T'ai chi ch'uan (Taijiquan)
(太極拳)
Yang Chengfu in a posture from the Yang-style t'ai chi ch'uan solo form known as Single Whip c. 1931 |
| Also known as |
t'ai chi ch'üan; taijiquan |
| Focus |
Hybrid |
| Hardness |
Forms competition, light-contact (pushing hands, no strikes), full contact (striking, kicking, throws, etc.) |
| Country of origin |
 China |
| Creator |
Said to be Zhang Sanfeng |
| Famous practitioners |
Chen Wangting, Chen Changxing, Yang Lu-ch'an, Wu Yu-hsiang, Wu Ch'uan-yu, Wu Chien-ch'uan, Sun Lu-t'ang, Yang Chengfu, Chen Fake, Wang Pei-sheng |
| Parenthood |
Tao Yin |
| Olympic sport |
Demonstration only |
T'ai chi ch'uan (simplified Chinese: 太极拳; traditional Chinese: 太極拳; pinyin: tàijíquán; Wade–Giles: t'ai4 chi2 ch'üan2; literally "Supreme Ultimate Fist"), often shortened to t'ai chi or tai chi in English usage, is a type of internal Chinese martial art practiced for both its defense training and its health benefits. It is also typically practiced for a variety of other personal reasons: its hard and soft martial art technique, demonstration competitions, and longevity. As a consequence, a multitude of training forms exist, both traditional and modern, which correspond to those aims. Some of t'ai chi ch'uan's training forms are especially known for being practiced at what most people categorize as slow movement.
Today, t'ai chi ch'uan has spread worldwide. Most modern styles of t'ai chi ch'uan trace their development to at least one of the five traditional schools: Chen, Yang, Wu/Hao, Wu, and Sun.
The term t'ai chi ch'uan translates as "supreme ultimate fist", "boundless fist", "great extremes boxing", or simply "the ultimate". Note that chi in this instance is the Wade-Giles transliteration of the Pinyin jí, and is distinct from qì (or chi 氣), meaning "life energy". The concept of the Taiji (太極,"supreme ultimate"), in contrast with Wuji (無極, "without ultimate"), appears in both Taoist and Confucian Chinese philosophy, where it represents the fusion or mother[1] of Yin and Yang into a single Ultimate, represented by the Taijitu symbol. T'ai chi theory and practice evolved in agreement with many Chinese philosophical principles, including those of Taoism and Confucianism.
T'ai chi training involves five elements, nei gung, tui shou (response drills), sanshou (self defence techniques), weapons, and solo hand routines, known as forms (套路 taolu). While t'ai chi ch'uan is typified by some for its slow movements, many t'ai chi styles (including the three most popular - Yang, Wu, and Chen) - have secondary forms of a faster pace. Some traditional schools of t'ai chi teach partner exercises known as "pushing hands", and martial applications of the forms' postures.
In China, t'ai chi ch'uan is categorized under the Wudang grouping of Chinese martial arts[2]—that is, the arts applied with internal power [3](an even broader term encompassing all internal martial arts is Neijia) Although the Wudang name falsely suggests these arts originated at the so-called Wudang Mountain, it is simply used to distinguish the skills, theories and applications of the "internal arts" from those of the Shaolin grouping, the "hard" or "external" martial art styles.[4]
Since the first widespread promotion of t'ai chi's health benefits by Yang Shaohou, Yang Chengfu, Wu Chien-ch'uan, and Sun Lutang in the early 20th century,[5] it has developed a worldwide following among people with little or no interest in martial training, for its benefit to health and health maintenance.[6] Medical studies of t'ai chi support its effectiveness as an alternative exercise and a form of martial arts therapy.
It is purported that focusing the mind solely on the movements of the form helps to bring about a state of mental calm and clarity. Besides general health benefits and stress management attributed to t'ai chi training, aspects of traditional Chinese medicine are taught to advanced t'ai chi students in some traditional schools.[7]
Some other forms of martial arts require students to wear a uniform during practice. In general, t'ai chi ch'uan schools do not require a uniform, but both traditional and modern teachers often advocate loose, comfortable clothing and flat-soled shoes.[8][9]
The physical techniques of t'ai chi ch'uan are described in the tai chi classics, a set of writings by traditional masters, as being characterized by the use of leverage through the joints based on coordination and relaxation, rather than muscular tension, in order to neutralize, yield, or initiate attacks. The slow, repetitive work involved in the process of learning how that leverage is generated gently and measurably increases, opens the internal circulation (breath, body heat, blood, lymph, peristalsis, etc.)
The study of t'ai chi ch'uan primarily involves three aspects:
- Health: An unhealthy or otherwise uncomfortable person may find it difficult to meditate to a state of calmness or to use t'ai chi as a martial art. t'ai chi's health training, therefore, concentrates on relieving the physical effects of stress on the body and mind. For those focused on t'ai chi's martial application, good physical fitness is an important step towards effective self-defense.
- Meditation: The focus and calmness cultivated by the meditative aspect of t'ai chi is seen as necessary in maintaining optimum health (in the sense of relieving stress and maintaining homeostasis) and in application of the form as a soft style martial art.
