombian guerrilla group known as Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), in the release of three hostages held for over six years, another episode in the humanitarian exchange affair.
During The Observer interview, Stone did not condemn the FARC outright; "I do think that by the standards of Western civilization they go too far; they kidnap innocent people. On the other hand, they're fighting a desperate battle against highly financed, American-supported forces who have been terrorizing the countryside for years and kill most of the people. FARC is fighting back as best it can and grabbing hostages is the fashion in which they can finance themselves and try to achieve their goals, which are difficult. They're a peasant army; I see them as a Zapata-like army. I think they are heroic to fight for what they believe in and die for it, as was Castro in the hills of Cuba."[24]
Stone made the comments shortly after returning from a trip to Colombia, where he was to have filmed footage of the expected release of three FARC hostages, including a young child named Emanuel. In the days before the 2007 New Year's Eve, the Venezuelan government had arranged for the release of high-profile hostages held in the Colombian jungle by the FARC guerrilla group. A high-level international team of observers was on hand, including former President Néstor Kirchner of Argentina, Brazil's top presidential foreign policy advisor, and representatives from France, Switzerland, Bolivia, Ecuador, Cuba, the Red Cross, and Oliver Stone.[25][26] The mission failed, and Stone blamed the Colombian government and the United States for the fiasco.[24] President Uribe said the FARC were lying the whole time, and they never had any intention of releasing the hostages because they did not have one of the three they had promised to deliver (a 3-year-old boy who was born in captivity). President Chavez angrily accused Uribe of "dynamiting" the mission. He said the FARC was in fact ready to release the two hostages they held, but had to retreat from Colombian military operations. President Uribe maintained his military, under orders from him, had held to a cease-fire in order to allow the release.[25][26]
Controversial remarks[link]
In an interview with The Times newspaper on July 25, 2010, Stone claimed that America does not know "the full story" on Iran and complained about Jewish "domination" in parts of the US media and foreign policy.[27] When Stone was asked why so much of an emphasis has been placed on the Holocaust, as opposed to the 25-plus million casualties the Soviet Union, for example, suffered in World War II, he stated that there was a powerful Jewish lobby within the US. The remarks were heavily criticized by Jewish groups, including the Simon Wiesenthal Center, (where Yuri Eidelstein described his remarks as what “could be a sequel to the Protocols of the Elders of Zion,”)[27] and the American Jewish Committee,[28] as well as from Israel's Diaspora Affairs and Public Diplomacy Minister.[27]
Stone a day later, stated: “In trying to make a broader historical point about the range of atrocities the Germans committed against many people, I made a clumsy association about the Holocaust, for which I am sorry and I regret. Jews obviously do not control media or any other industry. The fact that the Holocaust is still a very important, vivid and current matter today is, in fact, a great credit to the very hard work of a broad coalition of people committed to the remembrance of this atrocity - and it was an atrocity.”[29]
On July 28, 2010, Stone issued a second apology to the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), which was accepted. "I believe he now understands the issues and where he was wrong, and this puts an end to the matter," said ADL National Director Abraham Foxman.[30]
Other work[link]
In 1993, Stone produced a miniseries for ABC Television called Wild Palms. In a cameo, Stone appears on a television in the show discussing how the theories in his film JFK had been proven correct (the series took place in a hypothetical future, 2007). Wild Palms has developed a moderate cult following in the years since it aired[citation needed], and has recently been released on DVD. That same year, he also spoofed himself in the comedy hit Dave, espousing a conspiracy theory about the President's replacement by a near-identical double. In 1997, Stone published A Child's Night Dream, a largely autobiographical novel first written in 1966-1967. After several unsuccessful attempts to get the work published, he "threw several sections of the manuscript into the East River one cold night, and, as if surgically removing the memory of the book from my mind, volunteered for Vietnam in 1967."[9] Eventually, he dug out the remaining pages, rewrote the manuscript, and published it.
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In 2003, Stone made two documentary films: Persona Non Grata, about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and Comandante, about Cuban President Fidel Castro. In 2004, he made a second documentary on Castro, titled Looking for Fidel. (See also Controversy, above.) Stone is directing a short film about the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where the games were held. He was recently granted permission by Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to make a documentary about him. Stone had been previously refused permission by the Iranian government when the President's media advisor, Mehdi Kalhor, denounced Stone[31][32] as being part of the "Great Satan" of American culture, despite his opposition to the Bush administration. However, Ahmadinejad approved permission a month later, saying he had "no objections" provided the documentary was based on accurate facts. Stone is due to visit Tehran to negotiate the production of the film with Iranian officials, possibly the president himself.
In 2008, Stone was named the Artistic Director of New York University's Tisch School of the Arts Asia in Singapore.