- Martial art: The ability to use t'ai chi as a form of self-defense in combat is the test of a student's understanding of the art. T'ai chi ch'uan is the study of appropriate change in response to outside forces, the study of yielding and "sticking" to an incoming attack rather than attempting to meet it with opposing force.[10] The use of t'ai chi as a martial art is quite challenging and requires a great deal of training.[11]
What is now known as "T'ai chi ch'uan" only appears to have received this appellation from around the mid 1800's. There was a scholar in the Imperial Court by the name of Ong Tong He who witnessed a demonstration by Yang Luchan ("Unbeatable Yang"). Afterwards Ong wrote: "Hands holding Taiji shakes the whole world, a chest containing ultimate skill defeats a gathering of heroes." This was the time when Yang Luchan made the Chen clan's martial art known to the world through his own form ("Yang family style").
Before this time the Art had no name[citation needed]. It was simply an unusual martial art practiced by a few. Jiang Fa passed down the Art to Chen Qing Ping in Zhao Bao Town and Chen Changxing in Chen Jia Gou[citation needed]. Before the time of Yang Luchan, the Art appears to have been generically described by outsiders as "Touch Boxing" (沾拳 zhan quan), "Soft Boxing" （绵拳 mian quan） or "The Thirteen techniques" （十三式 shi san shi）[citation needed].
The name "T'ai chi ch'uan" is held to be derived from the Taiji symbol (Taijitu or T'ai chi t'u, 太極圖), commonly known in the West as the "yin-yang" diagram.
The appropriateness of this more recent appellation is seen in the oldest literature preserved by these schools where the art is said to be a study of yin (receptive) and yang (active) principles, using terminology found in the Chinese classics, especially the I Ching and the Tao Te Ching.[4]
A Chinese woman performs Yang-style t'ai chi
There are five major styles of t'ai chi ch'uan, each named after the Chinese family from which it originated:
The order of verifiable age is as listed above. The order of popularity (in terms of number of practitioners) is Yang, Wu, Chen, Sun, and Wu/Hao.[4] The major family styles share much underlying theory, but differ in their approaches to training.
There are now dozens of new styles, hybrid styles, and offshoots of the main styles, but the five family schools are the groups recognized by the international community as being the orthodox styles. Other important styles are Zhaobao t'ai chi ch'uan, a close cousin of Chen-style, which has been newly recognized by Western practitioners as a distinct style, and the Fu style, created by Fu Chen Sung, which evolved from Chen, Sun and Yang styles, and also incorporates movements from Baguazhang (Pa Kua Chang).
The differences between the different styles range from varying speeds to the very way in which the movements are performed. For example, Parting the Wild Horse's Mane in Yang style does not at all resemble the very same movement in Sun style. Also, the Sun 73 forms take as long to perform as the Yang 24 forms.
All existing styles can be traced back to the Chen-style, which had been passed down as a family secret for generations. The Chen family chronicles record Chen Wangting, of the family's 9th generation, as the inventor of what is known today as t'ai chi. Yang Lu-ch'an became the first person outside the family to learn t'ai chi. His success in fighting earned him the nickname "Unbeatable Yang", and his fame and efforts in teaching greatly contributed to the subsequent spreading of t'ai chi knowledge.
When tracing t'ai chi ch'uan's formative influences to Taoist and Buddhist monasteries, there seems little more to go on than legendary tales from a modern historical perspective, but t'ai chi ch'uan's practical connection to and dependence upon the theories of Sung dynasty Neo-Confucianism (a conscious synthesis of Taoist, Buddhist and Confucian traditions, especially the teachings of Mencius) is claimed by some traditional schools.[4] T'ai chi's theories and practice are believed by these schools to have been formulated by the Taoist monk Zhang Sanfeng in the 12th century, at about the same time that the principles of the Neo-Confucian school were making themselves felt in Chinese intellectual life.[4] However, modern research casts serious doubts on the validity of those claims, pointing out that a 17th-century piece called "Epitaph for Wang Zhengnan" (1669), composed by Huang Zongxi (1610-1695 A.D.), is the earliest reference indicating any connection between Zhang Sanfeng and martial arts whatsoever, and must not be taken literally but must be understood as a political metaphor instead. Claims of connections between t'ai chi and Zhang Sanfeng appear no earlier than the 19th century.[12]
Master Choy Hok Pang, a disciple of Yang Cheng Fu, was the first known proponent of T'ai Chi Ch'uan to openly teach in the United States in 1939. Subsequently, his son and student Master Choy Kam Man emigrated to San Francisco from Hong Kong in 1949 to teach T'ai Chi Ch'uan in San Francisco's Chinatown. Choy Kam Man taught until he died in 1994.[13][14]
These family trees are not comprehensive. Names denoted by an asterisk are legendary or semi-legendary figures in the lineage; while their involvement in the lineage is accepted by most of the major schools, it is not independently verifiable from known historical records. The Cheng Man-ch'ing and Chinese Sports Commission short forms are derived from Yang family forms, but neither is recognized as Yang family t'ai chi ch'uan by standard-bearing Yang family teachers. The Chen, Yang, and Wu families are now promoting their own shortened demonstration forms for competitive purposes.
The core training involves two primary features: the first being the solo form (ch'üan or quán, 拳), a slow sequence of movements which emphasize a straight spine, abdominal breathing and a natural range of motion; the second being different styles of pushing hands (tui shou, 推手) for training movement principles of the form with a partner and in a more practical manner.
The solo form should take the students through a complete, natural range of motion over their center of gravity. Accurate, repeated practice of the solo routine is said to retrain posture, encourage circulation throughout the students' bodies, maintain flexibility through their joints, and further familiarize students with the martial application sequences implied by the forms. The major traditional styles of t'ai chi have forms that differ somewhat in terms of aesthetics, but there are also many obvious similarities that point to their common origin. The solo forms — empty-hand and weapon - are catalogs of movements that are practiced individually in pushing hands and martial application scenarios to prepare students for self-defense training. In most traditional schools, different variations of the solo forms can be practiced: fast–slow, small circle–large circle, square–round (which are different expressions of leverage through the joints), low-sitting/high-sitting (the degree to which weight-bearing knees are kept bent throughout the form), for example.
Two students receive instruction in
Pushing hands, one of the core training exercises of t'ai chi
The philosophy of T'ai Chi Ch'uan is that, if one uses hardness to resist violent force, then both sides are certain to be injured at least to some degree. Such injury, according to t'ai chi theory, is a natural consequence of meeting brute force with brute force. Instead, students are taught not to directly fight or resist an incoming force, but to meet it in softness and follow its motion while remaining in physical contact until the incoming force of attack exhausts itself or can be safely redirected, meeting yang with yin. Done correctly, this yin/yang or yang/yin balance in combat, or in a broader philosophical sense, is a primary goal of t'ai chi ch'uan training. Lao Tzu provided the archetype for this in the Tao Te Ching when he wrote, "The soft and the pliable will defeat the hard and strong."
T'ai chi's martial aspect relies on sensitivity to the opponent's movements and center of gravity dictating appropriate responses. Effectively affecting or "capturing" the opponent's center of gravity immediately upon contact is trained as the primary goal of the martial t'ai chi student.[7] The sensitivity needed to capture the center is acquired over thousands of hours of first yin (slow, repetitive, meditative, low-impact) and then later adding yang ("realistic," active, fast, high-impact) martial training through forms, pushing hands, and sparring. T'ai chi trains in three basic ranges: close, medium and long, and then everything in between. Pushes and open-hand strikes are more common than punches, and kicks are usually to the legs and lower torso, never higher than the hip, depending on style. The fingers, fists, palms, sides of the hands, wrists, forearms, elbows, shoulders, back, hips, knees, and feet are commonly used to strike, with strikes to the eyes, throat, heart, groin, and other acupressure points trained by advanced students. Joint traps, locks, and breaks (chin na) are also used. Most t'ai chi teachers expect their students to thoroughly learn defensive or neutralizing skills first, and a student will have to demonstrate proficiency with them before offensive skills will be extensively trained. There is also an emphasis in the traditional schools in which one is expected to show wu te (武德), martial virtue or heroism, to protect the defenseless, and show mercy to one's opponents.[5]
In addition to the physical form, martial t'ai chi ch'uan schools also focus on how the energy of a strike affects the other person. A palm strike that looks to have the same movement may be performed in such a way that it has a completely different effect on the target's body. A palm strike that could simply push the opponent backward, could instead be focused in such a way as to lift the opponent vertically off the ground, breaking his/her center of gravity; or it could terminate the force of the strike within the other person's body with the intent of causing internal damage.
Other training exercises include:
- Weapons training and fencing applications employing the straight sword known as the jian or chien or gim (jiàn 劍), a heavier curved sabre, sometimes called a broadsword or tao (dāo 刀, which is actually considered a big knife), folding fan also called san, wooden staff (2m. in length) known as kun (棍), 7 foot (2 m) spear and 13 foot (4 m) lance (both called qiāng 槍). More exotic weapons still used by some traditional styles are the large Dadao or Ta Tao (大刀) and Pudao or P'u Tao (撲刀) sabres, halberd (jǐ 戟), cane, rope-dart, three sectional staff, Wind and fire wheels, lasso, whip, chain whip and steel whip.
- Two-person tournament sparring (as part of push hands competitions and/or sanshou 散手);
- Breathing exercises; nei kung (內功 nèigōng) or, more commonly, qigong (氣功 ch'i kung) to develop qi (氣 ch'i) or "breath energy" in coordination with physical movement and post standing or combinations of the two. These were formerly taught only to disciples as a separate, complementary training system. In the last 60 years they have become better known to the general public.