In 2009, Stone completed a documentary about Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez and the rise of progressive, leftist governments in Latin America. Stone, who is a supporter of Chavez and the Bolivarian Revolution, hopes the film will get the Western world to rethink the Venezuelan president and socialist policies. Titled South of the Border, Chavez joined Stone for the premiere of the documentary at the Venice Film Festival in September 2009.[33] The documentary features informal interviews by Stone with Chavez and six allied leftist presidents, from Bolivia's Evo Morales to Cuba's Raul Castro. Stone stated that he hopes the film will help people better understand a leader who is wrongly ridiculed "as a strongman, as a buffoon, as a clown." In May 2010, Stone began a Latin American tour to promote the film, with screenings planned in Ecuador, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay and Argentina. The documentary was also being released in some cities in the United States and Europe in the summer of 2010.[21][34]
The Untold History of the United States[link]
In early January 2010, it emerged that Stone was preparing a 10-part documentary series for Showtime titled The Untold History of the United States that he had been working on with American University historian Peter J. Kuznick since 2007. Stone will direct every one hour episode of the series, which intends to provide an unconventional account of some of the darkest parts of twentieth century history using little known documents and newly uncovered archival material.[35] The miniseries will be accompanied by a companion book of the same name by Stone and Kuznick.[36] Stone hopes to put into context some of the most controversial figures of the last hundred years, such as Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong.[37] Stone described the series as "the most ambitious thing I’ve ever done. Certainly in documentary form, and perhaps in fiction, feature form."[38] The series was expected to premiere May 2012[39], but Stone told MTV News in April that it wasn't ready: "there are so many factors and fact checking. It's a lot of work...each hour has to work like a movie", he confirmed that the series was tentatively rescheduled for November 2012[40]
Future projects[link]
Stone is also set to direct the 2012 film Savages, based on a novel by Don Winslow and featuring an ensemble cast that includes John Travolta, Uma Thurman, and Benicio del Toro.
Personal life[link]
Stone married three times, first to Najwa Sarkis on May 22, 1971. They divorced in 1977. He then married Elizabeth Burkit Cox, an assistant in film production, on June 7, 1981.[41][42] They had two sons, Sean Stone/Ali (b. 1984) and Michael Jack (b. 1991). Sean appeared in some of his father's films while a child. Oliver and Elizabeth divorced in 1993. Stone is currently married to Sun-jung Jung, and the couple have a teenage daughter, Tara.[43] According to Newsmeat, Stone supported Barack Obama in the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election.
In 1999, Stone was arrested on alcohol and drug charges and, as part of a plea bargain, agreed to enter a rehabilitation program.[44] On May 27, 2005, Stone was arrested for driving under the influence and possession of drugs. He was released the next day on a $15,000 bond.[44] In August 2005 Stone pled no contest and was fined $100.[45]
He stated recently that he would prefer Ron Paul for U.S. President: "I think in many ways the most interesting candidate – I'd even vote for him if he was running against Obama – is Ron Paul. Because he’s the only one of anybody who’s saying anything intelligent about the future of the world."[46]
In 2012, his son Sean told Agence France-Presse he converted to Islam whilst in Iran filming a documentary.[47] The 27-year-old filmmaker did not say why he converted. According to Iran's Fars News Agency, Sean has become a Shia Muslim and had chosen to be known by the first name Ali.