With purely a health emphasis, t'ai chi classes have become popular in hospitals, clinics, and community and senior centers in the last twenty years or so, as baby boomers age and the art's reputation as a low-stress training for seniors became better known.[15][16]
As a result of this popularity, there has been some divergence between those that say they practice t'ai chi primarily for self-defense, those that practice it for its aesthetic appeal (see wushu below), and those that are more interested in its benefits to physical and mental health. The wushu aspect is primarily for show; the forms taught for those purposes are designed to earn points in competition and are mostly unconcerned with either health maintenance or martial ability. More traditional stylists believe the two aspects of health and martial arts are equally necessary: the yin and yang of t'ai chi ch'uan. The t'ai chi "family" schools, therefore, still present their teachings in a martial art context, whatever the intention of their students in studying the art.[17]
In order to standardize t'ai chi ch'uan for wushu tournament judging, and because many t'ai chi ch'uan teachers had either moved out of China or had been forced to stop teaching after the Communist regime was established in 1949, the government sponsored the Chinese Sports Committee, who brought together four of their wushu teachers to truncate the Yang family hand form to 24 postures in 1956. They wanted to retain the look of t'ai chi ch'uan but create a routine that would be less difficult to teach and much less difficult to learn than longer (in general, 88 to 108 posture), classical, solo hand forms. In 1976, they developed a slightly longer form also for the purposes of demonstration that still would not involve the complete memory, balance, and coordination requirements of the traditional forms. This became the Combined 48 Forms that were created by three wushu coaches, headed by Professor Men Hui Feng. The combined forms were created based on simplifying and combining some features of the classical forms from four of the original styles: Chen, Yang, Wu, and Sun. As t'ai chi again became popular on the mainland, more competitive forms were developed to be completed within a six-minute time limit. In the late-1980s, the Chinese Sports Committee standardized many different competition forms. They developed sets to represent the four major styles as well as combined forms. These five sets of forms were created by different teams, and later approved by a committee of wushu coaches in China. All sets of forms thus created were named after their style, e.g., the Chen-style National Competition Form is the 56 Forms, and so on. The combined forms are The 42-Form or simply the Competition Form. Another modern form is the 67 movements Combined Tai-Chi Chuan form, created in the 1950s; it contains characteristics of the Yang, Wu, Sun, Chen, and Fu styles blended into a combined form. The wushu coach Bow Sim Mark is a notable exponent of the 67 Combined form.
These modern versions of t'ai chi ch'uan (often listed as the pinyin romanization Taijiquan among practitioners, teachers and masters) have since become an integral part of international wushu tournament competition, and have been featured in popular movies starring or choreographed by well-known wushu competitors, such as Jet Li and Donnie Yen.
In the 11th Asian Games of 1990, wushu was included as an item for competition for the first time with the 42-Form being chosen to represent t'ai chi. The International Wushu Federation (IWUF) applied for wushu to be part of the Olympic games, but will not count medals.[18]
Practitioners also test their practical martial skills against students from other schools and martial arts styles in pushing hands and sanshou competition.
Qigong (气功 or 氣功, literally "energy work") involves coordinated breathing, movement, and awareness used for exercise, healing, and meditation. While many scholars and practitioners consider t'ai chi to be a type of qigong,[19][20] the two are commonly distinguished as separate but closely related practices, with qigong playing an important role in training for t'ai chi, and with many ta'i chi movements performed as part of qigong practice. The focus of qigong is typically more on healing or meditation than martial applications.
Before t'ai chi's introduction to Western students, the health benefits of t'ai chi ch'uan were largely explained through the lens of traditional Chinese medicine, which is based on a view of the body and healing mechanisms not always studied or supported by modern science. Today, t'ai chi is in the process of being subjected to rigorous scientific studies in the West.[21] Now that the majority of health studies have displayed a tangible benefit in some areas to the practice of t'ai chi, health professionals have called for more in-depth studies to determine mitigating factors such as the most beneficial style, suggested duration of practice to show the best results, and whether t'ai chi is as effective as other forms of exercise.[21]
Researchers have found that intensive t'ai chi practice shows some favorable effects on the promotion of balance control, flexibility, cardiovascular fitness, and has shown to reduce the risk of falls in both healthy elderly patients,[22][23] and those recovering from chronic stroke,[24] heart failure, high blood pressure, heart attacks, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's and fibromyalgia.[25][26] T'ai chi's gentle, low impact movements burn more calories than surfing and nearly as many as downhill skiing.[27]
T'ai chi, along with yoga, has reduced levels of LDLs 20–26 milligrams when practiced for 12–14 weeks.[28] A thorough review of most of these studies showed limitations or biases that made it difficult to draw firm conclusions on the benefits of t'ai chi.[21] A later study led by the same researchers conducting the review found that t'ai chi (compared to regular stretching) showed the ability to greatly reduce pain and improve overall physical and mental health in people over 60 with severe osteoarthritis of the knee.[29] In addition, a pilot study, which has not been published in a peer-reviewed medical journal, has found preliminary evidence that t'ai chi and related qigong may reduce the severity of diabetes.[30] In a randomized trial of 66 patients with fibromyalgia, the t'ai chi intervention group did significantly better in terms of pain, fatigue, sleeplessness and depression than a comparable group given stretching exercises and wellness education.[26]
A recent study evaluated the effects of two types of behavioral intervention, t'ai chi and health education, on healthy adults, who, after 16 weeks of the intervention, were vaccinated with VARIVAX, a live attenuated Oka/Merck Varicella zoster virus vaccine. The t'ai chi group showed higher and more significant levels of cell-mediated immunity to varicella zoster virus than the control group that received only health education. It appears that t'ai chi augments resting levels of varicella zoster virus-specific cell-mediated immunity and boosts the efficacy of the varicella vaccine. T'ai chi alone does not lessen the effects or probability of a shingles attack, but it does improve the effects of the varicella zoster virus vaccine.[31]
A systematic review and meta-analysis, funded in part by the U.S. government, of the current (as of 2010) studies on the effects of practicing t'ai chi found that, "Twenty-one of 33 randomized and nonrandomized trials reported that 1 hour to 1 year of regular t'ai chi significantly increased psychological well-being including reduction of stress, anxiety, and depression, and enhanced mood in community-dwelling healthy participants and in patients with chronic conditions. Seven observational studies with relatively large sample sizes reinforced the beneficial association between t'ai chi practice and psychological health."[32]
There have also been indications that t'ai chi might have some effect on noradrenaline and cortisol production with an effect on mood and heart rate. However, the effect may be no different than those derived from other types of physical exercise.[33] In one study, t'ai chi has also been shown to reduce the symptoms of Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in 13 adolescents. The improvement in symptoms seem to persist after the t'ai chi sessions were terminated.[34]
In June, 2007 the United States National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine published an independent, peer-reviewed, meta-analysis of the state of meditation research, conducted by researchers at the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center. The report reviewed 813 studies (88 involving t'ai chi) of five broad categories of meditation: mantra meditation, mindfulness meditation, yoga, t'ai chi, and qigong. The report concluded that "the therapeutic effects of meditation practices cannot be established based on the current literature" due to the fact that "scientific research on meditation practices does not appear to have a common theoretical perspective and is characterized by poor methodological quality."[35]
Most practitioners accept the martial origins of the art. As a martial art, t'ai chi ch'uan had traditionally been held in high esteem within the Chinese martial arts community. However, due to its increased popularity amongst various segments of the population and shifting emphasis on health rather than self-defense, the fighting effectiveness of the practice in the modern era is debated.
The question of martial effectiveness of t'ai chi ch'uan is part of the larger narrative concerning the effectiveness of form training in traditional Chinese martial arts as well as the difference between traditional Chinese martial arts and the development of the sport of Chinese martial arts (Wushu). In general, such questions are problematic, since the concept of martial arts has changed. Martial arts, once considered to be a matter of life and death, are now a contest between individuals. For some t'ai chi ch'uan practitioners who follow a traditional training method, the martial arts component still exists. Anecdotal evidence and expert testimonials are presented to support this view. Conversely, opponents point to the lack of systematic and documented evidence proving that t'ai chi ch'uan is an effective modern martial art.
Historically, within China and prior to the establishment of the People's Republic, the issue of effectiveness was settled in private matches between martial artists. From most available records, the reputation of t'ai chi ch'uan was held in high regard. For example, Yang Cheng Fu (1883–1936), Sun Lu-tiang (1861–1932) and Chen Fake (1887–1957) are usually acknowledged as martial artists of the first rank. In the modern era, private challenges are no longer used to settle such disputes. The reputation of t'ai chi ch'uan as an effective martial art is still evolving. Its effectiveness is demonstrated by stories of t'ai chi ch'uan practitioners overcoming various challenges. For example, in 1945, Hu Yuen Chou (known in Hong Kong as Woo Van Cheuk or Wu Van Cheuk), a student of Yang Cheng Fu, defeated a Russian boxer by TKO in a full-contact match in Fut San, China. Other supporting arguments include the positive comments from martial artists of different styles such as Wong Kiew Kit (Southern Shaolin), Masutatsu 'Mas' Oyama (founder of Kyokushinkai karate) and Bruce Lee (Wing Chun, Jeet Kung Do).
Opponents of t'ai chi ch'uan as an effective martial art point to the lack of success of t'ai chi ch'uan in the current competitive arena of mixed martial arts. This argument is often countered with reference to the subtle but distinctive difference between martial art as a sport in comparison to the traditional definition of self defence.
T'ai chi ch'uan plays an important role in many martial arts and fighting action movies, series, novels, especially in those ones which belong to the wuxia genre, as well as in video games, trading cards games, etc. Fictional portrayals often refer to Zhang San Feng, who is reported to be the first one harnessing and operationalising the benefits of the 'internal' and the 'soft', and to the Taoist monasteries of Wudang Mountains, where he lived.
- As early as 1972, in Lady Whirlwind (aka Deep Thrust) starring Sammo Hung, one of the protagonists (Chang Yi in a rare good guy role) is initially severely beaten by Japanese Yakuza gangsters and left for dead, but afterwards he is taught t'ai chi ch'uan by an old man and it is this martial arts edge that enables him to take his revenge against the leader of the gang.
- In 1984, in Drunken Tai Chi, the protagonist (Donnie Yen in his first major role whose stardom culminated lately when he starred as Ip Man) befriends a puppeteer and is taught t'ai chi ch'uan by him and he combines it with his previous hard style, thus being able now to defeat a contract killer who was hired and sent against him and who used only a hard style. It should be noted that the title's 'drunken' refers to the wine-loving protagonist and not to any variant of t'ai chi ch'uan.
- Ang Lee's first Western movie in 1992, Pushing Hands, features as its leading character a traditional Chinese t'ai chi ch'uan master moving to New York and having to get used to a different way of life and to a different group of there. A critical eye is laid upon whether t'ai chi ch'uan and martial arts in general can benefit or even fit someone in modern society, but the leading character seems to be safeguarding the need for this physical and cultural capital.
- In 1993, in a reproduction of a series mentioned below, the Kung Fu Cult Master (aka Kung Fu Master, The Evil Cult and The Lord of Wu Tang) starring Jet Li, Sammo Hung and Sharla Cheung, Jet Li with the help of Sammo Hung resembling Zhang San Feng in appearance realises and accepts the benefits of the 'internal' and the 'soft' and their complementarity if not their superiority to the 'external' and the 'hard' and manages to deal with opponents of various other martial arts.