Filmography[link]
As director[link]
| Year | Film | Academy Award Nominations | Academy Award Wins | Golden Globe Nominations | Golden Globe Wins | BAFTA Nominations | BAFTA Wins |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1974 | Seizure | ||||||
| 1981 | The Hand | ||||||
| 1986 | Salvador | 2 | |||||
| 1986 | Platoon | 8 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 2 |
| 1987 | Wall Street | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
| 1988 | Talk Radio | ||||||
| 1989 | Born on the Fourth of July | 8 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 2 | |
| 1991 | The Doors | ||||||
| 1991 | JFK | 8 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 2 |
| 1993 | Heaven & Earth | 1 | 1 | ||||
| 1994 | Natural Born Killers | 1 | |||||
| 1995 | Nixon | 4 | 1 | 1 | |||
| 1997 | U Turn | ||||||
| 1999 | Any Given Sunday | ||||||
| 2003 | Comandante | ||||||
| 2004 | Alexander | ||||||
| 2004 | Looking for Fidel | ||||||
| 2006 | World Trade Center | ||||||
| 2008 | W. | ||||||
| 2009 | South of the Border | ||||||
| 2010 | Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps | 1 | |||||
| 2012 | Savages |
As actor[link]
- Battle of Love's Return (1971)
- Platoon (1986) (cameo)
- Wall Street (cameo) (1987)
- The Doors (1991) (cameo)
- Dave (cameo) (1993)
- Any Given Sunday (1999)
- Torrente 3: El Protector (cameo) (2005)
- Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps (cameo) (2010)
- Graystone (film) (actor) (2011)
Screenwriter only[link]
- Midnight Express (1978)
- Conan the Barbarian (with John Milius) (1982)
- Scarface (1983)
- Year of the Dragon (with Michael Cimino) (1985)
- 8 Million Ways to Die (with David Lee Henry) (1985)
- Evita (with Alan Parker) (1996)
Producer/executive producer only[link]
- Sugar Cookies (1973)
- Blue Steel (1989)
- Reversal of Fortune (1990)
- From Hollywood to Hanoi (1992)
- Zebrahead (1992)
- South Central (1992)
- Wild Palms (1993) (TV)
- The Joy Luck Club (1993)
- The New Age (1994)
- Indictment: The McMartin Trial (1995) (TV)
- Freeway (1996)
- The People vs. Larry Flynt (1996)
- Cold Around the Heart (1996)
- Killer: A Journal of Murder (1996)
- Gravesend (1997)
- The Last Days of Kennedy and King (1998)
- Savior (1998)
- The Corruptor (1999)
- The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001) (TV)
- Comandante (2003)
- Persona Non Grata (2003)
Bibliography[link]
- Hamburg, Eric. Nixon: An Oliver Stone Film. Hyperion Books. ISBN 0-7868-8157-7
- Riordan, James. Stone: The Biography. (1996)
- Stone, Oliver. JFK: The Book of the Film. Applause Books. ISBN 1-55783-127-0
- Salewicz, Chris. Oliver Stone: the making of his movies. Orion. ISBN 0-7528-1820-1
References[link]
- ^ Philip French (August 1, 2010). "South of the Border | Film review | Film | The Observer". London: Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/aug/01/south-of-the-border-oliver-stone-review. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
- ^ James Riordan (September 1996). Stone: A Biography of Oliver Stone. New York: Aurum Press. p. 377. ISBN 1-85410-444-6.
- ^ "Oliver Stone Biography (1946-)". Filmreference.com. http://www.filmreference.com/film/99/Oliver-Stone.html. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
- ^ "Télématin" (France 2), September 28, 2010.
- ^ "The religion of director Oliver Stone". Adherents.com. http://www.adherents.com/people/ps/Oliver_Stone.html. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
- ^ "Oliver Stone'S Mother Lode". washingtonpost.com. September 11, 1997. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/review97/foliverstone.htm. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
- ^ Tom Allen; Tim Rhys (April 15, 1995). "Oliver Stone Unturned". MovieMaker. http://www.moviemaker.com/directing/article/oliver_stone_unturned_3119/. Retrieved December 7, 2010.
- ^ Cadwalladr, Carole (July 18, 2010). "Oliver Stone and the politics of film-making". The Observer (paragraphs 31 and 42). http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/jul/18/oliver-stone-chavez-wall-street. Retrieved July 22, 2010.
- ^ a b c d Oliver Stone biography on filmmakers.com. Retrieved August 4, 2009.
- ^ Yale Daily News - Famous Failures Retrieved November 16, 2011.
- ^ M.J. Simpson Interview with Lloyd Kaufman.
- ^ "Channel 4's 100 Greatest War Movies of All Time". http://www.thependragon.co.uk/Channel4WarFilms.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-13.
- ^ Petersen, Scott. "Oliver Stone: Natural Born Director". Craveonline.com. http://www.craveonline.com/filmtv/articles/04648829/3/oliver_stone_natural_born_director.html. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
- ^ "Money Never Sleeps". IMDb. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0373159/. Retrieved September 7, 2009.
- ^ Goldstein, Gregg (August 28, 2007). "Stone headed to 'Pinkville' along with UA". Hollywoodreporter.com. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/film/news/e3ia69b7a31e057937e0ebb482e4bc5440a. Retrieved September 30, 2010. [dead link]
- ^ http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d102:SJ00282:@@@D&summ2=m&
- ^ "Final Report of the Assassination Records Review Board". Fas.org. May 30, 2008. http://www.fas.org/sgp/advisory/arrb98/index.html. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
- ^ Flinn, John (January 10, 2004). "The real Billy Hayes regrets 'Midnight Express' cast all Turks in a bad light". Seattlepi.com. http://www.seattlepi.com/movies/156011_midnightexpress.html. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
- ^ "She Slams 'Doors' on Portrayal," New York Post, (March 1991)
- ^ a b Drozdiak, William (January 14, 1997). U.S. Celebrities Defend Scientology in Germany, The Washington Post, p. A11
- ^ a b Stone: Film an intro to Chavez and his movement, by Ian James, Associated Press, 29-05-2010
- ^ "The Total Film Interview - Oliver Stone". Total Film. November 1, 2003. http://www.totalfilm.com/features/the-total-film-interview-oliver-stone. Retrieved October 15, 2008.