- Also in 1993, The Tai Chi Master (aka Twin Warriors) starring Jet Li and Michelle Yeoh, Jet Li leaves behind the hard aspects of the Shaolin practices to which he was used when he was learning martial arts in the Shaolin Monastery and develops and even mentions explicitly the name of his new martial art, t'ai chi ch'uan, thus fighting and winning his old friend from the Shaolin Monastery but current evil military general.
- In 1994, Street Fighter II: The Animated Movie showed Chun-Li's t'ai chi ch'uan in a much more obvious manner than seen in the video game mentioned below. In another reproduction in 2009, Street Fighter: The Legend of Chun-Li, the protagonist (Kristin Kreuk), is shown to practise barehand and sword t'ai chi ch'uan forms with her father (Edmund Chen) in their garden and to be using it extensively in her fights throughout the movie.
- In the semi-documentary film in 1996 The Tai Chi Boxer, Wu Jing enacts Yang Luchan showing how he managed to become the founder of the Yang-style t'ai chi ch'uan, although in this film Wu Jing's t'ai chi ch'uan style actually seems to be Chen rather than Yang.
- Various aspects of the fighting style and philosophy of tai chi chuan and of neijia in general are also dispersed although not explicitly acknowledged in Ang Lee's 2000 film Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon and in the 2004 one House of Flying Daggers starring Michelle Yeoh and Zhang Ziyi.
- In 2007, in Fatal Contact starring Wu Jing again, his best friend and co-fighter (Ronald Cheng) is a t'ai chi ch'uan master and Wu Jing realises and mentions it when he sees him fighting against many members of a gang in the underground. Jet Li is currently preparing his next film, again titled Tai Chi Master and again intended to provide a semi-documentary account of Yang Luchan, the founded of Yang-style t'ai chi ch'uan.
- In the opening scenes of the 2008 block-buster Ip Man (martial arts choreographed by Sammo Hung and starred by Donnie Yen as Ip Man), a young guy credits to the t'ai chi ch'uan's 'moving 1000 catties with only 4 taels' the victory of Ip Man against a martial arts school owner who came to challenge him and who lost easily, a match that he had the privilege to watch secretly while picking up his kite from Ip Man's garden, although his friends insist that this cannot have been the case in so far as Ip Man was known for using Wing Chun and not t'ai chi ch'uan.
- Through exaggeration, albeit perhaps genre-allowing one, various concepts of internal and soft martial arts in general and t'ai chi ch'uan in particular may reach out a much wider and younger audience, but at the same time they may run the risk to lose credibility and even end up being the subject of parody, and the 2001 Shaolin Soccer and the 2004 Kung Fu Hustle and may be taken to be examples of this sort.
- T'ai chi ch'uan's forms are strangely enough not represented by any of the protagonists of the 2008 film Wushu (produced by Jackie Chan and starred by Sammo Hung), as opposed to other 'categories' of Wushu, such as Sanda fighting and various short and long weapons forms.
- In the 1980 Hong Kong television series Tai Chi Master, the story evolves around a young man (Alex Man), who starts as a young monk from Shaolin Monastery but soon develops knowledge and skills of t'ai chi ch'uan and goes around with an endless number of fights and adventures.
- The popularity of the Tai Chi Master series spawned in 1981 the direct Chinese knight-errant sequel Tai Chi Master II, which shares the same action director, Yuen Wo Ping, with The Matrix trilogy, Kill Bill 1 and 2 and Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, and in which the protagonist, Wu Jing, uses his t'ai chi ch'uan to fight the villains of the story.
- T'ai chi ch'uan is also the basis for the elemental art of Water-bending in the 2005-2008 animated television series Avatar: The Last Airbender and in the new 2012 animated series Avatar: The Legend of Korra.
- Kung fu icon Vincent Zhao, in which his specialty is t'ai chi ch'uan, stars in the 2008 Hong Kong television drama The Master of Tai Chi.
- In the Street Fighter martial arts video game series, Chun-Li uses a variant of t'ai chi ch'uan.
- Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance introduced Kenshi, a blind warrior who uses t'ai chi ch'uan as his primary fighting style. Kenshi is also seen practicing t'ai chi ch'uan forms in the ending credits after the single player arcade mode is completed. Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance also introduced Li Mei, who in her bio-card has her hands in a posture representing the symbol Taijitu and who uses a variant of t'ai chi ch'uan as well.
- A closer variant of t'ai chi ch'uan is used by the Tekken character Ling Xiaoyu, introduced in Tekken 3 and Tekken Tag Tournament.
- In Dead or Alive, Lei Fang uses t'ai chi ch'uan and this is also mentioned in her bio-card. Before fighting some of her opponents, Lei Fang gets ready by doing some t'ai chi ch'uan moves such as the 'immortal pounds mortar' one, so one could say that she uses Chen-style t'ai chi ch'uan in particular.
- In the Yu-Gi-Oh! anime show and trading card game, t'ai chi ch'uan is used by the Tai Chi Fighter Monkey, as it is mentioned in his bio-card.
- T'ai chi ch'uan plays a role in Jeff Stone's book series The Five Ancestors as a work-out of many people, especially of elderly ones, due to the slow pace of doing its form in order to learn it.
- Tres Navarre, the detective in the popular mystery novels by Rick Riordan, is a t'ai chi ch'uan master too.
- ^ Cheng Man-ch'ing (1993). Cheng-Tzu's Thirteen Treatises on T'ai Chi Ch'uan. North Atlantic Books. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-938190-45-5.
- ^ Sun Lu Tang (2000). Xing Yi Quan Xue. Unique Publications. p. 3. ISBN 0-86568-185-6.
- ^ Ranne, Nabil. "Internal power in Taijiquan". CTND. http://www.ctnd.de/wissenswertes/36/88-kraft-taijiquantqj-2010.html. Retrieved 2011-01-01.
- ^ a b c d e Wile, Douglas (2007). "Taijiquan and Taoism from Religion to Martial Art and Martial Art to Religion". Journal of Asian Martial Arts (Via Media Publishing) 16 (4). ISSN 1057-8358.
- ^ a b Wile, Douglas (1995). Lost T'ai-chi Classics from the Late Ch'ing Dynasty (Chinese Philosophy and Culture). State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2654-8.
- ^ "T'ai Chi gently reduces blood pressure in elderly" (required registration). The Lancet. http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673605750121/fulltext. Retrieved 2007-07-02.
- ^ a b Wu, Kung-tsao (2006). Wu Family T'ai Chi Ch'uan (吳家太極拳). Chien-ch’uan T’ai-chi Ch’uan Association. ISBN 0-9780499-0-X.
- ^ Lam, Dr. Paul. "What should I wear to practice Tai Chi?". Tai Chi Productions. http://taichiproductions.com/articles/display.php?articleid=50. Retrieved 2008-07-14. [dead link]
- ^ Fu, Zhongwen (2006-06-09). Mastering Yang Style Taijiquan. Louis Swaim. Berkeley, California: Blue Snake Books. ISBN 1-58394-152-5.
- ^ Wong Kiew Kit (November 1996). The Complete Book of Tai Chi Chuan: A Comprehensive Guide to the Principles. Element Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85230-792-9.
- ^ Jeff Patterson, Understanding Tai Chi Push Hands
- ^ Henning, Stanley (1994). "Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan". Journal of the Chen Style Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii 2 (3). http://www.nardis.com/~twchan/henning.html.
- ^ Choy, Kam Man (1985-05-05). Tai Chi Chuan. San Francisco, California: Memorial Edition 1994.
- ^ Logan, Logan (1970). Ting: The Caldron, Chinese Art and Identity in San Francisco. San Francisco, California: Glide Urban Center.
- ^ Yip, Y. L. (Autumn 2002). "Pivot – Qi". The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health and Fitness (Insight Graphics Publishers) 12 (3). ISSN 1056-4004.
- ^ "SGMA 2007 Sports & Fitness Participation Report From the USA Sports Participation Study". SGMA. p. 2. http://www.sgma.com/reports/7_2007-Sports-and-Fitness-Participation-Report. Retrieved 2007-08-18.
- ^ Woolidge, Doug (June 1997). "T'AI CHI". The International Magazine of T'ai Chi Ch'uan (Wayfarer Publications) 21 (3). ISSN 0730-1049.
- ^ "Wushu likely to be a "specially-set" sport at Olympics". Chinese Olympic Committee. 2006. http://en.olympic.cn/08beijing/bocog/2006-10-17/945504.html. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
- ^ Yang, Jwing-Ming (1998). The Essence of Taiji Qigong, Second Edition : The Internal Foundation of Taijiquan (Martial Arts-Qigong). YMAA Publication Center. ISBN 978-1-886969-63-6.
- ^ YeYoung, Bing. "Introduction to Taichi and Qigong". YeYoung Culture Studies: Sacramento, CA (http://sactaichi.com). http://sactaichi.com/what-is-qi-gong. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
- ^ a b c Wang, C; Collet JP & Lau J (2004). "The effect of Tai Chi on health outcomes in patients with chronic conditions: a systematic review". Archives of Internal Medicine 164 (5): 493–501. DOI:10.1001/archinte.164.5.493. PMID 15006825.
- ^ Wolf, SL; Sattin RW & Kutner M (2003). "Intense tai chi exercise training and fall occurrences in older, transitionally frail adults: a randomized, controlled trial". Journal of the American Geriatric Society 51 (12): 1693–701. DOI:10.1046/j.1532-5415.2003.51552.x. PMID 14687346.
- ^ Nguyen, MH; Kruse, A (5 March 2012). "The effects of Tai Chi training on physical fitness, perceived health, and blood pressure in elderly Vietnamese". Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine 3 (1): 7-16. DOI:10.2147/OAJSMS27329. http://www.dovepress.com/the-effects-of-tai-chi-training-on-physical-fitness-perceived-health-a-peer-reviewed-article-OAJSM. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
- ^ Au-Yeung, PhD, Stephanie S. Y.; Christina W. Y. Hui-Chan, PhD, and Jervis C. S. Tang, MSW (January 7, 2009). "Short-form Tai Chi Improves Standing Balance of People With Chronic Stroke". Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 23 (5): 515–22. DOI:10.1177/1545968308326425. PMID 19129308. http://nnr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1545968308326425v1.
- ^ Taggart HM, Arslanian CL, Bae S, Singh K (2003). "Effects of T'ai Chi exercise on fibromyalgia symptoms and health-related quality of life". Orthop Nurs 22 (5): 353–60. PMID 14595996.
- ^ a b McAlindon, T, Wang, C; Schmid, CH; Rones, R; Kalish, R; Yinh, J; Goldenberg, DL; Lee, Y; McAlindon, T (August 19, 2010). "A Randomized Trial of Tai Chi for Fibromyalgia". New England Journal of Medicine 363 (8): 743–754. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa0912611. PMC 3023168. PMID 20818876. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3023168.