- ^ "Director Oliver Stone arrested". CNN News. May 28, 2005. http://www.cnn.com/2005/SHOWBIZ/Movies/05/28/stone.arrest/index.html. Retrieved October 15, 2008.
- ^ a b The Observer, "Stone: My Part in Baby Hostage Drama," January 6, 2008.
- ^ a b "Need to Know". The Washington Post. http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/postglobal/needtoknow/2008/01/how_washington_fails_colombia.html.
- ^ a b http://www.cepr.net/index.php/op-eds-&-columns/op-eds-&-columns/latin-america-news-coverage-half-the-story-is-worse-than-none
- ^ a b c Hoffman, Gil. "Israel slams Oliver Stone’s interview". The Jerusalem Post. http://www.jpost.com/ArtsAndCulture/Entertainment/Article.aspx?id=182659.
- ^ "AJC: "Oliver Stone has Outed Himself as an Anti-Semite"". American Jewish Committee - Website. http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=2818289&ct=8540509¬oc=1. Retrieved July 26, 2010.
- ^ WSJStaff (July 26, 2010). "Oliver Stone ‘Sorry’ About Holocaust Comments". The Wall Street Journal. http://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2010/07/26/oliver-stone-sorry-about-holocaust-comments.
- ^ Szalai, Georg (October 14, 2010). "Oliver Stone, ADL settle their differences". The Hollywood Reporter. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/news/e3i7deb554f2e0e8b2f2fc5625de5900b25.
- ^ Robert Tait (July 2, 2007). "Ahmadinejad turns down chance to star in Oliver Stone film". London: The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/jul/02/film.iran. Retrieved March 18, 2009.
- ^ "Iranian president: Stone part of ‘Great Satan’". Associated Press. July 2, 2007. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19571993/. Retrieved March 18, 2009.
- ^ Richard Corliss (September 27, 2007). "South of the Border: Chávez and Stone's Love Story". Time. http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1920910,00.html?xid=rss-mostpopular. Retrieved September 8, 2009.
- ^ Oliver Stone (June 28, 2010). "Oliver Stone Responds to New York Times Attack". Truthdig. http://www.truthdig.com/arts_culture/item/oliver_stone_responds_to_new_york_times_attack_20100628/.
- ^ "Oliver Stone's Secret History: An Interview with Peter Kuznick", "History News Network", March 10, 2010
- ^ "The Untold History of the United States", "Simon & Schuster"
- ^ Ed Pilkington "Hitler? A scapegoat. Stalin? I can empathize. Oliver Stone stirs up history", The Observer, January 10, 2010
- ^ Ed Rampell "Q&A: Oliver Stone on Israel, Palestine and Newt Gingrich", "The Jewish Daily Forward", January 15, 2012
- ^ "Oliver Stone dedicates Lifetime Achievement Award to Bobby Zarem", "Savannah Morning News", November 3, 2011
- ^ Josh Horowitz "Blake Lively, Taylor Kitsch Are 'Savages' In Oliver Stone's Latest", "MTV News"
- ^ [1]
- ^ [2]
- ^ 63rd Annual Cannes Film Festival - 'Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps' Premiere, LIFE.com, 14-05-2010
- ^ a b "Director Oliver Stone arrested". CNN. May 28, 2005. http://articles.cnn.com/2005-05-28/entertainment/stone.arrest_1_drug-charges-stone-s-mercedes-director-oliver-stone?_s=PM:SHOWBIZ.
- ^ "Oliver Stone enters plea in pot charge". USA Today. August 11, 2005. http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2005-08-11-stone-plea_x.htm.
- ^ Oliver Stone Interview, January 2012
- ^ Oliver Stone's son converted to Islam in Iran (France24)
External links[link]
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This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (August 2010) |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Oliver Stone |
- Oliver Stone at the Internet Movie Database
- The first chapter of A Child's Night Dream by Oliver Stone at the New York Times site.
Online bibliographies[link]
Interviews[link]
- 1987 Cineaste magazine
- Can Oliver Stone Rock the Vote? -- Maxim Magazine, November 2008
- DVD Talk Radio interview with Oliver Stone
- Roger Ebert interviews Stone
- L.A. Weekly interview
- The Onion A.V. Club interview - October 16, 2008
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Stone, Oliver |
| Alternative names | William Oliver Stone |
| Short description | Academy Award-winning American film director and screenwriter |
| Date of birth | September 15, 1946 |
| Place of birth | New York City, New York, U.S. |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Oliver_Stone
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