- ^ "Calories burned during exercise". NutriStrategy. http://www.nutristrategy.com/activitylist3.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
- ^ Brody, Jane E. (2007-08-21). "Cutting Cholesterol, an Uphill Battle". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/21/health/21brod.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1190862080-FWYKVQhkU70Kz/P+y3V9pw. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
- ^ Dunham, Will (October 25, 2008). "Tai chi helps cut pain of knee arthritis: study". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/lifestyleMolt/idUSTRE49P00R20081026. Retrieved 2008-10-26. "Those who did tai chi experienced greater pain reduction, less depression and improvements in physical function and overall health, researchers led by Dr. Chenchen Wang of Tufts Medical Center in Boston reported..."
- ^ Pennington, LD (2006). "Tai chi: an effective alternative exercise". DiabetesHealth. http://www.diabeteshealth.com/read/2006/07/01/4788.html. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
- ^ Irwin, MR; Olmstead, R & Oxman, MN (2007). "Augmenting Immune Responses to Varicella Zoster Virus in Older Adults: A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Tai Chi". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 55 (4): 511–517. DOI:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01109.x. PMID 17397428. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01109.x. Retrieved 2007-04-08.
- ^ Tai Chi on psychological well-being: systematic review and meta-analysis. 2010. By Wang C, Bannuru R, Ramel J, Kupelnick B, Scott T, Schmid CH.
- ^ Jin, P (1989). "Changes in Heart Rate, Noradrenaline, Cortisol and Mood During Tai Chi". Journal of Psychosomatic Research 33 (2): 197–206. DOI:10.1016/0022-3999(89)90047-0. PMID 2724196. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8V-46042FC-63&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1989&_rdoc=9&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235096%231989%23999669997%23320242%23FLP%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5096&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=21&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=62495c42abfefc92d2e998a153f93ff6. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
- ^ Hernandez-Reif, M; Field, TM & Thimas, E (2001). "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: benefits from Tai Chi". Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies 5 (2): 120–123. DOI:10.1054/jbmt.2000.0219. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WHF-45BCC1C-15&_user=10&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2001&_rdoc=7&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%236849%232001%23999949997%23289835%23FLP%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=6849&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=f&_ct=10&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=4548a46f902e7d61309ba794e3a8857b. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
- ^ Ospina MB, Bond TK, Karkhaneh M, Tjosvold L, Vandermeer B, Liang Y, Bialy L, Hooton N,Buscemi N, Dryden DM, Klassen TP (June 2007). "Meditation Practices for Health: State of the Research (Prepared by the University of Alberta Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. 290-02-0023)". Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 155 (Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality) (AHRQ Publication No. 07–E010): 6. http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/meditation/medit.pdf.
- Choy, Kam Man (1985-05-05). Tai Chi Chuan. San Francisco, California: Memorial Edition 1994.
- Logan, Logan (1970). Ting: The Caldron, Chinese Art and Identity in San Francisco. San Francisco, California: Glide Urban Center.
- Davis, Barbara (2004). Taijiquan Classics: An Annotated Translation. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-55643-431-0.
- Eberhard, Wolfram (1986). A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols: Hidden Symbols in Chinese Life and Thought. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. ISBN 0-415-00228-1.
- Jou, Tsung-Hwa (1998). Tao of Tai Chi Chuan, 3rd ed.. Tuttle. ISBN 978-0-8048-1357-0.
- T'ai Chi Magazine bimonthly. Wayfarer Publications. 2008. ISSN 0730-1049. http://www.tai-chi.com.
- Taijiquan Journal. Taijiquan Journal. 2008. ISSN 1528-6290. http://www.taijiquanjournal.com.
- Wile, Douglas (1983). Tai Chi Touchstones: Yang Family Secret Transmissions. Sweet Ch'i Press. ISBN 978-0-912059-01-3.
- Yang, Yang (2008). Taijiquan: The Art of Nurturing, The Science of Power. Zhenwu Publication; 2nd edition. ISBN 978-0-9740990-1-9.
- Videos of the major styles
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| Qigong Masters |
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| Spiritual Movements and Politics |
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Indian subcontinent
- North India: Gatka (Sikh) · Inbuan (Mizoram) · Lathi (stick fighting) · Malla-yuddha · Musti yuddha · Mukna (Manipur) · Pehlwani (Persian wrestling) · Thang-Ta (Manipur)
- South India: Kalarippayattu · Kuttu varisai · Marma Ati · Silambam
- Middle East and Central Asia
Greater Iran
- Varzesh-e Pahlavani, Pehlwani
folk wrestling: Armenian, Azeri, Mongolian, Turkish, Uzbek
- Western
- Historical fencing: German · French school of fencing · Italian · Spanish
- stick fighting: Bataireacht · Bâton français · Juego del Palo · Jogo do Pau · quarterstaff · singlestick
- striking: Pankration · Greek boxing, Russian fist fighting
- folk wrestling: Breton · English: Cumbrian, Devon, Lancashire · Greek · Icelandic · Scottish · Serbian · Swiss
- Other
- Americas: Okichitaw
- Africa: Dambe, Istunka, Canarian wrestling, Senegalese wrestling
- Oceania: Mau rākau
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Sichuan 
